Rings

Shruti Sharma

August 28, 2017

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Table of contents

1 Ring
Subring
Zero Ring and Unit of Ring

2 Polynomial Rings
Monomial and Homogenous Polynomial

3 Homomorphisms and Ideals

Kernel

4 Ideals
Principal Ideal
Factor Construction

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 Ring

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Ring

Definition
Ring (R, +, 0, ., 1) is a set which is Abelian group under addition with
identity element 0 i.e. (+, 0) and under multiplication (., 1) operation
satisfies associativity and distributive law:

a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c

(b + c).a = b.a + c.a

but necessary to have multiplicative inverses.

Examples: Z, Z/nZ, C, Fields, Mn (F ).
Commutative Rings have very rich theory.

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Subring

Subring is subset of ring:

contains 0 as additive identity and 1 as multiplicative identity.
closed under + and is Abelian group.
closed under . and satisfies associativity and distributive law.
Example of subrings:
Gauss Ring: Z[i] = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z}. (Important in number theory).
R, Q, Z.

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Subring

We can form a subring Z[α] analogous to the ring of Gauss integers,

starting with any complex no α.
Z[α] is the smallest subring of C that contains α.
Z[α] : Subring generated by α.
If Ring contains α, then it contains all positive powers of α.
Ring is closed under multiplication.
Ring contains sums and differences of these powers and contains 1.
Any integer combination of powers of α belongs to ring:

β = an αn + · · · + a1 α + a0 ∈ Z[α], ai ∈ Z.

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Algebraic Number

Definition
A complex no. α is ALGEBRAIC if it is a root of a non-zero polynomial
with coefficients in Ring Z[α].
If there is no polynomial with α as a root, α is TRANSCENDENTAL.

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Example of Rings

Example
A polynomial in x with coefficient in a ring R is an expression of the
form
an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 , ai ∈ R.
The set of polynomials forms a ring.
The set R of continuous real valued function of a real variable x
forms a ring:

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x).

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Zero Ring

Proposition
A ring R in which the elements 1 and 0 are equal is Zero Ring.

Proof:
For all a ∈ R,

0a = (0 + 0)a ⇒ 0a + 0a = 0a = 0.

Let 1 = 0,
a = 1a = 0a = 0 ⇒ a = 0.
Thus, the only element of R is 0.


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Unit of Ring

Definition
Unit of a ring is an element that has a multiplicative inverse.
Units in the ring of integers: ±.
Units in the ring of Gauss integers Z[i]: ±, ±i.
Units in the ring of polynomials R[x]: non-zero constant polynomials.
Field are rings in which 0 6= 1 and every non-zero element is a unit.

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 Polynomial Rings

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Polynomial Rings

Definition
A polynomial with coefficients in a ring R is a finite linear combination of
powers of the variable:

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , ai ∈ R.

Every polynomial with real coefficients determines a polynomial

function on the real no.
Set of polynomials with coeff in ring R := R[x].
Set of polynomials with integer coefficients Z[x].

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Polynomial Rings

Polynomial

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . , ai ∈ R

can be written as a vector of coefficients a = (a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . ).

Addition:

(f + g)(x) = (a + b) = (a0 + b0 , a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , . . . )

Product:
X
f (x)g(x) = p0 + p1 x + p2 x2 + . . . , pk = ai bj
i+j=k

When R is a field, these infinite vectors of coefficients form vector

space Z with infinite basis ei .
The vector ei is the monomial xi .
Monomials form a basis of the space of all polynomials.

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Polynomial Ring

Proposition
There is a unique commutative ring structure on the sets of polynomials
R[x] having properties:
Addition of polynomials.
Product of polynomials.
Ring R becomes a subring of R[x] when elements of R are identified
with constant polynomials.

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Polynomial Ring

Proposition
Let R be a ring, let f be a monic polynomial and let g be any polynomial,
both with coefficient in R. They are uniquely determined polynomials q
and r in R[x] s.t.
g(x) = f (x)q(x) + r(x)
and s.t. remainder r, if it is not 0, has degree less than of f . Moreover, f
divides g in R[x] iff the remainder r is 0.

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Polynomial Ring

Corollary
Division with remainder can be done whenever the leading coefficient of f
is a unit. In particular, it can be done whenever the coefficient ring is a
field and f 6= 0.

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Polynomial Ring

Corollary
Let g(x) be a polynomial in R[x], and let α ∈ R. The remainder of
division of g(x) by x − α is g(α). Thus (x − α) divides g ∈ R[x] if and
only if g(α) = 0.

Proof: g(x) = (x − α)q(x) + g(α)

If g(α) = 0 then g(x) = (x − α)q(x) and thus (x − α) divides g(x).
Conversely, if (x − α) divides g(x) ⇒ r(x) = g(α) = 0.


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Monomial and Homogenous Polynomial

Definition
A monomial is a product of some variables x1 , . . . , xn of the form

xi = xi11 xi22 . . . xinn

where i = i1 + · · · + in .
A polynomial in the variables x1 , . . . , xn with coefficients in a ring R, is
a linear combination of finitely many monomials with coefficients in R
X
f (x) = ai xi , ai ∈ R.
i

Homogenous polynomial: All monomials in homogenous polynomial

have total degree d.
Ring of polynomials with coefficients in R: R[x1 , . . . , xn ].

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 Homomorphisms and Ideals

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Ring Homomorphism

Ring Homomorphism
A ring homomorphism ϕ : R → R0 is a map from one ring to another ring
which is compatible with laws of composition s.t. for a, b ∈ R,

ϕ(a + b) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b) ϕ(0) = 0

ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) ϕ(1) = 1

The assumption the a homomorphism ϕ is compatible with addition

implies it is homomorphism from additive group R+ of R to additive
group R0+ and ϕ(0) = 0 because homomorphism carries the identity
to identity.
ϕ(1) = 1 cannot be concluded from definition.

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Ring Homomorphism

Example
The map ϕ : Z → Fp sends an integer to its congruence class modulo
p is a ring homomorphism.
Isomorphism of rings is a bijective homomorphism and if there is an
isomorphism from R to R0 , the two rings are said to be isomorphic.
Consider zero map 0 : R → R0 , 0(1) = 0 6= 1 unless 1 = 0 in R0 . So,
0 map is not a ring homomorphism unless R0 is zero ring.
Evaluation of real polynomials at a real no a defines a ring
homomorphism
R[x] → R p(x) 7→ p(a).

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Substitution Principle

Substitution Principle
Let ϕ : R → R0 be a ring homomorphism and let R[x] be the ring of
polynomials with coefficients in R.
(a) Let α ∈ R0 . There is a unique homomorphism

Φ : R[x] → R0

that agrees with the map on constant polynomials that sends x 7→ α.

(b) More generally, given elements α1 , . . . , αn ∈ R0 , there is a unique
homomorphism:
Φ : R[x1 , . . . , xn ] → R0
from the polynomial ring in n variables to R0 , that agrees with ϕ on
constant polynomials and that send xν 7→ αν for ν = 1, . . . , n.

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Substitution Principle

Proof:
Let a ∈ R s.t. a0 = ϕ(a) ∈ R0 . Using the fact that Φ is a
homomorphism that restricts to ϕ onPR and sends x to α, we see
that it acts on a polynomial f (x) = ai xi by sending
X X X X
Φ( ai xi ) = Φ(ai xi ) = Φ(ai )Φ(x)i = a0i αi
i i i i

So, Φ acts on the coefficients of a polynomial as ϕ and substitutes α

for x.
Existence of such homomorphism.

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Substitution Principle

Example
ϕ : Z → Fp that sends an integer a to its residue ā mod p. This map
extends to a homomorphism Φ : Z[x] → Fp [x], s.t.

f (x) = an xn + · · · + a0 7→ ān xn + · · · + ā0 = f¯(x)

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Substitution Principle

Proposition
Let R be a ring. There is exactly one homomorphism ϕ : Z → R from ring
of integers to R. It is the map defined by

ϕ(n) = 1 + · · · + 1 ϕ(−n) = −ϕ(n).

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Kernel

Definition
The kernel of ϕ : R → R0 is a set of elements of R that map to 0 i.e.

kerϕ = {s ∈ R|ϕ(s) = 0}

This is same as the kernel obtained for additive group homomorphism.

Recall: kerϕ is normal subgroup for group homomorphism.

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Kernel

Important
Kernel of a Ring homomorphism is ’closed’ under the ’addition’ and
has a property that is stronger than closure under multiplication.
If s ∈ kerϕ and r ∈ R then rs ∈ kerϕ:

ϕ(rs) = ϕ(r)ϕ(s) = ϕ(r).0 = 0.

This property is abstracted in the concept of IDEALS.

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 Ideals

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Ideal

Definition
An ideal I is a subset of ring R i.e. I ⊂ R s.t.:
I is closed under addition.
If s ∈ I and r ∈ R then sr ∈ I.

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Ideal

Equivalent Formulation
If I 6= ∅ and for ri ∈ R and si ∈ I then

r1 s1 + · · · + rk sk ∈ I.

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Principal Ideal

Definition
In any ring R, the multiples of a particular element a form an ideal called
PRINCIPAL IDEAL generated by a i.e. b ∈ R is in principal ideal iff b is a
multiple of a or iff a divides b in R.

(a) = aR = Ra = {ra|r ∈ R}

R is generated by the principal ideal (1): UNIT IDEAL.

(0) ideal
An ideal I is PROPER if it is neither 0 ideal nor unit ideal R.

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Ring Homomorphism

Let ϕ be ring homomorphism from R to S s.t.

ϕ:R→S
ϕ(r1 + r2 ) = ϕ(r1 ) + ϕ(r2 )
ϕ(r1 r2 ) = ϕ(r1 )ϕ(r2 )

If ϕ is one-one and onto then R is isomorphic to S.

Kernel of homomorphism ϕ:

kerϕ , {r ∈ R|ϕ(r) = 0}
ϕ(r1 + r2 ) = ϕ(r1 ) + ϕ(r2 ) = 0 ∀r1 , r2 ∈ kerϕ
ϕ(ar) = ϕ(a)ϕ(r) = 0 ∀r ∈ kerϕ , a ∈ R

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