Date:6 May 1998 – 25 May 2000

(2 years, 2 weeks and 5 days)

Location:Eritrean–Ethiopian border

Result

Ethiopian military victory,

Eritrean international court victory

■Algiers Peace Agreement

Belligerents

Eritrea

Ethiopia

Commanders and leaders

Isaias Afewerki

Sebhat Ephrem

Negasso Gidada

Meles Zenawi

Tsadkan Gebre-Tensae

Casualties and losses

19,000 killed

(Eritrean claim)
67,000 killed

(Ethiopian claim)

20,000–50,000 or 150,000 killed

(other estimates)

34,000-60,000 killed (Ethiopian claim)

123,000 killed

(Ethiopian clandestine opposition claim)

150,000 killed

(other estimates)

70,000-100,000 killed on both sides

(ICG estimate)

300,000 killed on both sides

(other estimates)

The Eritrean–Ethiopian War took place from May 1998 to June 2000 between Ethiopia and
Eritrea, forming one of the conflicts in the Horn of Africa. While Eritrea and Ethiopia spent
hundreds of millions of dollars on the war and suffered tens of thousands of casualties as a
direct consequence of the conflict,only minor border changes resulted.

According to a ruling by an international commission in The Hague, Eritrea broke international

law and triggered the war by invading Ethiopia.

At the end of the war Ethiopia held all of the disputed territory and had advanced into Eritrea.
After the war ended, the Eritrea–Ethiopia Boundary Commission, a body founded by the UN,
established that Badme, the disputed territory at the heart of the conflict, belongs to Eritrea. As
of 2013, Ethiopia still occupies the territory.
Prelude

From 1961 until 1991, Eritrea had fought a long war of independence against Ethiopia. The
Ethiopian Civil War began on 12 September 1974 when the Marxist Derg staged a coup d'état
against Emperor Haile Selassie. It lasted until 1991 when the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary
Democratic Front (EPRDF)—a coalition of rebel groups led by the Tigrayan People's Liberation
Front (TPLF)—overthrew the Derg government and installed a transitional government in the
Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa. The Derg government had been weakened by their loss of
support due to the fall of communism in Eastern Europe.

During the civil war, the groups fighting the Derg government had a common enemy, so the
TPLF allied itself with the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). In 1991 as part of the United
Nations-facilitated transition of power to the transitional government, it was agreed that the
EPLF should set up an autonomous transitional government in Eritrea and that a referendum
would be held in Eritrea to find out if Eritreans wanted to secede from Ethiopia. The
referendum was held and the vote was overwhelmingly in favour of independence. In April
1993 independence was achieved and the new state joined the United Nations.

In 1991 the EPLF-backed transitional government of Eritrea and the TPLF-backed transitional
government of Ethiopia, agreed to set up a commission to look into any problems that arose
between the two former wartime allies over the foreseen independence of Eritrea. This
commission was not successful and during the following years relations between the
governments of the two sovereign states deteriorated.

The border between the two states became a major irritant, and in November 1997 a border
committee was set up to try to resolve that specific dispute. After federation and before
independence the line of the border had been of minor importance because it was only a
demarcation line between federated provinces and initially the two governments tacitly agreed
that the border should remain as it had been immediately before independence. However on
independence the border became an international frontier, and the two governments could not
agree on the line that the border should take along its entire length, and they looked back to
the colonial period treaties between Italy and Ethiopia for a basis in international law for the
precise line of the frontier between the states. Problems then arose because they could not
agree on the interpretation of those agreements and treaties, and it was not clear under
international law how binding colonial treaties were on the two states.
 Writing after the war had finished Jon Abbink postulates that President Isaias Afewerki of
Eritrea, realising that his influence over the government in Ethiopia was slipping and given that
"the facts on the ground, in the absence of a concrete border being marked—which anyhow
lost much of its relevance after 1962 when Eritrea was absorbed by Ethiopia—have eminent
relevance to any borderline decision of today" calculated that Eritrea could annex Badme. If
successful this acquisition could be used to enhance his reputation and help maintain Eritrea's
privileged economic relationship with Ethiopia. However, because Badme was in the province
of Tigray, the region from which many of the members of the Ethiopian government originate
(including Meles Zenawi the former Ethiopian prime minister), the Ethiopian government came
under political pressure from within the EPRDF as well as from the wider Ethiopian public to
meet force with force.

War

Chronology

After a series of armed incidents in which several Eritrean officials were killed near Badme, on 6
May 1998, a large Eritrean mechanized force entered the Badme region along the border of
Eritrea and Ethiopia's northern Tigray Region, resulting in a firefight between the Eritrean
soldiers and the Tigrayan militia and security police they encountered.

On 13 May 1998 Ethiopia, in what Eritrean radio described as a "total war" policy, mobilized its
forces for a full assault against Eritrea.The Claims Commission found that this was in essence an
affirmation of the existence of a state of war between belligerents, not a declaration of war,
and that Ethiopia also notified the United Nations Security Council, as required under Article 51
of the UN Charter.

The fighting quickly escalated to exchanges of artillery and tank fire, leading to four weeks of
intense fighting. Ground troops fought on three fronts. On 5 June 1998, the Ethiopians
launched air attacks on the airport in Asmara and the Eritreans retaliated by attacking the
airport of Mekele. These raids caused civilian casualties and deaths on both sides of the
border.The United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1177 condemning the use of
force and welcomed statements from both sides to end the air strikes.
There was then a lull as both sides mobilized huge forces along their common border and dug
extensive trenches. Both countries spent several hundred million dollars on new military
equipment. This was despite the peace mediation efforts by the Organization of African Unity
(OAU) and the US/Rwanda peace plan that was in the works. The US/Rwanda proposal was a
four point peace plan that called for withdrawal of both forces to pre-June 1998 positions.
Eritrea refused, and instead demanded the demilitarization of all disputed areas along the
common border, to be overseen by a neutral monitoring force, and direct talks.

With Eritrea's refusal to accept the US/Rwanda peace plan, on 22 February 1999 Ethiopia
launched a massive military offensive to recapture Badme. Tension had been high since 6
February 1999, when Ethiopia claimed that Eritrea had violated the moratorium on air raids by
bombing Adigrat, a claim it later withdrew.Surveying the extensive trenches the Eritreans had
constructed, Ethiopian General Samora Yunis observed, "The Eritreans are good at digging
trenches and we are good at converting trenches into graves. They, too, know this. We know
each other very well".

Following the first five days of heavy fighting at Badme, by which time Ethiopia had broken
through Eritrea's fortified front and was 10 kilometers (six miles) deep into Eritrean territory,
Eritrea accepted the OAU peace plan on 27 February 1999. While both states said that they
accepted the OAU peace plan, Ethiopia did not immediately stop its advance because it
demanded that peace talks be contingent on an Eritrean withdrawal from territory occupied
since the first outbreak of fighting.

On 16 May the BBC reported that after a lull of two weeks the Ethiopians had attacked at
Velessa on the Tsorona front-line, south of Eritrea's capital Asmara and that after two days of
heavy fighting the Eritreans had beaten back the attack claiming to have destroyed more than
forty-five Ethiopian tanks; although not able to verify the claim, which the Ethiopian
Government dismissed as ridiculous, the BBC reporter did see more than 300 dead Ethiopians
and more than 20 destroyed Ethiopian tanks. In June 1999 the fighting continued with both
sides in entrenched positions. About a quarter of Eritrean soldiers were women.

"Proximity talks" broke down in early May 2000 "with Ethiopia accusing Eritrea of imposing
unacceptable conditions". On 12 May the Ethiopians launched an offensive that broke through
the Eritrean lines between Shambuko and Mendefera, crossed the Mareb River, and cut the
road between Barentu and Mendefera, the main supply line for Eritrean troops on the western
front of the fighting.

Ethiopian sources state that on 16 May Ethiopian aircraft all returned to their bases after
attacking targets between Areza and Maidema, and between Barentu and Omohager, while
heavy ground fighting continued in the Das and Barentu area and in Maidema. The next day
Ethiopian ground forces with air support captured Das. Eritrean forces evacuated Barentu and
fighting continued in Maidema. Also on 17 May, due to the continuing hostilities, the United
Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1298 imposing an arms embargo on both
countries.

By 23 May Ethiopia claimed that its "troops had seized vital command posts in the heavily
defended Zalambessa area, about 100km (60 miles) south of the Eritrean capital, Asmara". But
the Eritreans claimed they withdrew from the disputed border town of Zalambessa and other
disputed areas on the central front as a "...'goodwill' gesture to revive peace talks" while
Ethiopia claimed it was a 'tactical retreat' to take away one of Ethiopia's last remaining excuses
for continuing the war; a report from Chatham House observes, "the scale of Eritrean defeat
was apparent when Eritrea unexpectedly accepted the OAU peace framework." Having
recaptured most of the contested territories—and having heard that the Eritrean government
would withdraw from any other territories it occupied at the start of fighting in accordance with
a request from the OAU—on 25 May 2000, Ethiopia declared the war was over. By the end of
May 2000, Ethiopia occupied about a quarter of Eritrea's territory, displacing 650,000 people
and destroying key components of Eritrea's infrastructure.

The widespread use of trenches has resulted in comparisons of the conflict to the trench
warfare of World War I.This trench warfare led to the loss of "thousands of young lives in
human-wave assaults on Eritrea's positions" The Eritrean defences were eventually overtaken
by a surprise Ethiopian pincer movement on the Western front, attacking a mined, but lightly
defended mountain (without trenches), resulting in the capture of Barentu and an Eritrean
retreat. The element of surprise in the attack involved the use of donkeys as pack animals as
well as being a solely infantry affair, with tanks coming in afterwards only to secure the area.

Regional destabilisation
The fighting also spread to Somalia as both governments tried to outflank one another. The
Eritrean government began supporting the Oromo Liberation Front, a rebel group seeking
independence of Oromia from Ethiopia that was based in a part of Somalia controlled by
Mohamed Farrah Aidid.Ethiopia retaliated by supporting groups in southern Somalia who were
opposed to Aidid, and by renewing relations with the Islamic regime in Sudan—which is
accused of supporting the Eritrean Islamic Salvation, a Sudan-based group that had launched
attacks in the Eritrea–Sudan border region—while also lending support to various Eritrean rebel
groups including a group known as the Eritrean Islamic Jihad.

Casualties, displacement and economic disruption

Eritrea claimed that 19,000 Eritrean soldiers were killed during the conflict; most reports put
the total war casualties from both sides as being around 70,000.All these figures have been
contested and other news reports simply state that "tens of thousands" or "as many as
100,000" were killed in the war.Eritrea accused Ethiopia of using "human waves" to defeat
Eritrean trenches. But according to a report by The Independent, there were no "human waves"
because Ethiopia instead outmanoeuvred and overpowered the Eritrean trenches.

The fighting led to massive internal displacement in both countries as civilians fled the war
zone. Ethiopia expelled 77,000 Eritreans and Ethiopians of Eritrean origin it deemed a security
risk, thus compounding Eritrea's refugee problem.The majority of the 77,000 Eritrean and
Ethiopians of Eritrean origin were considered well off by the Ethiopian standard of living. They
were deported after their belongings had been confiscated. On the Eritrean side, around 7,500
Ethiopians living in Eritrea were interned, and thousands of others were deported. Thousands
more remain in Eritrea, many of whom are unable to pay the 1,000 Birr tax on Ethiopians
relocating to Ethiopia. According to Human Rights Watch, detainees on both sides were subject
in some cases to torture, rape, or other degrading treatment.

The economies of both countries were already weak as a result of decades of cold war politics,
civil war and drought. The war exacerbated these problems, resulting in food shortages. Prior to
the war, much of Eritrea's trade was with Ethiopia, and much of Ethiopia's foreign trade relied
on Eritrean roads and ports.
Aftermath

Cessation of hostilities

On 18 June 2000, the parties agreed to a comprehensive peace agreement and binding
arbitration of their disputes under the Algiers Agreement. A 25-kilometer-wide Temporary
Security Zone (TSZ) was established within Eritrea, patrolled by United Nations peacekeeping
forces from over 60 countries (the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE). On
12 December 2000 a peace agreement was signed by the two governments.

Continued tensions

On 13 April 2002, the Eritrea–Ethiopia Boundary Commission that was established under the
Algiers Agreement in collaboration with Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague agreed
upon a "final and binding" verdict. The ruling awarded some territory to each side, but Badme
(the flash point of the conflict) was awarded to Eritrea.Both countries vowed to accept the
decision wholeheartedly the day after the ruling was made official. A few months later Ethiopia
requested clarifications, then stated it was deeply dissatisfied with the ruling. In September
2003 Eritrea refused to agree to a new commission, which they would have had to agree to if
the old binding agreement was to be set aside, and asked the international community to put
pressure on Ethiopia to accept the ruling. In November 2004, Ethiopia accepted the ruling "in
principle".

On 10 December 2005, Ethiopia announced it was withdrawing some of its forces from the
Eritrean border "in the interests of peace". Then, on 15 December the United Nations began to
withdraw peacekeepers from Eritrea in response to a UN resolution passed the previous day.

On 21 December 2005, a commission at the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague ruled
that Eritrea broke international law when it attacked Ethiopia in 1998, triggering the broader
conflict.
United Nations soldiers, part of the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea, monitoring
Eritrea–Ethiopia boundary (2005).

Ethiopia and Eritrea subsequently remobilized troops along the border, leading to fears that the
two countries could return to war. On 7 December 2005, Eritrea banned UN helicopter flights
and ordered Western members (particularly from the United States, Canada, Europe and
Russia) of the UN peacekeeping mission on its border with Ethiopia to leave within 10 days,
sparking concerns of further conflict with its neighbour. In November 2006 Ethiopia and Eritrea
boycotted an Eritrea–Ethiopia Boundary Commission meeting at The Hague which would have
demarcated their disputed border using UN maps. Ethiopia was not there because it does not
accept the decision and as it will not allow physical demarcation it will not accept map
demarcation, and Eritrea was not there because although it backs the commission's proposals,
it insists that the border should be physically marked out.

Both nations have been accused of supporting dissidents and armed opposition groups against
each other. John Young, a Canadian analyst and researcher for IRIN, the United Nations Office
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs news agency, reported that "the military victory of
the EPRDF (Ethiopia) that ended the Ethiopia–Eritrea War, and its occupation of a swath of
Eritrean territory, brought yet another change to the configuration of armed groups in the
borderlands between Ethiopia and Eritrea. Asmara replaced Khartoum as the leading supporter
of anti-EPRDF armed groups operating along the frontier". However, Ethiopia is also accused of
supporting rebels opposed to the Eritrean government.

At the November 2007 deadline, some analysts feared the restart of the border war but the
date passed without any conflict. There were many reasons why war didn't resume. Former
U.S. Ambassador David Shinn said both Ethiopia and Eritrea were in a bad position. Many fear
the weak Eritrean economy is not improving like those of other African nations while others say
Ethiopia is bogged down in Mogadishu. David Shinn said Ethiopia has "a very powerful and so
far disciplined national army that made pretty short work of the Eritreans in 2000 and the
Eritreans have not forgotten that."But he stated Ethiopia is not interested in war because
America would condemn Ethiopia if it initiated the war saying "I don't think even the US could
sit by and condone an Ethiopian initiated attack on Eritrea."

Arbitration through the Permanent Court of Arbitration

As decided in the Algiers Agreement, the two parties presented their cases at the Permanent
Court of Arbitration to two different Commissions:

1. Eritrea–Ethiopia Boundary Commission

In July 2001 the Commission sat to decide its jurisdiction, procedures and possible remedies.
The result of this sitting was issued on August 2001. In October 2001, following consultations
with the Parties, the Commission adopted its Rules of Procedure. In December 2001 the Parties
filed their claims with the Commission. The claims filed by the Parties relate to such matters as
the conduct of military operations in the front zones, the treatment of POWs and of civilians
and their property, diplomatic immunities and the economic impact of certain government
actions during the conflict. At the end of 2005 final awards have been issued on claims on
Pensions, and Ports. Partial awards have been issued for claims about: Prisoners of War, the
Central Front, Civilians Claims, the Western and Eastern Fronts, Diplomatic, Economic and
property losses, and Jus Ad Bellum.

Christine Gray in an article in the European Journal of International Law (2006), questioned the
jurisdiction of the Commission making such an award, because "there were many factors which
suggested that the Commission should have abstained from giving judgment". For example the
hearing of this claim, according to the Algiers agreement was to be heard by a separate
commission and to be an investigation of exclusively factual concern not compensation.

Continuing border conflicts

On 19 June 2008 the BBC published a time line (which they update periodically) of the conflict
and reported that the "Border dispute rumbles on":

■2007 September – War could resume between Ethiopia and Eritrea over their border conflict,
warns United Nations special envoy to the Horn of Africa, Kjell Magne Bondevik.

■2007 November – Eritrea accepts border line demarcated by international boundary

commission. Ethiopia rejects it.
■2008 January – UN extends mandate of peacekeepers on Ethiopia–Eritrea border for six
months. UN Security Council demands Eritrea lift fuel restrictions imposed on UN peacekeepers
at the Eritrea–Ethiopia border area. Eritrea declines, saying troops must leave border.

■2008 February – UN begins pulling 1,700-strong peacekeeper force out due to lack of fuel
supplies following Eritrean government restrictions.

■2008 April – UN Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon warns of likelihood of new war between
Ethiopia and Eritrea if peacekeeping mission withdraws completely. Outlines options for the
future of the UN mission in the two countries.

■Djibouti accuses Eritrean troops of digging trenches at disputed Ras Doumeira border area
and infiltrating Djiboutian territory. Eritrea denies charge.

■2008 May – Eritrea calls on UN to terminate peacekeeping mission.

■2008 June – Fighting breaks out between Eritrean and Djiboutian troops.

—BBC

In August 2009 Eritrea and Ethiopia were ordered to pay each other compensation for the war.
During 1990 there were reports of rebel groups operating on both side of the border, and in
December the United nations imposed sanctions on Eritrea for its support for insurgents in
Somalia.

In March 2011 Ethiopia accused Eritrea of sending bombers across the border. In April Ethiopia
acknowledged that it was supporting rebel groups inside Eritrea. In July a United Nations
Monitoring Group accused Eritrea of being behind a plot to attack an African Union summit in
Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, in January 2011. Eritrea stated the accusation was a total
fabrication.

In January 2012, five European tourists were killed and another two were kidnapped close to
the border with Eritrea in the remote Afar Region in Ethiopia. In early March the kidnappers
announced that they had released the two kidnapped Germans. On 15 March Ethiopia ground
forces attacked Eritrean military posts that they stated were bases in which Ethiopian rebels,
including those involved in the January kidnappings, were trained by the Eritreans.