Foreign relations of

Ethiopia

Many historians trace modern Ethiopia's

foreign policy to the reign of Emperor
Tewodros II, whose primary concerns
were the security of Ethiopia's traditional
borders, obtaining technology from
Europe (or modernization), and to a
lesser degree Ethiopian rights to the
monastery of Dar-es-Sultan in the city of
Jerusalem.[1] Tewodros' diplomatic
efforts, however, ended disastrously with
the British expedition of 1868 which
concluded with his death. Despite the
efforts of his successor Emperor
Yohannes IV to establish a relationship
with the United Kingdom, Ethiopia was
ignored by the world powers until the
opening of the Suez Canal, and more
important, the Mahdist War, drew outside
attention to her once more.[2]

The same major interests that Tewodros

had—the security of Ethiopia's traditional
borders and modernization—were once
again foremost, as demonstrated by the
outcome of the First Italo–Ethiopian War,
Ethiopia's admission to the League of
Nations (28 September 1923), and the
1935 Second Italo-Abyssinian War.
Following the decisive Ethiopian victory
at Adwa, Menelik II rapidly negotiated a
series of treaties fixing Ethiopia's
boundaries—with French Somaliland in
March 1897, British Somaliland a few
months later in June 1897, with Italian
Eritrea in 1900, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in
1902, British East Africa in 1907, and
Italian Somaliland in 1908—which
simplified this problem on one level.
Although Emperor Haile Selassie agreed
to an agreement with the British
government to help him restore order to
Ethiopia, which benefited him in crushing
the Woyane Rebellion, he worked to its
eventual termination.
Following World War II, Ethiopia played
an active role in regional and global
politics. Ethiopia was a charter member
of the United Nations and took part in UN
operations in Korea in 1951 and the
Congo in 1960. Former Emperor Haile
Selassie I was also among the founders
of the Organization of African Unity
(OAU), and served as one of a series of
rotating OAU chairmen. Although
nominally a member of the Non-Aligned
Movement, after the 1974 revolution,
Ethiopia also moved into a close
relationship with the Soviet Union and its
allies and supported their international
policies and positions until a change of
government in 1991.
Today, Ethiopia is a major economic
partner of Djibouti and Sudan, although
border demarcation negotiations are still
ongoing with the Omar Al-Bashir
administration. Relations with Somalia
have also gradually improved, particularly
since the establishment of a new
government in Mogadishu. Ethiopia's
dealings with Eritrea are extremely tense
due to an ongoing border dispute
between the two countries.

The Ethiopian government's relations

with the U.S. and the West in general
have been centered on military and
economic cooperation. In addition,
Ethiopia maintains diplomatic links with
China, Israel, Mexico and India, among
other countries. Addis Ababa also serves
as the headquarters of the United
Nations Economic Commission for
Africa (UNECA) and the African Union, as
well as numerous other continental and
international organizations.

Africa
 Formal
Country Relations Notes
Began

   Algeria Algeria has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Ethiopia has an embassy in Algiers.

   Côte Côte d'Ivoire has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

d'Ivoire
Ethiopia has an embassy in Abidjan.

   Djibouti See Djibouti–Ethiopia relations

Diplomatic relations between Ethiopia and Djibouti were

established in 1984.[3] The border between the two countries is
based on the Franco-Ethiopian convention of 20 March 1897,
which was later finalized in a protocol dated 16 January 1954 and
rendered effective on 28 February of that year.[4] In October 1991,
the Ethiopian and Djiboutian governments signed a Treaty of
Friendship and Cooperation further solidifying relations. Since
1991, the two countries have signed over 39 protocol
agreements.[3]

Djibouti remains a major economic partner of Ethiopia. On 13 April

2002, the two countries signed an agreement concerning the use
of the Port of Djibouti and the transit of cargo, which was later
ratified by the Ethiopian Federal Parliamentary Assembly on 4 June
of the same year.[5] About 70% of the Port of Djibouti's activity
consists of imports to and exports from neighboring Ethiopia,
which depends on the harbour as its main maritime outlet. The
port also serves as an international refueling center and
transshipment hub.[6] Additionally, both countries share ownership
of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railroad.

   Egypt See Egypt–Ethiopia relations

As two of the oldest independent states in Africa, both countries

have an ancient relationship in many forms. The Ethiopian
Orthodox Tewahedo Church was under the administration of the
Coptic Orthodox Church from ancient times until 1959. Ethiopian
and Egyptian armies clashed in the early 19th century over control
of territory in what is modern Sudan, and Ethiopia's access to the
Red Sea. Both countries established formal diplomatic ties in
 1927.[7] More recently, because both countries share a special
relationship over the Nile basin, both are members of the Nile
Basin Initiative.

   Eritrea 9 July See Eritrea–Ethiopia relations

2018 The boundary between these two countries is based on three
treaties between Ethiopia and Italy, in 1900, 1902, and 1908.
However no part of the shared boundary was afterwards
demarcated.[8]

From 1950 until 1993, Eritrea was federated as part of Ethiopia.

During much of this period, a number of Eritreans fought for
independence from Ethiopia. The federation was ended with an
April 1993 plebiscite which approved Eritrea's full independence.

Disputes over Eritrea's border alignment led to the Eritrean-

Ethiopian War (1998–2000), which was resolved by an
independent boundary commission's delimitation decision in
2002. However, demarcation has been delayed, despite intense
international intervention, by Ethiopian insistence that the
decision ignored "human geography," made technical errors in
the delimitation, and determined that certain disputed areas,
specifically Badme, fall to Eritrea. Eritrea meanwhile insists on
not deviating from the commission's decision. The
peacekeepers monitoring the disputed boundary were forced to
withdraw in July 2008[9] having considered their remaining
options[10] after experiencing serious difficulties in supporting its
troops.[11]

In July 2018, leaders both countries signed a peace treaty to put

a formal end to a state of war between both nations paving the
way for greater economic cooperation and improved ties
between them.[12]

   Ghana Ethiopia has an embassy in Accra.

Ghana has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Kenya See Ethiopia–Kenya relations

Relations between Kenya and Ethiopia date back to the 1954, when
the Ethiopian authorities under Haile Selassie I established an
honorary consulate general in the British Kenya Colony. In 1961,
prior to Kenya's independence, Ethiopia appointed its first
 ambassador to Kenya, and six years later Kenya opened an
embassy in Addis Ababa.[13]

The border between the two countries is based on a treaty signed

by Ethiopia and Kenya on 9 June 1970, which determines the
present-day boundary, abrogating all previous boundary treaties.
This border has been subjected to demarcation.[14]

  Ethiopia has an embassy in Rabat.

 Morocco
Morocco has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Namibia Ethiopia–Namibia relations refers to the current and historical

relationship between Ethiopia and Namibia.

During the South African occupation of Namibia, Ethiopia was one

of the country's leading proponents abroad; Ethiopia and Liberia
were the first two states to bring the question of independence for
then South West Africa to the United Nations.[15] Namibia gained
independence in 1990. In 2007, the two governments signed an
agreement which expanded air travel between the two states.[16] In
December 2009, Namibia's Foreign Minister, Marko Hausiku met
with Ethiopian Foreign Affairs Minister Seyoum Mesfin and noted
the economic, science, technical and cultural agreements in place
between the two countries and expressed a desire to improve the
trade relations.[17]

Ethiopia is accredited to Namibia from its embassy in Pretoria,

South Africa.

Namibia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

 Nigeria Ethiopia has an embassy in Abuja.

 
Nigeria has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Senegal Ethiopia has an embassy in Dakar.

Senegal has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Somalia See Ethiopia–Somalia relations

Relations between the peoples of Somalia and Ethiopia stretch

back to antiquity, to a common origin. The Ethiopian region is one
of the proposed homelands of the Horn of Africa's various Afro-
Asiatic communities.[18]
 During the Middle Ages, Somali Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi
(Ahmad Gurey or Gragn) led a Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-
Habash), which brought three-quarters of the Christian Ethiopian
Empire under the power of the Muslim Adal Sultanate.[19][20] With
an army mainly composed of Somalis,[21] Many historians trace the
origins of tensions between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.[22]

In the 1960s and 1970s, a territorial dispute over the Ogaden

region led to various armed confrontations between the Somalian
and Ethiopian militaries. The tensions culminated in the Ogaden
War, which saw the Somali army capture most of the disputed
territory by September 1977, before finally being expelled by a
coalition of communist forces.

With changes in leadership in the early 1990s brought on by the

start of the Somali Civil War and Ethiopian Civil War, respectively,
relations between the Somali and Ethiopian authorities entered a
new phase of military cooperation against the Islamic Courts
Union (ICU) rebel group and its more radical successor Al-
Shabaab. In October 2011, a coordinated multinational operation
began against Al-Shabaab in southern Somalia; the Ethiopian
military eventually joined the Transitional Federal Government-led
mission the following month.[23]

The Federal Government of Somalia was later established on 20

August 2012,[24] representing the first permanent central
government in the country since the start of the civil war.[24] The
following month, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was elected as the new
Somali government's first President, with the Ethiopian authorities
welcoming his selection and newly appointed Prime Minister of
Ethiopia Hailemariam Desalegn attending Mohamud's inauguration
ceremony.[25]

   South See Ethiopia–South Africa relations

Africa Ethiopia has an embassy in Pretoria.

South Africa has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

 Sudan See Ethiopia–Sudan relations

 
Alodia and the Kingdom of Makuria had some relations with
Ethiopia in Medieval times.
The Ethiopian Empire fought against Mahdist Sudan in the Mahdist
War.

Ethiopia and Sudan first established formal relations in 1956.[26]

Relations between Ethiopia and Sudan were very good following
the end of the Ethiopian Civil War, due to the support that the
Sudanese government had given to the Ethiopian People's
Revolutionary Democratic Front. However, relations were strained
for a time following the 26 June 1995 assassination attempt
against Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak as he was leaving the
OAU summit meeting in Addis Ababa. The subsequent
investigation revealed that Sudan was involved in this act, forcing
the Ethiopian government to take a series of steps against Sudan
that September, which included closing the Sudanese consulate in
Gambela, reducing the number of Sudanese embassy staff, and
terminating all Sudan Airways and Ethiopian Airlines flights
between the two countries. However the start of the Eritrean-
Ethiopian War led to Sudan and Ethiopia put this conflict between
them and normalizing their relations by November 1999 when
president Omar Hassan al-Bashir made a formal visit to Addis
Ababa.[27]

A protocol concerning Ethiopian access to Port Sudan was signed

between the two countries 5 March 2000 in Khartoum, and this
protocol and its subsequent amendment were ratified by the
Ethiopian Federal Parliamentary Assembly on 3 July 2003.[28]

Efforts to demarcate the porous boundary with Sudan were

delayed by the Second Sudanese Civil War. In May 2008, residents
along the western Ethiopian border reportedly discovered that the
government had agreed to demarcate this boundary when
Sudanese soldiers forced them out of their homes. It was reported
that as many as 2,000 people were displaced in the Gambela
Region, and the Sudanese army reportedly set fire to two dozen
Ethiopian farms and imprisoned 34 people in the Amhara Region.
However, Prime Minister Meles Zenawi publicly denied that any
Ethiopians had been displaced by this agreement.[29] Negotiations
over this boundary continues, with the twelfth meeting of the
Boundary Commission announced 28 December 2009 at Mek'ele,
with Ethiopian representatives from the Tigray, Benishangul-
 Gumuz, Amhara and Gambela Regions, and from the Sudanese
side representatives of the Upper Nile, Blue Nile, Sennar and Al
Qadarif Administrations.[30]

Despite these border tensions, Sudan remains a major economic

partner of Ethiopia. According to the Ethiopian Petroleum Supplier
Enterprise (EPSE), Ethiopia in April 2013 imported around $1.12
billion worth of oil from Sudan over the previous six months. In
total, about 85% of Ethiopia's yearly oil consumption comes from
Sudan via the Port of Djibouti. Ethiopia and Sudan are also in the
process of linking their power grids.[31]

  Ethiopia has an embassy in Dar-es-Salaam.

 Tanzania
Tanzania has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Uganda Ethiopia has an embassy in Kampala.

Uganda has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

  Ethiopia has an embassy in Harare.

 Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Americas
 Formal
Country Relations Notes
Began

  Argentina has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

 Argentina
Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Argentina.

   Brazil 1951 See Brazil–Ethiopia relations

Brazil has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Ethiopia has an embassy in Brasília.

   Canada 1956 See Canada–Ethiopia relations

Canada has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[32]

Ethiopia has an embassy in Ottawa.[33]

See also: Ethiopian Canadian

   Chile 16 Chile has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

October
Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Chile
1945

   Cuba 18 July See Cuba–Ethiopia relations

1975 Cuba has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Ethiopia has an embassy in Havana.

   Ecuador Ecuador is accredited to Ethiopia from its embassy in Cairo,

Egypt.

Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Ecuador.

   Guyana 1970 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 October

1970.[34]

   Mexico 1949 See Ethiopia–Mexico relations

During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Mexico was one of the
member states of the League of Nations to condemn the
occupation of Ethiopia and support the League's sanctions
against Italy.[35] Since then, relations between the two nations
have strengthened.

In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia named a square in the capital "Mexico

Square." Mexico, in turn, named a metro station in Mexico City
called Metro Etiopía.

Mexico has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[36]

 Ethiopia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in
Washington, D.C., United States.[37]

   United 1903 See Ethiopia–United States relations

States Ethiopia is a strategic partner of the United States in the Global
War on Terrorism.

U.S. development assistance to Ethiopia is focused on reducing

famine vulnerability, hunger, and poverty and emphasizes
economic, governance, and social sector policy reforms.

Ethiopia has an embassy in Washington, DC and a consulate-

general in Los Angeles.[37]

United States has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[38]

See also: Ethiopian American

   Uruguay Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Uruguay.

Uruguay has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

  Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Venezuela.

 Venezuela
Venezuela has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Asia
 Formal
Country Relations Notes
Began

   Armenia 1993 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 December

1993.[39]

Armenia is accredited to Ethiopia from its embassy in Cairo,

Egypt.[39]

Ethiopia is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow,

Russia.[39]

Both nations have among the oldest Christian communities

See Azerbaijan–Ethiopia relations

On November 2, 1992, Azerbaijan and Ethiopia signed a Protocol
on the establishment of diplomatic relations.[40]
2
  November On December 28, 2012, the Republic of Azerbaijan established
 Azerbaijan
1992[40] an embassy in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (in
Addis Ababa).[40]

Ethiopia maintains a consulate in Baku, Azerbaijan.[41]

   China 1970 See China–Ethiopia relations

China has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Ethiopia has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in

Chongqing, Guangzhou and Shanghai.

   Georgia See Ethiopia–Georgia relations

   India 1948 See Ethiopia–India relations

Ethiopia has an embassy in New Delhi.

India has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

India trains Ethiopian personnel under its ITEC program and is

Ethiopia's second largest source of Foreign Direct Investments.

The Second India-Africa Forum Summit was held in Addis

Ababa in 2011 and India launched its Pan-African e-Network
Project in Ethiopia in 2007.

  See Ethiopia–Indonesia relations

 Indonesia Ethiopia has an embassy in Jakarta.

Indonesia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Israel 1992 See Ethiopia–Israel relations
Ethiopia has an embassy in Tel Aviv.[42]

Israel has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[43]

See also: Ethiopian Jews in Israel, Operation Moses, Operation

Solomon, History of the Jews in Ethiopia

Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Israel

   Japan 1930 See Ethiopia–Japan relations

Japan and Ethiopia explored diplomatic and economic relations
in the 1930s in response to perceived common interests;
however these contacts lapsed with the commencement of the
Second Italo-Ethiopian War

Relations were reestablished in 1955 and ambassadors

exchanged in 1958.[44]

  See Ethiopia–Malaysia relations

 Malaysia Ethiopia has a consulate-general in Kuala Lumpur,[45] while
Malaysia doesn't have any embassy in Ethiopia.

Malaysia is one of the major trade partner and also one of the
largest investors in Ethiopia.[46][47][48]

 North 1975
  Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1975.[49]
Korea

  1989 Palestine has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

 Palestine

  2013 The Philippines and Ethiopia signed their first air agreement in
 Philippines 2014.[50]

 Qatar See Ethiopia–Qatar relations

 
Ethiopia abruptly broke diplomatic ties with Qatar in April 2008,
apparently due to statements made by the Al-Jazeera news
channel which is based in Qatar.

   South 23 Between The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and The

Korea December Republic of Korea were established diplomatic relations on 23
1963 December 1963.[51]

Infantry men of 6,037 from Ethiopia have participated in the

Korean War to help South Korea.
 The number of South Koreans living in Ethiopia in 2016 were
about 460.

The Republic of Korea's official development assistance from

1991 to 2014 was about 88.61m USD.
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has an
embassy in Seoul.[52]

Since 1965 South Korea has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[53]

   Turkey 1896[54] See also Ethiopia–Turkey relations

Ethiopia has an embassy in Ankara.[55]

Turkey has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[56]

Trade volume between the two countries was US$398.8 million

in 2019 (Ethiopian exports/imports: 27.5/378.3 USD).[57]

Europe
 Formal
Country Relations Notes
Began

 Belarus Belarus is accredited to Ethiopia from its embassy in Nairobi,

 
Kenya.

Ethiopia is accredited to Belarus from its embassy in Moscow,

Russia.

   Cyprus See Cyprus–Ethiopia relations

   Czech Ethiopia is accredited to the Czech Republic from its embassy in

Republic Berlin, Germany.

Czech Republic has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[58]

   Denmark See Denmark–Ethiopia relations

Denmark has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Ethiopia is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in

Stockholm, Sweden.

   Finland 1959-07- See Ethiopia–Finland relations

17 Ethiopia is represented in Finland through its embassy in
Stockholm, Sweden.

Finland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[59]

   France See Ethiopia–France relations

Ethiopia has an embassy in Paris.

France has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

  1905 Both countries signed a treaty of friendship in March 1905; a

 Germany German Legation was opened in Addis Ababa in 1907, and an
Ethiopian embassy in Berlin the same year.

Germany supported Ethiopia in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.

Ethiopia has an embassy in Berlin.

Germany has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Greece See Ethiopia–Greece relations

Ethiopia is accredited to Greece from its embassy in Rome, Italy.

Greece has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Ireland 1994 See Ethiopia–Ireland relations

Ethiopia has an embassy in Dublin.
 Since 1994, Ireland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Italy 1889 See Ethiopia–Italy relations

Italy was one of the first European countries to open diplomatic
relations with Ethiopia.

Both countries have fought two wars against each other: the
First Italo-Ethiopian War and the Second Italo-Ethiopian War

Total trade volume between two countries reached

455,928,352.26 Birr in 2011.[60]

Italy has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[61]

Ethiopia has an embassy in Rome.[62]

   Poland Ethiopia is accredited to Poland from its embassy in Berlin,

Germany.

Poland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

  Ethiopia is accredited to Romania from its Permanent Mission in

 Romania Geneva, Switzerland.

Romania has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[63]

Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about bilateral relations

with Romania

   Russia 1943-4- See Ethiopia–Russia relations

21 Russia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Ethiopia has an embassy in Moscow. The Ethiopian ambassador

to Russia is also accredited to Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

The history of this relationship has its origins in the 19th century.
Russia supplied the mountain guns the Ethiopian army used in
the Battle of Adwa.

More recently, the Soviet Union was a major source of military

and economic aid under the Derg and during the People's
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.

See also Alexander Bulatovich

Relations are somewhat unsure owing to Russia's close ties with

Ethiopia's neighboring rival, Sudan.
   Serbia 1952 See Ethiopia–Serbia relations
Serbia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Ethiopia is accredited Serbia from its embassy in Rome, Italy.

Ethiopia is a strong advocate for Serbia on the issue of Kosovo.

The first vessel in the Ethiopian Navy was a gift from Yugoslavia.

The Serbian embassy is the former villa of Yugoslav President

Josip Broz Tito, which was given as a gift by Haile Selassie

On 27 January 2012, after traveling to Addis Ababa in order to

reaffirm Ethiopia's stance on Kosovo regarding Serbia, Vuk
Jeremić and Haile Mariam signed a memorandum of
understanding between the two nations' ministries of foreign
affairs.[64]

   Spain See Ethiopia–Spain relations

Ethiopia is accredited to Spain from its embassy in Paris,
France.

Spain has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Sweden See Ethiopia–Sweden relations

Ethiopia has an embassy in Stockholm.

Sweden has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   Ukraine 1993-4-1 Ethiopia is accredited to Ukraine from its embassy in Moscow,

Russia.

Ukraine has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

   United Ethiopia has an embassy in London.

Kingdom
United Kingdom has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Oceania
 Formal
Country Relations Notes
Began

  Australia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

 Australia
Ethiopia has an embassy in Canberra.

   New Ethiopia is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in

Zealand Canberra, Australia.

New Zealand has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

See also
Category:Ethiopian diaspora
Foreign aid to Ethiopia
List of diplomatic missions in Ethiopia
List of diplomatic missions of Ethiopia
Ministry of Foreign Affairs

References
1. The political history of the Ethiopian
 community, and their struggle for
ownership of this small monastery, is
retold in Chris Proutky, Empress Taytu and
Menelik II (Trenton: The Red Sea Press,
1986), pp. 247–256
2. Although Bahru Zewde, A History of
Modern Ethiopia, second edition (Oxford:
James Currey, 2001), believes that the
Suez Canal brought strategic value to the
Red Sea region (p. 73), Sven Rubenson,
The Survival of Ethiopian Independence
(Hollywood: Tsehai,1991) argues that only
with the Mahdi War did the United
Kingdom interest themselves once again
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5. "Ethio-Djibouti Utilization of Port of
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10. United Nations Security Council
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External links
Ministry of Foreign Affairs for
Ethiopia's webpage
 A Tangled Political Landscape Raises
Questions About African Ally of the
U.S. by Michael Deibert, 12 June 2008
Abdul Mohammed, "Ethiopia’s
Strategic Dilemma in the Horn of
Africa" , Crisis in the Horn of Africa
(Social Science Research Council
website)
"U.S. to Test Soviet 'New Thinking':
Talks on Africa," The Christian Science
Monitor, 4 May 1989.
"Gorbachev's Holocaust: Soviet
Complicity in Ethiopia's Famine" , by
Michael Johns, Policy Review, Summer
1988.

Further reading
 Amare Tekle, "The Determinants of the
Foreign Policy of Revolutionary
Ethiopia", Journal of Modern African
Studies , Vol. 27, No. 3 (Sep., 1989),
pp. 479–502
Orobola Fasehun, "Nigeria and the
Ethiopia-Somalia Conflict: A Case
Study of Continuity in Nigerian Foreign
Policy", Africa Spectrum , 17 (1982),
pp. 183–193

 This article incorporates public domain

 
material from the CIA World Factbook
website https://www.cia.gov/the-world-
factbook/ .
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