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The Liquid Metal Battery as the Future of Renewable Energy Generation

KARUNIA GLOBAL SCHOOL

ACADEMIC YEAR 2020/2021

FINAL PROJECT

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APPROVAL
I hereby certify that:
Name: Reynaldi Putra Santoso
Class: Pre-University 3
Paper title: The Liquid Metal Battery as the Future of Renewable Energy Generation

THIS PAPER HAS BEEN GIVEN FOR GUIDANCE AND APPROVED

Place/Date: Jambi, March 2021

Writer

(Reynaldi Putra Santoso)

Pre-University 3

Approved by:
Advisor I Advisor II

I Kadek Irvan Adistha Putra, S. Pd. Toho Fervin Marulitua Situmorang, S.Pd.

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PREFACE

Abstract
As the interest for renewable energy rises in attempt to fight back climate change, the issue of
inconsistent energy generation becomes another one to tackle. Energy storage systems in a
form of battery plants are used as a solution. The Liquid Metal Battery is novel in the realm
aforementioned.
This literature study examines journals and reports encompassing the Liquid Metal Battery,
grid-level energy storage, and battery energy storage system in general. The objective of this
literature study is to prove/disprove the potential of the Liquid Metal Battery at being used for
storing and producing energy within a grid system; also, creating a relevant comparison with
other batteries, mainly Li-ion, that has found dominant ground in the sector.
Based on the writings gathered, the three-liquid-layer system of Liquid Metal Battery has
displayed long cycle life, design scalability, and minimum capacity loss at varying charge-
discharge rate with its chemical mechanism. As said and due to affordable metal electrode
pairs used, the Liquid Metal Battery has potential to be more preferable than other type of
batteries. This is not a fixed statement as research upon the technology is still seldom and a
different result may be acquired as advancements to other batteries occur.
Keywords: Energy storage system, Liquid Metal Battery, more preferable

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CONTENT LIST

Chapter I - Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................................ 6
1.3 Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Significance................................................................................................................................... 6
Chapter II – Theoretical Base .............................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Battery Chemistry ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Liquid Metal Battery (LMB) ......................................................................................................... 8
2.3 The Duck Curve ............................................................................................................................ 9
Chapter III – Research Methodology................................................................................................ 11
3.1 Research Type ............................................................................................................................. 11
3.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ................................................................................................ 11
3.2.1 Type of Study....................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.2 Type of Intervention ............................................................................................................ 11
3.2.3 Result of Study..................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.4 Literature Research Strategy ................................................................................................ 11
3.2.5 Data Synthesis...................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter IV – Result and Discussion.................................................................................................. 14
4.1 Journals Summary ....................................................................................................................... 14
4.2 Attractive Features of the LMB .................................................................................................. 16
4.2.1 Lasting Cycle Life ............................................................................................................... 16
4.2.2 Scalable by Design............................................................................................................... 17
4.2.3 Accelerated Rate of Charge and Discharge ......................................................................... 17
4.2.4 Low-cost Raw Materials ...................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Comparison with the Incumbents................................................................................................ 18
4.3.1 Cost Advantage .................................................................................................................... 18
4.3.2 Operational Hazards............................................................................................................. 19
Chapter V – Closing............................................................................................................................ 21
5.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 21
5.2 Implication .................................................................................................................................. 21
Reference ............................................................................................................................................. 22

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The 16th and 17th century see the most massive interest and research to electricity. William
Gilbert commenced the first study on the interconnection of electricity and magnetism using a
simple lodestone. Benjamin Franklin’s iconic kite experiment then expands that knowledge
even further. The demonstration of electric field and motor by Michael Faraday influenced the
first electric generator that which we use until this day.

As we learn how to use and produce electricity, we learned how to store it in a form of
battery so that we can access it only when needed to. Despite findings of an ancient battery in
Baghdad dating back to 200 B.C., the first efficient battery was invented by Luigi Galvani and
Alessandro Volta which is namely called the Galvanic and Voltaic cell.

Modern humans are now surrounded by technologies run by electricity, with batteries
working tirelessly in the background. From the light bulb, to smartphones, TVs, toilets and
most recently cars, are equipped with electricity-pocketing device that which can be charged
and discharged. This trend does not stop there, as we continue to see the significant role of
battery, this time in renewable energy.

Due to the dissimilarity of demand and production pattern for electricity from renewable
energy, batteries are used for energy storage. It is to become load for the grid during low
demand and source during high demand.

As of now, lithium-ion batteries are the go-to solution mainly due to its commercial
accessibility (Geth, Brijs, Driesen, Belmans & Kathan, 2015). Despite so, scientists have
proven how lithium-ion batteries are unfit to be used in large scale energy storage due to its
low charge cycles (Ning, Phadke, Chung, Yin, Burke & Sadoway, 2014) and low operating
temperature (Leng, Tan, & Pecht, 2015).

Out of all known types of battery, the abandoned liquid metal battery fits the most criteria
of a power plant energy storage. It has a low material cost, high number of charge cycles, and

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high operating temperature that makes it attractive for that usage. Its issue of mass production,
currently endeavored by companies like Ambri, may just be the only obstacle for it to be
mainstream.

With the basis laid out, this paper will elaborate further about Liquid Metal Battery and
point out its potential for being reinstated as energy storage for large scale power plants.

1.2 Problem statement

Based on the background above, it can be stated problems as follows.
1. What makes LMB promising?
2. Where does LMB stands in comparison to its competitors?

1.3 Objectives
The objectives of this paper are as follows.
1. To identify the advantages of LMB.
2. To compare LMB and its counterparts.

1.4 Significance
The significance of this paper are as follows.
1. Elaborates LMB in general and its potency at tackling energy storage.
2. Builds awareness about LMB as an upcoming yet less mainstream technology.

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL BASE

2.1 Battery Chemistry

Battery is a type of electrochemical cell. An electrochemical cell is a set of instruments

capable of generating electricity through chemical reactions (galvanic cell), or start a chemical
reaction using electricity (electrolytic cell). Redox reaction is the fundamental principle of an
electrochemical cell, where elements or compounds either give or receive electrons.

Figure 1 Source: www.askiitians.com

Illustration of a redox reaction

A primary battery is a purely galvanic cell and it is unable to be recharged using electric
currents. Inversely, a secondary battery is both a galvanic cell, when it discharges electric
currents, and an electrolytic cell, when it is recharged using electric currents (Zoski, 2006).

All batteries have 3 basic components: 2 electrodes (cathode as negative, anode as positive)
and an electrolyte. The cathode is negative as it receives electrons donated by the electron
deficient anode and the electrolyte serves as a medium for the movement of ions. A good
reducing agent with a low electrode potential is the anode of the battery, meanwhile the cathode
is of the opposite.

Figure 2. Source:
Source: www.maketecheasier.com
www.maketecheasier.com

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2.2 Liquid Metal Battery (LMB)

Liquid metal battery is a secondary battery comprising of two liquid metal with a molten
salt electrolyte in between (American Chemical Society, 2012). Due to difference in
immiscibility and density, all the components in the battery will separate accordingly during
their liquid state. They are placed into an insulating tightly-sealed container to simulate, though
not perfectly, a closed system.

There are various renditions of a liquid metal battery, all implementing identical principles.
The simplest and most likely to be used commercially is the cube-shaped container, three-
liquid-layer system, as followed:

Figure 3. Source: Ambri

During use, a liquid metal battery will be put into two states: charge and discharge state.
The electrodes in an LMB will be in solid form before power is run to it, which then increases
their temperature due to the case of joule heating and melt them.

The metal atoms of the cathode will donate electrons that will flow to the external circuit.
As they become ions, they will pass through the electrolyte to form a metal alloy with the ions
in the anode. Ions in the anode is formed through redox reaction as mentioned above. This is
the discharge state. When charged, the electrons will attract ions of the cathode metal. This
results to the initial state of the battery prior to discharging.

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An example is this Magnesium-Antimony LMB:

Figure 4. Source: large.standford.edu

2.3 The Duck Curve

The Duck Curve is a phrase coined in 2012 by California Independent System Operator to
describe a graph of the state’s hourly net load – total load minus renewable energy supply
mainly wind and solar (Roberts, 2018). The graph aforementioned is the following:

Figure 5. Source: California Independent System Operator

For a given day, the demand of electricity varies over time. The lowest demand comes
during after midnight when most people are asleep; the highest is during the afternoon when
almost everyone is out working and doing activities. A power plant’s power output is controlled

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by the Grid Manager to meet those daily demands, ensuring that only a minimum power goes
out to waste or demand unmet.

Plants run by coal or natural gas is easily controllable as electricity generation is a process
determined by the Plant Operators. In contrast, solar plants and wind farms generate electricity
based on the weather, that which is an uncontrolled variable.

Thus, a problem of deficit and surplus of energy emerge. At times when those solar plants
and wind farms outperform the grid demand, those energy will come to waste. At other times,
when they underperform as instantly as how the weather changes, the fossil fuel-based power
plants are needed to cover the losses by ramping up their output. Exhausting the plant and
natural resources used as fuel for the energy production.

Energy storage in the form of battery farms or water reservoirs are then used as solution for
the problem. These sites, as mentioned in the introduction, will receive the surplus of power
generated by the plants, store them, then use them to fulfil the grid demand during low output
conditions.

As of this moment, the type of battery commonly used for grid-scale energy storage is the
lithium-ion battery. Despite its popularity, not surprisingly, researchers have found that the
battery commonly used in smartphones and cars is unfit to be used for power plant energy
storage due to its tendency to catch fire, among many (Leng, Tan, & Pecht, 2015).

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Type

This paper selects academic-oriented writings and research reports that which data,
knowledge, and ideas is extracted, for the purpose of answering the research question. As a
literature review, arguments and a conclusion are made related to the thesis topic.

The nature of this research is descriptive analysis, an organized deciphering of data acquired
from various sources which is then given elaboration to allow better understanding for the
readers.

3.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

3.2.1 Type of Study

The research designs included in this literature review are quantitative study, mixed study
methods, correlation analysis, report, and literature review.

3.2.2 Type of Intervention

The main intervention studied by these researches is the Liquid Metal Battery (LMB), other
grid-scale energy storage, and their potency.

3.2.3 Result of Study

The outcome recorded in this literature review is regarding the properties of the LMB and
its aptitude of being the main grid-scale energy storage.

3.2.4 Literature Search Strategy

The search for published articles is done through Google Search, Google Scholar and
Elsevier with keywords: Liquid Metal Battery and renewable energy grid storage.

Research Database Web Address

Google Search https://www.google.com/

Google Scholar https://scholar.google.com/

Elsevier https://www.elsevier.com/en-xs

Table 1. Database of sources

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Articles or journals that fit the criteria of the research will be included to be further analysed
and compared. This research will admit literatures published from 2012 to 2020 that are
accessible as full text in the form pdf and scholarly (peer reviewed journals). All of the
literatures are in English with the subject of grid-scale energy storage.

Keywords for database enquiry:

1. Liquid Metal Battery

2. Renewable Energy Storage

Table 2. Strategy of enquiry

Journals that match the inclusion criteria and are related to the topic of LMB usage as
grid-scale energy storage are then further reviewed. Research inclusion criteria can be seen in
the following table:

Criteria Inclusion

Year Published 2011 - 2020

Topic Power grid storage

Language English

Type of Journal Research articles, full text

Theme of Content Efficacy of LMB as grid-scale storage OR

drawbacks of incumbent type of storage

Table 3. Inclusion criteria

Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the following results were obtained:

Figure 6. Article quantity scheme

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3.2.5 Data Synthesis

This literature review is synthesized using a narrative method by grouping similar

extracted data according to the measured results to answer the research objective.

A journal summary is made for each collected research that includes the name of
researcher(s), the year the journal was published, journal title, methods used, and summary of
results acquired. The summary is entered into a table with the format mentioned above.

An analysis and interpretation will be further made to make clear the content and purpose
of the journals included. With further processing of data provided by the journals for reaching
a certain conjecture.

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CHAPTER IV

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Journals Summary

No. Author Published Title Method Result/Discovery

1 F. Geth, T. Brijs, J. July 29, An overview of Mixed study  BESS on general is on
Kathan, J. Driesen, 2015 large-scale the rise in Europe.
R. Belmans stationary  NaS is the most
electricity storage common of BESS, but
plants in Europe: almost immediately
Current status and replaced by Li-ion.
new  PHS are highest in
developments quantity but limited to
topography.
2 Yuliya Preger, September Degradation of Quantitative  LFP Li-ion battery is
Heather M. 2, 2020 Commercial Study & more suited for lower
Barkholtz, Armando Lithium-Ion Cells Correlation temperature application.
Fresquez, Daniel L. as a Function of analysis  NMC Li-ion battery
Campbell, Benjamin Chemistry and fade rate decreased at
W. Juba, Jessica Cycling 15-30 degree Celsius
Romàn-Kustas, Conditions range.
Summer R. Ferreira,  NMC and NCA Li-ion
and Babu Chalamala batteries cycle life
degrade more than LFP
with higher depth of
discharge.
3 Feng Leng, Cher August 6, Effect of Quantitative  All LFP Li-ion battery
Ming Tan, and 2015 Temperature on Study & (by Sony) degrades
Michael Pecht the Aging rate of Correlation faster with higher
Li Ion Battery analysis temperature.
Operating above

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Room  Warburg element and

Temperature
4 Xiaohui Ning, October Self-healing Li-Bi Mixed study
Satyajit Phadke, 29, 2014 liquid metal
Brice Chung, Huayi battery for grid-
Yin, Paul Burke, and scale energy
Donald R. Sadoway storage
5 Susan Schoenung, April 2011 Energy Storage
Ph.D. Systems Cost
Update
6 Hojong Kim, Dane A. May 22, Liquid Metal
Boysen, Jocelyn M.
2012 Batteries: Past,
Newhouse, Brian L.
Present, and
Spatocco, Brice Chung,
Paul J. Burke, David J.
Future
Bradwell, Kai Jiang,
Alina A. Tomaszowska,
cell impedance is most
sensitive to temperature.
 Capacity loss is due
mainly to the formation
of the surface films on
the electrode and to the
structural changes of the
LCO electrode.
 Metal ion transport is
instantaneous and does
not affect cell voltage.
 The solid phase during
discharge is fully
reversible with no loss
of capacity.
 LMB is scalable up to
1000 times the capacity
of a 1.2 cm diameter
lithium electrode
prototype.
Report  Costs of energy storage
systems depends on the
type of technology, the
planned operation and
the hours of storage
needed.
Literature  LMB does not
review experience electrode
solid-state decay nor
dendritic growth
mechanism which

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Kangli Wang, Weifeng extend its operational

Wei, Luis A. Ortiz,
lifespan.
Salvador A. Barriga,
 LMB is expected to last
Sophie M. Poizeau, and
Donald R. Sadoway. more than 20 years with
its high charge cycle.
 LMB is suitable for both
frequency response
applications and bulk-
energy storage.

4.2 Attractive Features of the LMB

The LMB discussed will be of the three-liquid-layer system due to the nature of research
paper gathered. There are 3 main features of the LMB that makes it compelling for grid-scale
energy storage: long charge cycle, manufacturing scalability, and rapid charge-discharge rate.
Furthermore, a relatively cheap electrode cost is also a part of the list of assets that the LMB
has to offer.

4.2.1 Lasting Cycle Life

The LMB’s long cycle life is held responsible by its immunity to microstructural
degradation, such as: solid-state electrode damage, oxidation, and dendritic growth (6). Solid-
state damage is fully circumvented as the electrodes are in liquid, thus immune to physical
deformation. The dielectric hermetic seals (fig. 3) of an LMB prevents the atmosphere from
entering the battery, disallowing any secondary reactions. With nominal energy density and
high operating temperature, dendrites are almost totally infeasible.

Figure 7. Capacity of Li-Bi LMB at varying cycle number. T = 550 C(4)

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4.2.2 Scalable by Design

The LMB production cost is considered low to the simplicity of its structure. Manufacturer
requires no complex machinery to stack solid electrodes and electrolyte, as they would self-
segregate autonomously by difference of density (6). Less capital spent on the battery’s
assembly meant more potential investment for development of other parts of the battery, such
as the air-tight insulating container.

4.2.3 Accelerated Rate of Charge and Discharge

The LMB is capable to receive and donor electrons at multiple charge densities without
losing significant voltage and capacity. This is unlike conventional batteries that has a default
charge-discharge rate, whereas real-time value deviation would cause otherwise. It can be seen
from the graph below that LMB experience little of the effect.

Figure 8. Characteristics of Li-Bi LMB at varying current densities. T = 550 C (4)

This feature is due to the instantaneous nature of cation movement from the cathode to the
anode, through the salt electrolyte. Such would result to low internal resistance and thus
higher terminal p.d. when connected to an external circuit (4).

4.2.4 Low-cost Raw Materials

The LMB also has the potential to be an affordable energy storage system; its candidate
electrode materials are of earth-abundant and inexpensive metals (6). A solution of considering
the price per mol of metals, range of cell voltage, and difference in melting temperature was
done by a company called Ambri, which decides to use Calcium (cathode) and Antimony

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(anode) for their LMB. Researchers at MIT have also made an estimated cost of energy stored
for pairs of electrode below:

Figure 9. Estimated cost of energy for A-B electrodes (in $/kWh) (6)

4.3 Comparison with the Incumbents

4.3.1 Cost Advantage
What matters in the implementation of an energy storage medium is its overall cost
(production, maintenance, charging) and how it would be used. As of now, there is no clear
indication that one is above all. It shows in this graph of a report published in 2011:

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Figure 10. Estimated cost of various energy storage in 10 years at different type of usage (5)

The formula used to come up with the answer is the following:

Where LCOS is levelised cost of storage, and O&M is operational and maintenance (Schmidt,
Melcior, Hawkes, Staffell, 2019).

Due to the lack of sources and research on the LMB, it is difficult to determine the value
for each variable in the above equation. Despite assuming that the LMB is more expensive than
Li-ion, since it is at such an early stage of development, there is still room for it to be far cheaper
in the future. In contrast to Li-ion that is an already mature technology.

4.3.2 Operational Hazards

During peak demand or supply of the grid, battery energy storage systems are put into a
high temperature environment due to joule heating. In most cases, the overall internal
resistance of a battery, mainly the cell impedance or Warburg element, will increase
significantly.

Li-ion is highly adopted for BESS in the recent years notwithstanding its sensitivity to
temperatures. It is prone to catching fire and loses its capacity significantly with hot climate

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condition, reducing its operational duration expectancy (3). As such it is mistaken to use Li-
ion for grid-scale level energy storage system as it operates at such a narrow window of
temperature (2).

Figure 11. The total resistance of electrodes resistance and electrode/electrolyte resistance aging vs. temperature. (3)

With BESS gaining much interest, more adoption of Li-ion may result with more cases of fire
that endangers workers and homeowners unable to access electricity during maintenance time.
The LMB offers an alternative in this regard as its optimal working condition is the very
condition grid-level energy storage is put in.

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CHAPTER 5

CLOSING

5.1 Conclusion

The Liquid Metal Battery provides solution as an affordable and reliable grid-scale energy
storage. Its capability to not lose much capacity at high temperature, widely adjustable charge-
discharge rate, scalability of design, and relatively accessible raw materials for manufacture
makes it an appealing instrument. In addition, the self-preserving nature of its electrodes gives
it the ability of operating for extended period. At hindsight, it seemed like the only solution for
parties considering BESS for their grid system.

In comparison to other batteries, the LMB has little data available for any fair comparison.
Despite that, one can be assured that the LMB is cheaper in myriad realms with a potential to
go even so as the technology develops. Few researchers have also agreed that the LMB is ahead
with large margins than other batteries, especially the most notorious one in the industry, Li-
ion batteries. This vantage is specifically for the field of safety and manufacturing cost.

5.2 Implication

Projects for grid-level energy storage system using Li-ion batteries will proceed
nevertheless due to the predictability of the technology. Many may risk the use of Li-ion for its
long and known record of performance no matter faulty. However, there will be a point in time
when disregarding the LMB is no longer an option. Failures will occur often with Li-ion
batteries when put beyond its limit; its constant replacement once every 10 years will
eventually be considered too expensive.

One way to excel the adoption of the LMB is for companies to innovate the technology
itself. Research and studies of the LMB ought to be more frequent as to provide data and
information in the business sector. Supply chain and logistics must first be established for the
technology to have a ground. All these can only occur when forces such as the market and
government policies take an active role in the real-life application of the battery.

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REFERENCE

Zoski, C. G. (Ed.). (2006). Handbook of electrochemistry. Elsevier.

Geth, F., Brijs, T., Kathan, J., Driesen, J., & Belmans, R. (2015). An overview of large-scale
stationary electricity storage plants in Europe: Current status and new
developments. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 52, 1212-1227.

Kim, H., Boysen, D. A., Newhouse, J. M., Spatocco, B. L., Chung, B., Burke, P. J., ... &
Sadoway, D. R. (2013). Liquid metal batteries: past, present, and future. Chemical
reviews, 113(3), 2075-2099.

Roberts, D. (2018). Solar power’s greatest challenge was discovered 10 years ago. It looks
like a duck. Cleanpowercampaign. Cleanpower.org.

Leng, F., Tan, C. M., & Pecht, M. (2015). Effect of temperature on the aging rate of Li ion
battery operating above room temperature. Scientific reports, 5(1), 1-12.

Ning, X., Phadke, S., Chung, B., Yin, H., Burke, P., & Sadoway, D. R. (2015). Self-healing
Li–Bi liquid metal battery for grid-scale energy storage. Journal of Power
Sources, 275, 370-376.

Schmidt, O., Melchior, S., Hawkes, A., & Staffell, I. (2019). Projecting the future levelized
cost of electricity storage technologies. Joule, 3(1), 81-100.

Preger, Y., Barkholtz, H. M., Fresquez, A., Campbell, D. L., Juba, B. W., Romàn-Kustas, J.,
... & Chalamala, B. (2020). Degradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a
Function of Chemistry and Cycling Conditions. Journal of the Electrochemical
Society, 167(12), 120532.

Schoenung, S. (2011). Energy storage systems cost update. SAND2011-2730, 606.

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