Presented by

Rafaqat Hussain
M.Phil Applied Linguistics
English Department Hazara
University Mansehra
• Text
• Texture
• Ties
• Cohesion
• Reference
• Manners of Reference
• Exophoric Reference
• Endophoric Reference
• Anaphora & Cataphora
• Substitution
• Types of Substitution
• Ellipsis

• Conclusion
Word ‘text’ is exploited in linguistics to refer to
“any passage spoken or written of whatever length that does
construct a unified whole”

A text
in not defined by its size
We can not mathematically count that a text has two or three or
………….. Sentences, a text is best regarded as a semantic unit.
a. It could be a single word i.e. “DANGER” a sign

b. It could be a stretch of language even though not a sentence. “NO

SMOKING” painted on a wall

c. Plays or Novels. “HAMLET” “GREAT EXPECTATION” etc.

The concept of texture is appropriate to express the property of ‘ being
a text’
A text functions as a unity with respect to its environment derives from
this texture
If a passage of English containing more than one sentence is perceived
as a text, there will be certain linguistic features present in the passage
which can be identified as contributing to its total unity and giving it texture.
For Example
If we find the following instructions in the cooking book
‘ wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish’.
Them in second sentence refers back to six apples of first sentence,

This anaphoric function of them gives cohesion to the two sentences.

We interpret them as a whole, the texture makes these two sentences a

text
We need a term to refer to a single instance of cohesion, a term for one
occurrence of a pair of cohesively related items, this is called a tie

.
e.g. ‘ wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish.
The relation between ‘them’ and ‘six cooking apples’ constitute a tie.

In this example there is just one tie of particular kind which we call a
reference.
The concept of Cohesion is a semantic one. It refers to
‘Relations of meaning that exist within the text’
Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in discourse is
dependent on that of another, the one presupposes the other
For Example
Time flies………….
you can’t, they fly too quickly.
First sentence gives no indication of not being a complete text, the humor
lies in the misinterpretation that is required in presupposition from the
second sentence is to be satisfied.
Here cohesion is expressed in three ties

1. The elliptical form ‘you can’t’

2. The reference item ‘they’
3. And the lexical repetition ‘fly’
‘A reference is an act of directing or indicating something by using
some linguistics element’
A reference is a particular type of cohesion and the cohesion lies in
the continuity of reference whereby the same thing enters into
discourse for the second time.
e.g.
A Three blind mice, three blind mice
see how they run! See how they run!
B There are two wrens upon a tree
another came and there were three.
In (a) They refers to three blind mice
In (b) another refers to wren
on the basis of referring to a thing as identified in the context of
situation or as identified in the surrounding text reference appears in
two forms or manners.

(i) Exophora or Exophoric reference.

(ii) Endophora or endophoric reference.
‘Exophora is reference to something extra-linguistic, i.e., not in the
same text’. It signals that reference must be made to context of situation.
For example; pronouns with words such as ‘this’ ‘that’ ‘there’ ‘here’ are
often Exophoric.
e.g.
Did the gardener water those plants?

It is quite possible that ‘those’ refers to earlier mention of those particular

plants in the discussion. But it is also possible that it re
Exophoric reference is cohesive, since it does not bind the two elements
together into a text. Example-

For he’s a jolly good fellow and so say all of us.

This is an example of the context of situation where the text is not

indicating who this ‘he’ is.
Endophoric reference is the general name for within the text.
‘Endophora is a term that means an expression which refers to
something intra-linguistics i.e. in the same text’. For example in the
sentence:

I saw Cathy yesterday, she was lying on the beach

Here, she is an endophoric expression because it refers to something
already mentioned in the text i.e. Cathy.

Endophora can be sub-categorized in two types:

Anaphora (backward reference)

Cataphora (forward reference)
Anaphoric reference: This anaphora is used for reference which refer
to preceding text or backwards in a sentence or text.
Example:
The apple on the table was rolled. It had been there for three days.

Cataphoric reference: This term Cataphora is used for referents that

refer to following text or forwards in a sentence or text.
Example:
It has four legs The cow is a domestic animal.
Substitution
is a type of cohesion that maintains relations on the
lexico-grammatical level of a sentence

 It is performed by using a substitute that is a sort of counter

employed in place of the repetition of a particular item

The substitute has the same structural function as that for which it
substitutes.
Example:
The flower seller cries, “Red flowers, red flowers, come and buy
ones and present her”.

Here, ones substitutes for red flowers.

As a process within the text, substitution functions as the replacement
of one item by another

substitutionis a relation between linguistic items

Substitution is a verbal relation which is essentially confined to the
text.
For example:

a. My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.

b. You think Joan already knows? I think everybody does.

Here, one and does are both substitutes; one for axe and does for
knows.
There are three types of substitution

Nominal Substitution
Verbal Substitution
Clausal Substitution

1. Nominal Substitution
Nominal substitution means the replacement of a noun or a noun phrase
by a nominal substitute, i.e. – one/ ones, same etc.
Example

a. Have you any knives? I need a sharp one.

b. He studied the whole text last night. I did the same.

Here, in example a, one for ‘knives’ functions as the head of the noun
whereas ‘the whole text last night’ is replaced by same.
2. Verbal Substitution
The verbal substitution in English is ‘do’. This operates as Head of a
verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and its
position is always final in the group.
Example

(a) …the words did not come the same as they used to do.
(b) ‘I don’t know the meaning of half those long words, and, what’s more,
I don’t believe you do either!’

Here, the first do in (a) substitutes for come; that in (b) substitutes
for know the meaning of half those long words.
3. Clausal Substitution
There is one further type of substitution in which what is presupposed is
not an element within the clause but an entire clause. The words used
as clausal substitutes are ‘so’ and ‘not’.

In clausal substitution the entire clause is presupposed and the

contrasting element is outside the clause.
For example –
‘Is there going to be an earthquake? / It says so.
Here, the ‘so’ presupposes the whole of the clause ‘there is going to be
an earthquake and the contrastive environment is provided by the ‘says’
which is outside it
Ellipsis may be explained as ‘something left unsaid’, and ‘unsaid’
implies ‘but understood nevertheless’

Sometimes we do not need to provide a substitute for a word or

phrase which has already been said. We can simply omit it
If someone says,
for example
“Would you like a glass of water?”
We can answer “Yes I would” instead of saying “Yes I would like a
glass of water” because we know that “like a glass of water” is
understood.
“Omitting part of sentences on the assumption that an earlier
sentence or the context will make the meaning clear is known as
ellipsis”
Ellipsis occurs when something that is structurally necessary is left
unsaid.
We can discuss ellipsis under three heading:

Nominal ellipsis
Verbal ellipsis
Clausal ellipsis
1. Nominal Ellipsis
There are several types of nominal ellipsis

1) Specific Deictic
2) Non-specific Deictic
3) Post Deictic
4) Numeratives
DEICTIC
A deictic expression (or deixis) is a word or phrase (such as this, that, these,
those, now, then) that points to the time, place, or situation in which a speaker
is speaking.

1) Specific Deictic
We recognize a division of the Deictic element into two parts, one forming the Deictic
properly so called and one which has been referred to as POST –DIECTIC. The words
functioning as Deictic are mostly of the class of determiner. Those functioning as post
deictic are adjectives. In

Here the other guinea-pig cheered, and was suppressed.

‘The’ is Deictic and ‘other’ is post deictic.

2) Non-specific Deictic
The non-specific Deictic are each, every, any, either, no, neither, a,
and some as well as all and both.
a) His sons went into business. Neither succeeded
b) Have some wine. - I don’t see any wine.-There isn’t any
3) Post Deictic
The words functioning as post deictic element in the nominal groups
are not determiners but adjectives
frequent ones include other, same, identical, usual, regular,
certain, odd, famous, well, typical, and obvious.
They combine with the, a or other determiner
All go into the other room
I will have the usual, please
4) Numeratives

The Numeratives element in the nominal group is expressed by

numerals or other quantifying words, which form three
subcategories:
Ordinals,
cardinals and
indefinite quantifiers (all, some, many etc.)
The ordinals are first, next, last, second, third, fourth, etc
Example:
Have another chocolate. - No thanks; that was my third
Thank you!