Aprilia Dwy Hastuti (1805085024)

A 2018
Semantics and Pragmatics
1. How many types of references? Explain and provide example for each
type.
There are 4 types of references. The choice of one type of referring expression
rather than another seems to be based, to a large extent, on what the speaker
assumes the listener already knows. The types are:
1. Proper nouns, for example: Hawaii, Mustafa Abdul Jalil, Misurata
2. Definite noun phrases, for example: The city, The Former NTC President, a
beautiful place
3. Indefinite noun phrases, for example: a tree, a place, a man
4. Pronouns, for example: She, It, He, Him

2. There two basic collaboration in reference, what are they? give the
example of each.
- Anaphora
Example: a man -> the man -> he
a woman -> the woman -> she
he + she -> they
- Cathafora
Example: I almost stepped on it. There was a snake in the middle of the path.

3. There are two types of linguistics word (co-text), what are they? give the
example of each.
- The initial referring expression
Example: “Peel and slice six potatoes. Put them in the cold salted water”
The initial referring expression ‘six potatoes’ identifies something different from
the anaphoric pronoun ‘then’, which must be interpreted as ‘the six peeled and
sliced potatoes’.

- Zero Anaphora or ellipsis

For example: “Peel an onion and slice it. Drop the slices into hot oil. Cook for
three minutes”
Aprilia Dwy Hastuti (1805085024)
A 2018
Semantics and Pragmatics
When the interpretation requires us to identify an entity, and no linguistic
expression is presented, it is called zero anaphora, or ellipsis.

4. What is zero anaphora or elipsis? Why zero anaphora does exist in a text?
Zero anaphora is the use of a gap, in a phrase or clause, that has an
anaphoric function similar to a pro-form. It is often described as “referring back”
to an expression that supplies the information necessary for interpreting the
gap. The use of zero anaphora clearly creates an expectation that the listener
will be able to infer who or what the speaker intends to identify.