2004 - Precast SFRC Elements From Material Proprieties To Structural Applications

6th RILEM Symposium on Fibre-Reinforced Concretes (FRC) - BEFIB 2004
20-22 September 2004, Varenna, Italy
PRECAST SFRC ELEMENTS: FROM MATERIAL

PROPERTIES TO STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS
Marco di Prisco1 and Giovanni A. Plizzari2
1
Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
2
Department of Engineering Design and Technologies, University of Bergamo, Italy
Abstract
The prefabrication industry is particularly interested in the applications of Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) since fibre reinforcement industrializes the production
process and reduces labour and costs.
Although there are many potential applications that can take advantage of the use of
fibre reinforcement, the full potentials of Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) are still
faraway to be used in practice. This is mainly due to a lack of specific rules for FRC in
building codes. In fact, the existing rules for reinforced concrete can hardly be adopted
for FRC that is markedly non linear since fibre start working after cracking of the
concrete matrix.
Guidelines were recently produced by RILEM (TC162-TDF) and by some Countries but
clear and simple design rules are strongly required by designers who hardly accept to
assume responsibilities by adopting voluntary guidelines or, even worse, research results
available in scientific papers.
The aim of the present paper is to evidence the main material properties required for a
correct design of precast SFRC elements, underlining the concepts that characterize the
use of SFRC in structural design. Furthermore, some applications in the Italian precast
industry are presented.
1. Introduction
Fibre reinforcement is now a reality for structural applications since it can reduce
cracking phenomena and improve durability of R/C structures and, in some cases, can
totally replace conventional reinforcement (rebars or welded mesh) [1-5].
Among the concrete community, the prefabrication industry is particularly interested
in the structural applications of SFRC. Fibre reinforcement facilitates the
industrialization of the process and improves the overall characteristics and durability of
the products [6]. Furthermore, when fibres substitute the conventional reinforcement, the
element thickness can be reduced since the minimum concrete cover is no longer
required. Finally, fibres better guarantees the position of reinforcement (especially in
thin-elements) that strongly influences the bearing capacity of the structure [7].
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Besides the non-structural elements, fibre reinforcement is particularly appealing for

large structural elements. This is possible in the prefabrication industry where quality
control is better guaranteed as it is required by national regulations. A better control
allows the designer to rely on mechanical properties by assuming a more uniform fibre
distribution in the concrete matrix.
Recently, fibres have been also used for the construction of new subway systems using
prefabricated tunnel elements in which fibres substitute, at least partially, ordinary
reinforcement [8,9].
The precast elements that could better enhance their performances from the use of SFRC
are the following:
(a) small non-structural elements (including culverts and finishing panels to improve
the aesthetics of the precast structure) where the fibre reinforcement is mainly required
to provide ductility and to limit cracking phenomena;
(b) concrete pipes that are under pressure but do not have particular problems for
safety of people [10];
(c) prestressed railway substructures that have to withstand fatigue loading [11];
(d) special structural elements (sometimes with high volume-fractions of fibres) that
are used as concrete forms during casting and provide a better durability to the structure.
There is also a need to provide continuity to the single precast elements (to obtain
statically-undetermined structures, particularly important in the seismic areas), the can
hardly be guaranteed by conventional reinforcement because of the high reinforcement
percentages that may cause problems during casting operations. An example is given by
hollow-core slabs without structural topping that should act as diaphragms to transfer the
seismic action to the shear walls [12]. Another example is represented by the beam-
column joints for seismic loads where fibre reinforcement provide concrete confinement
and may increase energy dissipation. These applications involve limited volumes of
concrete but may require high fibre contents [13,14].
Advanced studies have also been performed to produce box-structures (for garages,
telephone cabins, trash containers, etc) [15].
An interesting example of a “quasi-structural” element is represented by the external
walls that initially had static functions but, now, they are often asked to carry the self-
weight and the wind actions. These elements can be easily produced as precast panels
where fibres can replace the welded-mesh reinforcement thus allowing a reduction of the
thickness of the external slabs (the inner layer of the panel is for the insulation), since the
minimum concrete cover is no-longer required, and of the related costs (due to the
materials and the transportation) [16]. In some Countries, these panels are used as
structural elements in multi-storey buildings. The increased attention to the seismic risk
wishes to use these elements as shear walls that limit the displacements at the Damage
Limit State and dissipate energy at the Ultimate Limit State.
Fibres have been recently used as minimum shear reinforcement in ribbed elements,
prestressed beams, hollow-core elements, roof elements, etc. [17-21]. In these elements,
fibre reinforcement aims to substitute the minimum transverse reinforcement (or
stirrups).
The presence of fibres also improves the tensile behaviour of concrete in the
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diffusion zones [8,15].

It is well known that a precast building usually requires about 30% of cast-in-place
concrete for the foundations and the pavements; also these structural elements can be
reinforced with fibres. Concrete pavements are often slabs on grade and should be
properly designed for both the ultimate and serviceability limit state. In fact, an intensive
cracking could compromise the aesthetics and the durability, while an excessive
deformation could cause problems to the shelves and to the vehicles circulation. Several
experimental results show that ordinary loads on slabs on grade can be carried by Fibre
Reinforced Concrete (FRC) pavements without conventional reinforcement [22-27]. A
single layer of reinforcement may be required close to the bottom surface of the slab
when higher loads are present; however, the bottom reinforcement is usually not a
problem as it is the top reinforcement that can hardly stay in the correct place during
casting operations. Similarly, the foundation slabs, that are highly statically-
undetermined structures, can be made by using steel fibre reinforcement only; an
interesting example is represented by the Postdamer Platz in Berlin [28].
Beside the possible applications mentioned above, there are many others that may
take advantage of the use of fibre reinforcement, not to say the increasing need of
structures that have to resist to impulsive loads due to impacts or blasting [29].
Although there are already several applications, the full potentials of FRC are still
faraway to be used in practice. This is mainly due to a lack of specific rules for FRC in
building codes. In fact, the existing rules for reinforced concrete can hardly be adopted
for FRC that is markedly non linear since fibres start working after cracking of the
concrete matrix. While conventional reinforced concrete keeps a reasonable linear
behaviour until the rebars yield, FRC has a noticeable non linear response and,
depending on the fibre reinforcement (content and type), has a not-negligible post-
cracking softening behaviour (Fig. 1).
(a) (b)
Fig. 1: Typical response of a bending test on a SFRC beam (a) and on a RC beam (b)
[29].
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Provisions for the material classification have been produced by National Boards of
Standardisation worldwide. In order to facilitate the use of FRC in the globalised market,
some work should still be done to harmonise these different test methods.
However, the key point for a spreader diffusion of these new materials is the availability
of design rules in building codes. Only guidelines were recently produced by RILEM
(TC162-TDF) [30,31] and by some Countries [32-34]. Clear and simple design rules are
strongly required by designers who hardly accept to assume responsibilities by adopting
voluntary guidelines or, even worse, research results available in scientific papers. This
is probably the priority challenge and here should be focused the attention by the
community of researchers and designers in the next years.
2. Research significance
Fibre reinforcement is now a reality for structural applications since they can enhance
the behaviour of R/C structures and can partially or totally replace conventional
reinforcement (in particular, rebars or welded mesh as diffused reinforcement). For this
to occur, appropriate design rules based on well defined material properties are needed.
The interest in FRC is growing within the precast industry since fibre reinforcement
increases durability, simplifies detailing and reduces labour and costs. Furthermore,
when fibres are substituted for conventional reinforcement, the element thickness can be
reduced since the minimum concrete cover is no longer required.
Aim of the present paper is to present the main applications of SFRC in the precast
industry. In this framework the main material properties and the basic assumptions
required for a correct design are discussed. Finally, some recent applications of SFRC in
the Italian precast industry are presented.
3. Mechanical properties:
basic assumptions and identification for structural design
Steel fibre reinforcement is basically a diffused reinforcement that enables a significant
improvement of concrete toughness. Discrete traditional reinforcement is mainly located
in the stretched zones of a structure to achieve a tensile strength significantly larger than
that offered by concrete at the cracking onset and the main computational assumptions
are based on a perfect steel-to-concrete bond. On the contrary, steel fibres are
homogeneously distributed in the concrete mass, the residual tensile strength is generally
smaller than that of the plain concrete matrix and its ultimate behaviour has to favour
fibre pull-out.
These rough considerations can immediately suggest the designer to combine fibres with
main traditional reinforcement. Only welded mesh can be reasonably substituted by steel
fibres and this change can assure a faster and more industrialized production, a detailing
simplification, a quality improvement in thin-web structures where a wrong
reinforcement placement can significantly affect structural resistance.
About mechanical property identification, R/C and P/C structures take advantage of
ductility purposes that favours steel yielding in relation to concrete failure. This general
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principle allows the designer to neglect concrete softening in compression and to reduce
scattering in mechanical strength parameters. Tensile strength is not usually taken into
account, with the exception of Serviceability Limit States and some Ultimate Limit
States like shear. In Beam Regions, design constitutive models are regarded as stable in
Drucker sense and this assumption allows the designer to compute ultimate bending
capacity in terms of ultimate strains; only shear capacity is computed by means of a
static approach that takes into account concrete tensile softening through an empirical
coefficient Q that reduces concrete strength in compression. In Diffused regions, a
suitable check of nodal details (anchorages and local pressures) induces a collapse
caused again by steel yielding and, once again, compressive strength softening role can
be drastically reduced. The only attention must be devoted to bottle-neck strut that
requires a minimum reinforcement in order to favour compressive stress diffusion.
On the contrary, SFRC in prefabrication is generally characterized by a volume fraction
(Vf) of fibres lower than 2% for economical and workability reasons, thus the main fibre
contribution is a residual tensile strength that is always smaller than cracking strength.
Therefore, the designer has to take into account tensile softening in order to appreciate
fibre contribution. The only exception is represented by some special applications, where
very high fibre contents (Vf > 2%) in concrete matrixes characterised by high cement
contents, provide a hardening behaviour in tension. Anyway, these special composites
are not already common in prefabrication and perhaps could become more attractive in
the future.
Post-cracking residual stresses play a key role in the significant improvement of
toughness, fatigue, durability and fire resistance [35,36]; they also increase bearing
capacity of the structural elements as more as their degree of static indetermination
increases. A clear exemplification is given by the comparison of the mechanical
response (in terms of load–displacement curve) of a tie (statically determined) with that
of a slab on grade (highly statically undetermined), made of the same material.
For this reason, while the need to guarantee a ductile behaviour prevents the use of
SFRC ties without any conventional reinforcement, SFRC slabs on grade are quickly
substituting traditionally reinforced slabs due to the more homogeneous distribution of
fibre reinforcement, to a better contrast of shrinkage cracking, as well as to an enhanced
resistant to fatigue and impact loading.
All these performances can be taken into account in the design only if a suitable
softening mechanical behaviour in tension is identified. Following Hillerborg’s approach
[37], it can be easily described by a constitutive law in uniaxial tension expressed in
terms of stress versus crack opening [31].
Several tests have been introduced in the literature to achieve this goal, and we believe
that the best way to proceed is to perform a bending test (three [38] or four point [39]) on
notched specimens whose geometry is characterised by a typical square section of 150x
150 mm, a span longer than 450 mm and a notch ratio in the range of 0.1y0.3. When the
structures has a thickness smaller than 100 mm, a 4 point bending test on unnotched
elements is preferred. In fact, for thin structures, it is very important to reproduce as
much as possible the real casting procedure because the mechanical behaviour is hardly
85
predictable by taking into account only the effect of formwork on the orientation factor
[40].
These observations highlight as SFRC can exhibit an “effective” strength significantly
different from the “potential” one evaluated from standardised tests. For these reasons,
steel fibre reinforcement is suitable for prefabrication since the repeatability of
production procedures favour a reliable check and production control.
Once the experimental load-displacement curve is detected, by using a suitable models
or by performing back-analyses, the identification of a stress-crack opening curve in
uniaxial tension may be carried out. Unfortunately, due to the physical nature of FRC, a
large scatter (about 20-25%) usually characterises the softening curve of the material and
this experimental evidence significantly affects the design constitutive law if, starting
from the characteristic values, common rules for traditional materials are followed.
Although these rules are not debatable when no redistribution occurs (as in structural
ties), the growth of the static indetermination degree makes a significant stress
redistribution available; therefore the real structure can take advantage of the addition of
contributions that increases the global resistance in relation to the characteristic values.
In fact, a measure of the scatter of results from round plates simply supported on three
points highlighted a significant reduction of the scatter, halving the standard deviation
obtained from beam tests [41].
To this aim, a reliable design computation should take into account:
- the resources given by static indetermination computable by means of a limit analysis,
assuming a homogeneous material;
- a specific strength computed with respect to a modified characteristic value which
tends to the average value at increasing degree of static indetermination;
- a suitable reference value taking into account a reliable kinematic threshold for each
limit state.
As far as the last point is concerned, the best approach is based on a ductility
requirement for ULSs and a durability or fatigue requirement for SLSs.
The introduction of a simple kinematic model like plane-section [9] assures a reliable
computation especially for significant crack opening values, and allows the designer to
easily estimate the reference kinematic thresholds. In a simple beam with traditional
longitudinal reinforcement, the usual limit on the compressive strain (depending on
concrete strength as suggested by Codes), based on the reaching of a compression failure
with yielded steel at the stretched side, can be conserved. On the contrary, when the only
reinforcement in the beam is represented by steel fibres, a limit of 2% in the relative
rotation of the critical segment (substituting the plastic hinge), can be regarded as a
reasonable limit if any particular requirement is prescribed.
The adoption of a plane-section beam model must be correlated to the introduction of a
suitable structural characteristic length (ls), that represents the size on which the crack
opening displacement can be smeared in order to adequately reproduce the stress state
outside the critical segment. When a single crack appears, the beam depth “h” usually
represents an acceptable value for ls, while when several cracks form due to a hardening
response or a presence of a continuous reinforcement, the average crack distance can be
assumed as structural characteristic length (ls).
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By following these assumptions, a maximum tensile strain related to a maximum crack

opening displacement can be defined. A relative rotation of 2%, generally assumed as a
reasonable requirement for ductility, corresponds to an ultimate crack opening wu that
becomes:
wu Mu h (1)
This simple equation shows as, for thin plates, the same ductility requirement gives
small values of ultimate crack opening while, by contrast, for deep beams the ductility
can be limited by a pull-out mechanism of a single fibre with a maximum value of crack
opening of about 2-3 mm (depending on its length). This simple consideration also
shows as, for deep beams, only a continuous longitudinal reinforcement can guarantee an
adequate ductility. The same considerations cannot be applied to deep slabs because, in
that case, a better ductility measure is represented by a suitable ratio between vertical
displacement and slab thickness.
The experience on precast roof elements highlighted as the concentration of prestressing
steel in the cross section can cause small crack distances in the bottom chords that are
highly reinforced, and large crack distance in the horizontal slab that are simply fibre
reinforced. In these situations, for the same ductility requirements, two or more
structural characteristic lengths can be introduced, depending on the crack distance, and
this implies different ultimate crack opening references in the same cross section and,
consequently, different ultimate tensile strengths.
A final crucial point is represented by the material safety coefficient (JFRC). It must take
into account the reduced brittleness of the material when the cracking strength of the
matrix is disregarded in the softening constitutive law proposed for design in favour of a
good reproduction of the pull-out mechanism. Because of the influence of the strength
scatter on the safety coefficient, it should be also affected by the static indetermination
degree of the structure; however, the need of simple rules generally suggests to introduce
a unique value (close to 1.35) [30,34].
Recent investigations on size-effect [42], seem indicate a reduced dependence of residual
strengths on the structure size, even if the suggested approach, based on the introduction
of a structural characteristic length that is related to the structure depth, takes already the
size effect into account.
To conclude, it is worth noting that, although a wide experimental investigation on the
mechanical and physical properties of SFRC was carried out and is also in progress,
some details concerning moisture, shrinkage, creep, fatigue, freezing and thawing and
other minor effects require further research to provide a reliable framework in which the
whole set of performance improvements could be adequately quantified by designers.
4. Some examples of structural applications

Some examples of applications SFRC in the Italian precast industry are described in the
following.
87
4.1 Small precast elements

There are many small precast elements where fibres can easily substitute conventional
reinforcement. This was demonstrated by testing small slabs (Figs. 2a,b) or box thin-
webbed elements (Fig. 2c).
There are also many elements which are not subjected to significant loads, where a
minimum reinforcement is required to provide ductility (Fig. 2d); here fibres are
particularly suitable since they can be produced by an extrusion process, when required.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 2: Some examples of small precast elements.
4.2 External panels

A study on precast concrete panels, reinforced either by means of ordinary reinforcement
or steel fibres (SFRC) is in progress; the early experimental results are presented in these
proceedings [16]. The research aims at the optimisation of the panel geometry by
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Concrete
10 5
Polystyrene
20
Concrete
2
Finishing gravel
3
Fig. 3 - Panels placed horizontally [16]. Fig. 4 - Transverse section of the traditional
panel [16]
considering the static demand, the production process industrialization, and the weight
reduction. One of the main objectives concerns the possibility of replacing the traditional
steel mesh fabric, which is normally located at the external faces of the panels, with steel
fibres. As for the undertaken experimental campaign, a preliminary goal concerns the
development of displacement control loading system and reaction frame for reproducing
the effects of wind loading. In reality, panels placed vertically are subjected to transverse
wind load and to a limited axial force, due to their weight, whereas panels placed
horizontally are subjected to combined bending, due to the panel weight and to
transverse wind. Since the most critical working condition occurs when the panel is
placed horizontally, the experimental test set-up reproduces this configuration (Figs. 4
and 5) taking also into account the bending effects due to the panel weight.
Fig. 5: Shear-displacement curves both for the model D zone with minimum shear
reinforcement [16].
89
Tests were performed on full scale panels, having a length of 11.20m and a depth of
2.50m.The preliminary experimental results show that FRC panels have an ultimate load
similar to the panels reinforced with mesh fabric; more recent experiments also show
that the stiffness is similar when the collaboration between the external slabs and the
internal ribs is enhanced. Furthermore fibres are particularly effective in improving the
crack pattern as they lead to smaller crack openings.
4.3 Slabs: double T elements

Steel fibre can be used also in precast slabs as double T prestressed elements. Slabs are
generally not critical for shear action and can be reinforced only with longitudinal
strands as hollow-core slabs. Nevertheless especially double T elements are usually
reinforced in the webs with a steel mesh that provides a better behaviour for
concentrated loads, shear and torsion, especially at the ultimate limit states when
warping torsion represents the main resistant mechanism. An investigation carried out
some years ago [43] highlighted as steel fibres do not change the longitudinal bending
behaviour (Fig.6), if diffused reinforcement ()5/25) is substituted by hooked-end steel
fibres (50kg/m3), while the end-reinforcement introduced to favour both the prestressing
diffusion and the support reaction is conserved (Fig.7).
Beside a distributed load acting on a simply supported element, also the set-up with a
concentrated load acting close to the support was investigated (Fig.8a). Also a plain
concrete element (where nor steel mesh neither steel fibres were introduced) was tested.
The comparison shows the interaction of several mechanisms (strut action, horizontal
slab local bending, dowel action) beside those generally considered, and these resources
are able to guarantee a ductile behaviour in shear, if the kinematic parameter selected is
200
160
120
Load [kN]
(b)
80
40
RC
FRC
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Deflection [mm] (c)
(a)
Fig. 6: Simply supported TT prestressed elements subjected to distributed load (steel
bundles). Load vs. deflection curve of R/C and FRC elements (a); crack pattern at U.L.S.
for R/C (b) and FRC (c) structures.
90
duct
L=1300 mm (8+8) 3/8” strands
(a)
head web-reinforcement head web-reinforcement
current web-reinforcement
stirrups ) 6/150 mm stirrups ) 6/150 mm
stirrups ) 5/250 mm
prestressing prestressing
strands strands
600 mm detail of the web 600 mm
reinforcementl
(b) (c)
Fig.7: Double T elements. Cross-section geometry (a); end-reinforcement for R/C (b)
and FRC (c) element [43].
(c)
(a)
400
V (kN)
300
(d)
200
FRC (type 1 test)
100 PC (type 1 test)
RC (type 1 test)
0
0 100 200
(*10-44)
J [*10 ]
(b) (e)
Fig. 8: Shear tests. Loading set-up (a); load vs shear strain (b); failure modes for plain
concrete (c), R/C (d) and FRC (e) elements [43].
91
sliding angle, but the behaviour was brittle if expressed in terms of vertical displacement
with the only exception of the R/C element that failed in bending (Fig.8b,e).
4.4 Roof elements

A very extensive experimental and theoretical research programme, focused on
prefabricated structural applications of steel fibre reinforced concrete and, in particular,
on prestressed covering elements was financially supported by an Italian producer. Once
again the final aim was to introduce steel fibres instead of diffused reinforcement. The
main difference with double T elements is the 2D mechanical behaviour favoured by
folded plate shape of the cross section. These elements are characterised by a huge
slenderness (depth/span up to 35), a curved thin-webbed cross-section with a reduced
compressed area to provide the rain water drainage, and last the presence of a distributed
load acting on the lateral compressed chords that imposes a significant transversal
bending moment.
The research first considered a symmetric cross-section 12m long element ([44-46];
Fig.9) since the closed ends and the reduced span could advantage its mechanical
behaviour. An extensive investigation carried out in the factory allowed us to distinguish
several failure mechanisms and was instrumental in optimising the final shape (Fig.10;
[46]). Afterwards, further tests were performed at the Technical Laboratory of Brescia
University on the optimised shape. A four-point load set-up was adopted, whose sizes
are indicated in Fig.11a. An electromechanical actuator was located in the middle and
clamped to a steel mechanical device made of 2 bars pinned to a cross-beam UPN300.
Three elements with the same geometry were compared: the first two elements were
steel fibre reinforced with 45-30 low-carbon and 80-30 fibres respectively, while the last
one was commonly reinforced by means of a steel welded-mesh fabric (1I5/25/20).
The SFRC elements exhibited a higher ductility and a higher total live load than the
traditional reinforced-concrete element (Fig.12a). The failure always involved
longitudinal bending collapse with cracks of the wing (Figs.12b,c,d).
Other prestressed elements (Fig.13) characterised by a long span and also by a not
symmetrical cross section were investigated [42]. For these elements the reduced
thickness and the huge slenderness favoured some failure modes involving the instability
of the wings and the loosing of the cross-section shape with a collapse due to the
propagation of a longitudinal crack.
On the basis of this extensive research it is possible to conclude that steel fibre
represents a diffused reinforcement really competitive with welded mesh fabric for thin-
webbed structures. They open a new season on complex-shape 2D and 3D-concrete
surfaces, especially if produced in a prefabricated process. In fact, only an industrialised
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6+6 strands ½”
(a) (b)
Fig. 9: Cross section (a), moulding and movement of a roof element (b) [46].
500
P[kN]
P
400
[kN]
(a)
300
04-11-98
11-11-98
25-11-98
200
05-04-00
23-04-01
13-12-01 (b)
100 20-12-01
15-01-02
28-01-02
0
0 40 80 120 160 200
(d) displacement
displacement [mm] (c)
Fig.10: Global behaviour of NG-PL roof elements: (a) total load versus deflection;
failures due to longitudinal bending (b), horizontal slab (c), and inclined wing (d) [46].
procedure can guarantee the high-quality control needed for a continuous production of
high-performance concrete. A detailed inspection on fibre distribution, performed on
thin plates and on full-size elements, showed always a limited scatter on fibre content
(smaller than 20%; [47]).
SFRC prefabricated roof elements investigated after the optimisation process showed a
load bearing capacity comparable with that offered by traditionally reinforced ones, and
an increased ductility, as experimentally proved by displacement-controlled tests. The
last feature depends on the softening in compression and on the static resources after
longitudinal cracking offered by the inclined wings, and, up to now, it is hardly
predictable by a simple model.
93
UPN 300
HEB 550
HEB 260
HEB 160
(a)
(c)
(b) (d)
Fig.11: Full-size final tests: (a) load system; (b) test set-up, (c) instrumentation
equipment. (d) crack pattern at the onset of prestressed reinforcement yielding [46]
SFRC elements suggest a thinner thickness since they have not minimum requirements
for the cover of traditional reinforcement. This trend forces the designer to carefully
check the failure modalities. Nevertheless, the good agreement between the structural
behaviour in longitudinal and transversal bending and the theoretical predictions, based
on the identification of constitutive laws, by simple bending of small specimens, makes
the material ready for other advanced structural applications. cross section.
The finalised research was also completed by fire resistance [36] and durability tests
[46], and both exhibited increased performances of SFRC in relation to R/C.
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COMPARISON - SECTION C
Load - Total displacement
400
350
300
250
Load [kN]
NG-PL 80/30
200 NG-PL 45/30
First cracks NG-PL RC
150 Elastic limit
100
50
0 (a)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Total displacement [mm]
(b) (c) (d)
Fig.12: Global behaviour of full-size NG-PL roof elements: (a) total live load versus
deflection; (b,c,d) failure of R/C and SFRC elements (45-30 and 80-30) [46].
(a) (b)
Fig.13: FRC roof element tests. Sheds with symmetrical (a) and not symmetrical (b)
95
4.5 Prestressed beams

The possibility of substituting the minimum conventional transverse reinforcement
(stirrups) with steel fibres in precast elements can provide significant improvements of
the structural performance. The shear behaviour of prestressed elements with the
minimum transverse reinforcement has been investigated by means of experiments on
full scale beams [48]. The experiments simulate the beam behaviour close to the
supports, where stirrups are usually designed according to the building codes, and at
midspan, where only a minimum reinforcement is usually required. Tests concern beams
without transversal reinforcement (beam 1), with traditional reinforcement (beam 2) as
well as beams with fibre reinforcement (beams 3,4). Experimental results show that the
shear performance of beams with fibre reinforcement (Vf = 0.64%) is similar, or even
better, than the one of beams with the minimum shear reinforcement required by
Eurocode 2 [49]. Fig. 14b shows the shear displacement curve for the tested beams with
minimum shear reinforcement (Model D). In all tests the crack started (at the end of the
elastic phase) with a shear force of about 450 kN. One should note that the post-peak
load exceeded the first cracking load after a large deformation and significant damage
and that the behaviour of beam 2 (with reinforcement) and beam 3 was similar. Only for
large displacements (beyond the limit of interest for practice) beam 3 shows a load
decrease. Beam 4 has the best performance: at the crack onset, a small load decrease was
observed and the post cracking behaviour was stable until the ultimate load was reached.
In this beam the reinforcement provided by 50 kg/m3 of high carbon steel fibres with an
aspect ratio of 80 allowed a significant improvement of the beam performance with
respect to a beam with the minimum transversal reinforcement (beam 2). When fibres
are used in addition to transversal reinforcement, the shear strength increases (~ 20%).
Steel fibres also remarkably reduce the shear crack width [48].
A1 B1 A2 B2 A3
NOT DIFFUSED DIFFUSED

PRESTRESSING PRESTRESSING
NOT DIFFUSED PRESTRESSING DIFFUSED

350 1750 3900 1750 PRESTRESSING
1250
9000
SECTION A1, A2, A3 SECTION B1, B2
300
700
700
120
355
355
600 600
(a) (b)
Fig. 14: Shear tests. Set-up (a) and load vs displacement curves (b) for the beams with
minimum shear reinforcement [48].
5. Concluding remarks
Prefabrication interest in SFRC is growing. Steel fibres are regarded as a powerful tool
to substitute diffused reinforcement, increasing concrete performances like durability,
fatigue resistance and local strength. Fibre adoption simplifies production and detailing,
reducing labour and costs. The design requires reliable codes in order to guide civil
96
engineers in the concrete mix choice and in the right computation checks. By presenting
the principal SFRC precast applications, the principal conceptual assumptions are
discussed in relation to conventional R/C structures.
The main contribution of fibres is related to the residual stress in uniaxial tension and the
related constitutive law can be identified from a bending test. Special care must be
devoted to thin elements because both the formwork geometry and the casting procedure
can significantly affect the constitutive behaviour. Softening in tension must be taken
into account because it represents the main resource of this material for small fibre
contents commonly imposed by workability and economical reasons. The adoption of
the beam kinematic model with the introduction of a structural characteristic length
allow the designer to calculate bending behaviour with a relatively simple procedure.
The static indetermination degree of the structure drastically affects its global response
as well as its specific ultimate strength parameters. Shear behaviour take advantage of
fibre reinforcement especially in prestressed elements: to guarantee a minimum
transversal reinforcement no stirrups are generally needed in the elements investigated.
The future is open to a real material optimisation design because, by combining different
fibre types, specified performances can be suitably obtained.
Acknowledgements
The research on structural elements were carried out with the financial support of
Magnetti-Larco Building (Carvico, BG), while the investigation on not load-bearing
elements was supported by Bosetti Prefabbricati (Roè Volciano, BS) and Larcher
Prefabbricati (Bolzano). The authors are indebted with Prof. Giandomenico Toniolo and
MS. Eng. Claudio Failla for their precious contribution in the discussion of several
conceptual points.
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100

2004 - Precast SFRC Elements From Material Proprieties To Structural Applications

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6th RILEM Symposium on Fibre-Reinforced Concretes (FRC) - BEFIB 2004

20-22 September 2004, Varenna, Italy

PRECAST SFRC ELEMENTS: FROM MATERIAL

Besides the non-structural elements, fibre reinforcement is particularly appealing for

diffusion zones [8,15].

By following these assumptions, a maximum tensile strain related to a maximum crack

4. Some examples of structural applications

4.1 Small precast elements

4.2 External panels

4.3 Slabs: double T elements

100 PC (type 1 test)

4.4 Roof elements

(b) (c) (d)

4.5 Prestressed beams

NOT DIFFUSED DIFFUSED

NOT DIFFUSED PRESTRESSING DIFFUSED

SECTION A1, A2, A3 SECTION B1, B2

Performance Concrete, 1, (2002), 369-382.

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