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EVALUATION NOTES
This lab report should be submitted online to the DC Connect Assignments folder.
Please highlight your answers or make them a font colour like red so that they
stand out.
PART 1 – DNA EXTRACTION
Introduction
To most biology students,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) feels a bit
abstract. It is common for many to know
that DNA has a ‘double helix’ and is the
‘genetic code’ for life, but beyond that it is a
bit hard to conceptualize.
The purpose of this part of the laboratory is
to demonstrate the process of isolating
DNA from various plant and animal tissues.
The process starts with a whole tissue and
ends with a relatively pure preparation of
DNA, containing literally billions of genes.
By observing DNA in this way, it will
become less of a ‘strange and mysterious
substance’ and more of a tangible, practical
molecule that holds the key to an
organism's development and structure.
Note: The procedure is described here so that you can replicate the experiment at
home if you choose to. However, you do not need to do so in order to complete the lab
report questions. A demo of the experiment is provided so you have everything you
need to answer the questions.
Materials Used:
Cell samples – 2-3 strawberries (fresh or frozen); ½ of a banana can be used as
an alternative
Equipment – small sieve or coffee filter or cheesecloth, 250 mL measuring cup,
butter knife or single chopstick, 2 glass cups, kitchen measuring spoons
(teaspoons, tablespoons), timer/clock, toothpicks
Buffer ingredients – sodium chloride (salt; NaCl), sodium bicarbonate (baking
soda; NaHCO3), detergent (dish soap)
Separation reagent – ice cold 70% isopropanol (rubbing alcohol)
Procedure
1. First, a sample of cells must be obtained. Cells can come from many places in
our everyday lives but for this lab we will focus on the extraction of DNA from
strawberry cells. There are 2 reasons for this: Strawberry cells are polyploid –
this means that they have lots of copies of their DNA in the nucleus. This makes it
easier to extract large quantities of DNA. The other reason is more practical –
strawberries are soft and easy to mash up.
a. To prep the strawberry cells: Add 2-3 strawberries to a glass cup. Using
the blunt end of a butter knife or chopstick, mash the strawberry until it is a
very creamy consistency (like a strawberry milk shake!). Some versions of
this experiment use a Ziplock bag to mash the strawberries in, but this one
is a more environmentally-friendly version.
Fun Fact: In addition to strawberry cells, you could also collect a sample of cells
from the inside of your own cheek. To do this, you would need to prepare a 0.1%
NaCl solution (dissolve about 1 teaspoon of table salt in 1 liter of warm water) and
swirl one mouthful of (about 10 milliliters) for 2 minutes. Then, spit the salt solution
into one of the glass cups. DNA extraction from cheek cells is a bit more difficult as
there are fewer starting cells in comparison to the strawberry, but you should still
be able to extract a small quantity of your own DNA.
4. Set up a simple filtration apparatus using a small sieve (or coffee filter twisted
into a cone shape or a square of cheesecloth) placed on top of a clean glass cup.
Filter the cell/buffer solution through the filter. Collect as much filtrate (liquid in the
cup) as possible. Dispose of any leftovers (solids in the sieve) in the compost
bin.
5. Next, it’s time to separate the DNA from the filtrate. Measure out about 20 mL (1.5
tablespoons) of ice-cold 70% isopropanol (rubbing alcohol) using your kitchen
measuring spoons. Gently, add the isopropanol to your filtrate. The isopropanol
causes 2 layers (phases) to form in the glass. The bottom layer is aqueous and
contains the cellular components that are able to dissolve in water. The top layer
is non-aqueous and contains the cellular components that are not able to dissolve
in water.
IMPORTANT: It is very important that you do not disturb the 2 layers. This
means NO stirring or shaking!
6. Wait 10-15 minutes. BE PATIENT. DNA will slowly begin to form where the
aqueous and non-aqueous layers meet, and will likely float to the top of the
isopropanol (non-aqueous) layer.
(1.5 marks) Based on the descriptions provided in steps 5 and 6, label the
aqueous layer, non-aqueous layer, and DNA on the following schematic
of the extraction:
A. _____Non- Aqueous____________
B. _____DNA____________________
C. _____Aqueous________________
Jade Gibbs, February 4, 2021, DNA-Strawberry Figure 3.3 Strawberry DNA spooled with a
wooden skewer.
8. (2 marks) Would this experiment produce DNA if bananas were used instead of
strawberries? Explain why or why not.
If I had used bananas in this experiment instead of strawberries it would have had
the same effect and would have produced DNA. This is because both strawberries
and bananas are living things and their cells are Polyploid.
9. (3 marks) A buffer solution (Step 2 and 3 above) was used to extract DNA from a
strawberry. Using the table below, identify the role that each of the components
plays during the DNA extraction process, i.e. why was each component needed?
Remember to answer in your own words!
Buffer
Role in DNA Extraction Process
Component
The salt was used to adjust the salinity of the solution
Salt (NaCl)
Baking Soda The baking soda adjusts the Ph/ acidity of the solution.
(NaHCO3)
The detergent destroys the nuclear membrane and the
Dish soap plasma membrane, with these gone the contents of the DNA
and cell can escape into the solution.
10. (1 mark) If you were to extract DNA from your own cheek cells, how might the end
result differ from that of the strawberry DNA?
The result would differ as I am a human living thing and strawberry is a plant living
thing, our cells would be different. We have fewer cells starting.
11. The extraction of nucleic acids plays a vital role in health-care and scientific
research settings.
To start, the diagnosis of many diseases can be done by coupling DNA extraction
with DNA sequencing to look for mutations in the genetic code. For example, a
genetic mutation in the BRCA1 gene can be identified using DNA extraction and
DNA sequencing so that women with breast cancer can be best treated. Prenatal
testing is another common use of DNA extraction. As fetal DNA is present in small
amounts within the mother’s blood, fetal DNA can be extracted from a maternal
blood sample and tests can be run to determine the chromosomal sex of the fetus,
the likelihood of Down Syndrome, etc.
An example that might hit closer to home these days is that RNA extraction is
used during many COVID-19 tests. A swab containing nasal cells is collected and
the nucleic acids are extracted to see if RNA from SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that
causes COVID-19) is present in the cells. If the viral RNA is present, it is
considered a “positive” COVID-19 test. If the viral RNA is not present, it is
considered a “negative” COVID-19 test.
❑ Salt
❑ Sugar
❑ Dish soap
❑ Bleach
❑ Vinegar
❑ Flour
❑ Alcohol
❑ Filter
❑ Water
❑ Baking soda
❑ Baking powder
b. (1 mark) Multiple Choice – Which of the following would NOT occur when
extracting RNA during a COVID-19 test? Highlight your answer.
Introduction
Now that you have extracted the DNA, you might be surprised to learn that it is rather
goopy! In fact, you might be quite struck by how something so goopy can be the
genetic code for all existing life! Furthermore, where is the so-called “double helix” that
is so commonly used to describe DNA?
To understand where the genetic code is within the “goop”, view Figure 3.4 below.
Believe it or not, within the DNA extracted from the strawberry and cheek cells, there
are large structures called chromosomes (recall that there are 46 chromosomes per
human somatic cell). While we can’t see them with the naked eye, these chromosomes
could be viewed using a light microscope. What is important to know is that each
chromosome is actually made of 1 long strand of DNA that is tightly coiled together. If
you unravel this strand, you will see that the strand has a double helix shape, and that it
is within this double helix that nucleotides exist forming the genetic code. If you had
access to an electron microscope (a highly specialized microscope that is able to
visualize molecules at the nanometer level), you would be able to see this double helix.
To visualize this better, this section of the lab will be used to construct a model of DNA
using basic household ingredients.
CACCTC
Legend:
NOTE 1: While marshmallows are the easiest (and most fun!) to work with, don’t
make a special trip out to get these items – SAFETY FIRST. Instead, it is OK to
substitute them for other things that you already have in your house (paper clips,
poof balls, colourful post-its, candies, etc.). The key thing is that the deoxyribose
sugar, phosphate and bases should look different from one another, and the bases
should have four different colour options. For example, you could use a paper clip
for the sugar, a poof ball for the phosphate and 4 different colours of M&Ms for the
bases. If you’re looking for an alternative for the bonds, consider using bobby pins,
twist ties, pieces of string, etc. - anything that helps show a bond or connection point
between the various objects.
NOTE 2: If you are using alternative parts to build your model, make sure to enter
them into the legend/chart above so that your instructor can accurately mark your
report.
Legend:
A pairs with T Connected via 2 hydrogen bonds 2 toothpicks
C pairs with G Connected via 3 hydrogen bonds 3 toothpicks
Other notes:
a. A purine always pairs with a
pyrimidine during complementary
base pairing
b. The first strand is “right side up” and
the second strand is “upside-down.”
As the 2 strands run in opposite
directions, we say that the DNA
strands are anti-parallel.
c. At this stage, the DNA strand
resembles a ladder where the
nitrogenous bases form the “rungs” of
the ladder and the sugar-phosphate
backbone forms the “poles” of the
ladder.
d. IMPORTANT: The image to the right
is not meant to be a picture of what
your exact model should look like.
Remember that your image should
have 12 nucleotides (not 6 as shown)
and show the sequence CACCTC (not
TGC as shown).
6. Take a picture of your DNA strand and paste it into this document in the box below.
Use the following checklist and sample image (Figure 3.5) to make sure that all
graded elements are present.
7. (5 marks) Examine the image below and identify the indicated parts of the DNA
strand in the spaces below:
8. Twist the 2 strands to form a double helix, similar to the DNA model found at your
bench. To do this, pick up the various edges of the DNA double stranded molecule
and attempt to twist it into a double helix shape. It may help to have an extra set of
hands. Do your best – it won’t be perfect.
9. Next, refer back to Figure 3.4. Remember that the double helix is actually coiled
tightly together to form a chromosome. While the largest human chromosome
contains ~250 million base pairs, for our purposes, form a chromosome using a 6-
nucleotide-long DNA strand.
a. To build a chromosome, mash your model all together into 1 big ball. Be
careful of the toothpicks! It is OK if a single tear falls down your cheek when
you do this.
b. Consider now that the “goop” obtained from your DNA extraction is similar in
a way to the big ball of marshmallows. Even though it looks disorganized and
chaotic, it actually has a high level of organization hidden within.
10. (5 marks) If you had been asked to build a model of RNA instead of DNA, how would
your model look similar or different? To answer this question, list 2 similarities and 3
FULL differences in the boxes below:
DNA RNA
DNA is double stranded (has Single stranded (no H-
Difference 1
H-bonding) Bonding)
Difference 2 Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose Sugar
Introduction
Now that you have learned about DNA structure
and extraction, the final step in this lab is to view
various karyotypes under the microscope.
Karyotypes are defined as a complete set of
chromosomes within an organism. In a typical
human karyotype, 23 pairs of chromosomes are
extracted from a single nucleus, stained with a
dye, and arranged in order from largest to
smallest.
For example, pregnant women who have chosen to undergo amniocentesis can
karyotype a fetal cell to find out the fetus’s biological sex or determine if missing
(monosomy) or extra (trisomy) copies of the chromosomes exist. A common
chromosomal anomaly is Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) in which a person has an extra
copy of the 21st chromosome. Karyotypes can also be used to make comparisons
between different species. For example, humans have 1 pair fewer chromosomes than
members of the great ape family (E.g. chimpanzees, bonobos, etc). Karyotypic
analysis suggests that this is due to an evolutionary event in which 2 ancestral
chromosomes fused together.
In this section, you will examine prepared human karyotypes and use this information
to draw genetic conclusions.
Procedure
Karyotype A Karyotype B
Karyotype C Karyotype D
Karyotype E Karyotype F
Karyotype A: __MALE______________________
Karyotype C: _______FEMALE_______________
Karyotype(s): _A,C,D,F___________
c. (1 mark) Which karyotype(s) (A-F) were taken from a haploid SEX cell? List
ALL that apply.
Karyotype(s): ___B,E___________