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Civil and structural engineering applications, recent trends, research and

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J. T. Mottram, ‘Does performance based design with fibre reinforced polymer components and
structures provide any new benefits and challenges?’ The Structural Engineer, 89 6, (2011), 23-27.
ISSN 0039-2553
http://www.istructe.org/journal/volumes/volume-89-(published-in-2011)/issues/issue-6/articles/does-
performance-based-design-with-frp-components

Does Performance Based Design with Fibre Reinforced Polymer

Components and Structures provide any new Benefits and Challenges?
J. Toby Mottram DSc CEng FIStructE

School of Engineering, Warwick University, Coventry, CV4 7AL

Synopsis

Reviewing the current status towards the exploitation of Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) in
structural engineering the author considers the benefits and challenges for using performance
based design with this newer construction material. This paper reports historical case studies
in the context of explaining how processing technologies and design know-how have slowly
been developing, and perhaps even leading to a level of maturity. By way of the review of
FRP components and structures it is found that we do not yet possess the prescriptive rules
that dominant the current execution of civil engineering works. One outcome from the review
is to identify that such rules will be necessary to allow routine design of frame structures of
universal (standard) FRP shapes. The author introduces the benefits and challenges towards
the adoption of Performance Based Design (PBD) and finds that targeted research and
development has/is using the PBD philosophy to produce bespoke FRP components and
systems towards a growing number of applications in structural engineering.

1
Introduction

In 2009 the theme for the IABSE Henderson colloquium was 'Performance Based Design –
Benefits and Challenges'. Organisers from the United Kingdom National Group allowed the
scope of this theme to be wide, so that colloquium delegates, representing a range of
construction professions, could explore structural performance and the objective of ensuring
that design and construction meets the demands of today and the expectations of the future.
Oral papers presented over the two-day colloquium drew on the experience of project
sponsors, designers, materials specialists and authors of standards and codes. In this paper the
author presents his colloquium contribution that addresses the question given by the paper’s
title.

Slowly, but surely, there have been deliverables from research and development projects
since the late 1980s towards the general execution of components, systems and structures of
Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRPs). The technical and commercial reasons for using this
newer construction material are well-known and are presented in reference 1. Currently, the
majority of applications are directed to the retrofitting and strengthening of existing
infrastructure stock that is deemed to be no longer ‘fit for intended use’. We therefore find
significant knowledge and know how on, for example, the application of bonded plate or
fabric components to reinforced concrete, steel and timber buildings and bridges1. This paper
is not concerned with this technological approach as its purpose is to cover the use of FRPs in
new build applications; often with the FRP components made by the continuous process of
pultrusion1.

There are a number of issues related to this construction material lack of historical precedent
in structural engineering that need to be introduced since they are a link between current
(often non-codified) design practice and Performance Based Design (PBD). It needs to be
emphasised that with the pultrusion process there are a number of other suitable FRP
processing methods (e.g. contact moulding (often non-structural), filament winding, Resin
Transfer Moulding (or RIFT, SCRIMP, vacuum-bagged, laminate layup, etc.)), each of which
has a role to play in supplying structural and non-structural components for civil engineering
projects. The various processing methods provide different forms of components (universal
and bespoke) and continual adaptations and improvements are advancing their capabilities1.
For an example of how manufacturing can change we can look at the booming wind turbine

2
sector. Manufacturers are using specialised FRP processing equipment to produce, on a daily
basis, blades of 60 m length and 17,000 kg mass. In the future 10 MW turbines will require
blade lengths closer to 100 m with a mass of 37,000 kg. It will be a future major processing
challenge to lay down into a blade’s mould 1500 kg of fibre reinforcement per hour.

Next we need to appreciate that thin-walled or sandwich components of FRP material can be
manufactured using different fibre and matrix constituents, and with many different
combinations of these (and there are more to come from material suppliers). Structural design
is always complicated by the need to understand how to reliably transfer actions though
connections and joints, and for FRP structures there is a range of connection methods,
including fasteners, adhesive bonding and interlocking alone or in combination with another
method1. It is moreover found that we have an immature characterization of materials and/or
of basic structural properties, especially over the long-term, that are required for the
preparation of reliable and routine design rules. This multi-variable challenge towards the
design of bolted connections is developed2 by way of the author introducing the many gaps in
knowledge identified from the drafting of a chapter in a new American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) standard for the design of frame structures of pultruded universal
(standard) shapes3. Although the author is aware of bolted connection failures in the field
(often against a serviceability limit state), little is learnt from them because the facts do not
emerge into the public domain. In summary, this short introduction highlights the wide
ranging choice in materials, structural forms and methods of connection, and the current
‘scarcity’ in reliable and relevant technical information to inform both the specialist and non-
specialist on how to routinely execute safe and cost-effective designs for FRP new build
structures with working lives, say, of 60 years.

Despite the lack of coherent and consistent knowledge, understanding and design guidance
towards routine execution of FRP new build, we can find exciting and transformative
progress through the execution of bespoke applications. Structural components and
demonstrator projects, especially for foot and road bridges, have been reported on for over
twenty years1. A number of the prominent new build applications have had their structural
performance monitored and their superstructure regularly inspected. With performance
histories limited to 20 years there will remain for decades to come limited understanding on
what actual working lives are to be. We therefore still do not have adequate historical
precedence to help us inform design, be it by emerging prescriptive rules or by the

3
performance based approach. But as time passes we do continually gain the technical
knowledge and understanding that we seek to enable this newer construction material to
achieve its full potential in the new build arena.

Civil engineers have shown an interest in moving away from relying on existing prescriptive
rules (with limit state format) to designing with performance based criteria (especially for fire
and seismic engineering). It is important to appreciate that they see one of the drivers4 to be
the need to change from design limited by consideration of the “probability of failure” alone,
to consider equally the consequence of “risk of failure”. In preparing his colloquium
contribution the author took a narrower context towards structural design with FRP
components, informed by the following simplistic definitions4:

 Performance based design is for an acceptable level of protection to be provided

against structural failure under ‘extreme’ load.
 Prescriptive rule design would require compliance to rules, such as “M12 diameter
bolts spaced no more that 1800 mm on centre shall anchor wood sill of an exterior
wall to foundation”.

Historical Review towards a Status on Today’s Practice

Given next is a brief summary on the typical material properties of thin-walled components
(pultruded1) of E-glass reinforced polymer for the reader not familiar with FRPs as a
construction material. It will be recognised from the information in this summary that the
choice of materials and structural properties is very high and this is one reason why full
characterization of properties remains a handicap to the preparation of design guidance. Fibre
architecture and lay-up, choice of matrix are degrees of flexibility at the manufacturing stage
and so mechanical properties are directional and varied. The initial moduli of elasticity with
E-galss fibres are found to be in the range 6 to 30 GPa and the in-plane shear modulus is from
3 to 4.5 GPa. The highest modulus of elasticity is in the direction of the material with the
highest volume fraction of aligned (continuous) fibres. The lowest value is to found in the
perpendicular direction with the lowest volume fraction of aligned (continuous) fibres.
Failure strains are typical in excess of 1%, and because of the linear elastic response (to static
loading), direct strengths lie between 50 and 300 MPa and the inplane shear strength from 30
to 100 MPa. Again the value of direct strength is commensurate with the amount of fibre
reinforcement in the direction of measurement. Because failure can be brittle and

4
instantaneous there is little scope for stress redistribution. As a consequence of the way FRP
materials response to load1 specific attention must be given to design details, such as
connections and joints, with stress raisers1,2.

Glass FRPs have a low density of 1700 to 1900 kg/m3, good transport properties (e.g., for
thermal and electrical insulation) and are acoustically absorbent. If the reinforcing fibres are
of carbon the mechanical properties will change from those just given when fibre
reinforcement is of E-glass1. FRPs can be chemically inert, resist corrosion and attack by
insects or fungal growth. Their mechanical properties can change (usually reduce) with time
due to the affect from long-term loading and environmental aging. It is their overall property
set that provides us with the expectation that this structural engineering material can help
with our need to achieve sustainable construction5-7.

In what follows the author provides a brief historical review on new build applications and
innovations towards a status on today’s practice, principally in the UK. To gain a deeper
appreciation of this review the reader is advised to look at the case studies reported on the
NGCC web pages6; the Network Group for Composites in Construction is a UK organisation
that develops and promotes best practice in the application of fibre reinforced polymer
composites for civil engineering works. To provide the context required to convey the paper’s
findings the author only reports on case studies for new build, where the FRP components are
manufactured by the pultrusion process. One observation from this review is that it can be
several years between similar or repeat applications; the frequency of new projects is
increasing and this is promising for the future. Example case studies of buildings and bridges
constructed of moulded universal and bespoke components are summarised on NGCC web
pages6. As further illustration of European uptake there are many orders for bridge structures
using the proprietary Infracore® manufacturing technology of FiberCore Europe8. This
company operates in The Netherlands.

Universal (standard) shapes that mimic standard sections in conventional steelwork are found
in frameworks, such as shown in Figures 1(a) and 1(b), at, for example, water and chemical
plants, and have been similarly used for over 30 years. It was not until 1997 that the first
footbridge using standard shapes was executed at Kolding in Denmark. It is known as the
Fiberline bridge6. As the three parts to Figure 2 show the 40 m span bridge over railway lines,
is constructed of 12 universal components (with the box shape for the ‘cable’ stays) and is

5
bolted together using 22 different sized steel bolts. This bridge was instrumented with sensors
to measure its performance; it is therefore disappointing that the 40 kV cable for the electric
trains caused the monitoring to be inoperable. Other footbridges using standard shapes and
with different detailings have followed, with prominent examples the 38 m span at Lleida in
Spain in 2001, and the 41 m span at Chertanovo in Moscow in 2004. In the UK Network Rail
has been proactive in using FRPs in new build, and in 2009 constructed a FRP walkway
alongside an existing timber railway bridge over the River Leri, near Borth, mid-Wales. The
pultruded footbridge6 of 90 m length (comprising 11 FRP pre-fabricated units) is notable as a
world first because the method of connection in the frame’s joints is by adhesive bonding
(there are no mechanical fasteners holding the FRP structure together).

Although several pultruders, such as Fiberline Composites A/S of Denmark, have written in-
house design manuals for universal shapes there is, in April 2010, no nationally recognised
set of ‘prescriptive rules’ towards the design of structures using these standard elements.
Because USA pultruders are committed to maturing exploitation of their universal
components a funded project by the American Composites Manufacturers Association
(Pultrusion Industry Council) has drafted a pre-standard for the Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD) of Pultruded Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Structure3. Based on
prescriptive rules this future limit state standard (from ASCE) is expected to help structural
engineers and architects use pultruded universal (standard) shapes in building and
transportation designs, and bring benefits, such as its strength-to-weight ratio, resistance to
corrosion, low maintenance and long life cycle, to new build infrastructure3. Although this
standard is for members of FRP the method of connection is limited to bolting with bolts of
steel; it does not allow bolted connections to use proprietary threaded rods and nut of FRP.

Towards the end of the 1980s, and continuing today, there has been research and
development to use, and advance, the pultrusion process for bespoke thin-walled components
that are often for applications where FRP is the chosen structural material because it meets
specified performance requirements. Such an innovative product is the ASSET deck shape
shown in Figure 3. The engineering solution for this light weight road decking, to replace a
heavier conventional concrete slab, was from a research project funded by the EU. At 225
mm deep this pultruded shape interlocks together, as shown in Figure 3, and a permanent
connection can be made by adhesive bonding (using a two-part cold curing epoxy). In Figure
3 there are two illustrations to show how the ASSET deck was used to execute its first FRP

6
road bridge in 2002. Its natural application is to have the decking spanning in the transverse
direction to traffic flow. This application is known as the West Mills road bridge and the FRP
structure was instrumented with sensors for a successful monitoring of its performance9. In
2006 it was again used in the UK for a FRP-steel girder road bridge over the M6 at Garstang,
Lancashire10. In this hybrid FRP-steel application composite action is provided by way of
adhesive bonding. Later in 2008 its third prominent UK application was for the 10.8 m span
bridge over the railway lines at Standen Hey, near Clitheroe, Lancashire11. Now the road
deck comprises two layers of ASSET deck spanning in the direction of traffic flow. In most
cases the engineers executing these bridge projects introduced sensors for long-term
monitoring, so we can learn from how they perform9, 10.

Although not illustrated in this paper the Advanced Composite Construction System6 (ACCS)
invented by Peter Head, OBE (then of Maunsells) in the 1980s was the first family of
bespoke pultruded shapes. It was first used in 1988 to enclose, for protection against the
weather, steel girders for the A19 road bridge over the River Tees. It proved very successful
at minimising the rate of steel corrosion (could be as low as 5% of the rate before the
enclosure protected the steel). Prominent new build applications using ACCS are the 113 m
cable stay footbridge (with main-span of 63 m) in 1992 at the Aberfeldy golf course6, the 8.2
m span Bond Mills lift-bridge in 1995 over a canal near to Stroud6, the bridge enclosures in
1993 on the Second Severn Crossing approach roads6, and in 2007 for a footbridge over the
railway line at St. Austell, Cornwall. In this latter application the U-frame formed by three
ACCS planks has an outer moulded panel exterior to improve aesthetics and structural
performance6. Intelligent integration of FRP components made by different FRP processing
methods and with other construction materials is to be welcomed. In all these ACCS project
cases a level of in-house testing was used to verify the structural engineer’s calculations. The
plank and connectors are currently available from Strongwell under the trade name
Composolite, and it is marketed as an advanced composite building panel system suitable
for load bearing structural applications.

In Figure 4 other bespoke components and a building system (for cooling towers) are shown.
The Strongwell double web beam (914 x 457 mm) in Figure 4(a) was specifically engineered
for the American practice of having simply supported road bridges without composite action.
Because of the hybrid glass and carbon fibre reinforcement this pultruded beam has a higher

7
longitudinal modulus of elasticity at 39 GPa. It is by far the biggest single pultruded shape
having a major axis second moment of area of 636,500 cm4. The pultrusion machine to
produce this component is 60 m long, and perhaps its large size identifies an upper limit on
cross-sectional area that might be economically pultruded and can be considered for new
build projects.

Figure 4(b) shows the most recent deck shape that overcomes a possible technical weakness
that the ASSET (see Figure 3), and other shapes1 have of requiring a horizontal movement to
slot the deck shapes together. By snap-fitting together, following vertical movement, the
South Korean decking shape (SF200) is likely to be better suited for using with steel girders
when conventional shear studs welded to steel are required to generate composite action
between decking and girders.

One innovation with the cooling tower components shown in Figure 4(c) is to have two
different sized box shapes that when the webs are cut out from the larger section it can slide
over the smaller, thereby allowing the ‘simple’ beam-to-column connection shown in the
figure to be readily fabricated.

All the bespoke pultruded products introduced in this paper were developed using the
required design performance of specific application as an objective goal.

Confidence in adopting FRP shapes and systems has been gained from the experience of
learning from the performance over 20 years (good and occasionally poor) of prominent
structural engineering applications. Another driver towards the future growth in exploitation
is the knowledge that this newer construction material has an important role to play in
sustainable development (for Low Carbon Construction7 and the Green Economy5) through
efficient design for minimal material weight, energy performance and durability. Future
research and development is therefore going to produce new bespoke component and
systems. The Technology Strategy Board12 is prepared to support, through its competitions,
several industry led projects, including ACTS (Advanced Composite Truss Structures),
NATCOM (NATural COMposites6) and the Startlink lightweight building system6. The latter
project is transformative as its aim is the development of energy-efficient (Code level 6),
low-cost housing that is rapidly executed from a family of pultruded shapes, and off-site

8
assembly techniques. To achieve the engineering solution the Startlink project team will
apply the philosophy advocated by PBD principles4.

Benefits and Challenges

Having provided a personal and brief historical review on the exploitation of FRPs in
buildings and bridges, mainly in the UK, this section of the paper briefly presents, in the
context of PBD, the benefits and challenges offered by this construction material. From what
we know today, the following are factors that can be classified as benefits for us being able to
apply PBD principles:

 FRP materials can have tailored properties and processing is adaptable and flexible; this
allows bespoke ‘forms’ to be designed and shapes manufactured to follow design
performance requirements.
 In a product-oriented engineering approach the entire process that culminates in the
commissioning and lifecycle performance of civil works is evaluated and identified as
the system; FRP execution lends itself to this approach (examples in Figures 3 and 4).
 Structures of FRP components are suitable for ‘health’ and ‘smart’ monitoring
systems1,6,9,10; this can promote the adoption of systematic quality control measures,
whose outputs can inform improvements towards PBD.
 The drafting of a structural Eurocode for FRP material could be informed by us knowing
what the tangible benefits of using PBD are; CEN Technical Committee 250 recognizes
that existing and new parts of the Eurocode suite are to incorporate the demands of
modern societies, such as life extension and achieving sustainability13.
 By adopting PBD we can expect the products to come with appropriate warranty for
performance; this links to the Construction Products Directive14 and must be good for an
‘unproven’ construction material to gain acceptance.

Of course there are always factors that mitigate against the benefits listed, and the following
factors can be associated with challenges and risks against designers wanting to adopted and
apply PBD principles:

 Not a commonly used construction materials and so there is little historical context from
which to learn from; we do know always have reliable and relevant data for mechanical
properties and/or structural behaviour, we do not know performance of structures

9
 designed to prescriptive rules, do not know if whole life costings are a benefit, do not
know…..
 Many professional engineers (and other senior professionals involved in civil
engineering works) have no education on FRPs and so the decision to choose this newer
structural material will be overlooked; often less senior professional engineers who do
know of the benefits of FRP materials will eventually become the ‘movers and shakers’
that embrace their exploitation.
 To educate and open opportunities to practitioners (and clients) there is a need to have
design standards that are ‘prescriptive’ and simple to use; this design guidance will only
be for execution of universal (standard) shapes (see examples in Figures 1 and 2 and
reference 3).
 Because civil engineering works are often extremely large, complex and often unique,
and they operate over decades, quality control measures (successful with manufactured
products) in the supply chain, will require a major effort for adaption; we can of course
learn how to best manufacture FRP components from the matured aerospace industry and
the maturing wind turbine sector.
 We need to learn ‘quickly’ from applications of bespoke components that are
instrumented for long-term ‘health’ monitoring (e.g. ASSET bridges (Figure 3) and
Startlink housing) so that we can predict service life (of decades length) from
information gained in a shorter period of time.

Concluding Remarks

One outcome from the proceedings of the 2009 Henderson Colloquium is the different
interpretations that construction professionals have for what is Performance Based Design
(PBD). It is rightly associated with competency and with strong communication systems
using the right technical and execution information. Both these professional qualities in
project execution will reduce the risk of failure. It could further be seen to apply somewhat
differently for the mega-projects, such as a new motorway connecting two cities, and for the
single artefact projects, such as a FRP bridge or FRP frame or FRP building.

Based on a review of the current status of application towards the developing technologies
leading to new and innovative FRP products the author concludes the following:

10
  Continual research and development with processing technologies and proof of concepts
is producing innovative structural components and systems for new build projects (see
Figures 3 and 4 and consult references 1 and 6).
 Universal exploitation of universal (standard) shapes is handicapped by lack of ‘codes of
practice’, historical precedent, technical knowledge and understanding linked to the
scope of codes2.
 Prescriptive design rules are required for structures executed of universal shapes (Figure
1) to give designers/clients confidence to use, and to benefit society and the economy (by
offering new opportunities for achieving sustainable construction5,7).
 It is too much of a challenge (author’s opinion) to use PBD principles with this form of
universal and routine FRP construction.
 More new structures are executed every year, especially for bridges, with bespoke FRP
components and systems alone, and with other structural material components6.
 It should be possible to have the know-how and expertise to apply PBD (it is probably
already happening without those involved knowing it is) when the scope of application is
narrower, and it is easier to quantity and specify the consequences of a risk of failure.
 It is essential that we develop design approaches that minimise weight of material and
give the necessary sustainable solutions5-7 that satisfy the UK Government’s legislation
for an overarching goal of an 80% reduction in carbon emissions by 2050.

It can be concluded from what we know today that the answer to the question, posed by the
title to this paper, Does Performance Based Design with Fibre Reinforced Polymer
Components and Structures Provide any New Benefits and Challenges? is “YES” for
Benefits and “YES” for Challenges. We shall have to wait to witness what the future holds
for FRP components, systems and structures in civil engineering works and to find out how
this construction material is embraced in new build applications (using both prescriptive rules
and performance based design approaches) to help the UK meet its very challenging targets
for future low carbon construction6.

References

1. Bank, L. C.: Composites for construction - Structural design with FRP materials, 1st Ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, 2006.

11
2. Mottram, J. T.: ‘Design guidance for bolted connections in structures of pultruded
shapes: Gaps in knowledge’, International Conference on Composite Materials
(ICCM17), Edinburgh, 27-31 July, 2009, Paper A1:6 pg 10. (IoM3 DVD).
3. Anon.: ‘ACMA Develops Design Standard for Civil Engineers’, Reinforced Plastics,
51/9, 2007, p. 12.
4. Aktan, A. E., Ellingwood, B. R. and Kehoe, B.: Performance-based engineering of
constructed systems, ASCE SEI Technical Committee: Performance-Based Design and
Evaluation of Civil Engineering Facilities, 2004, p. 21. www.di3.drexel.edu/DI3/Events/
ASCE_Performance-Based_Engineering_Report.pdf (20/08/10)
5. Strategy for sustainable construction, HM Government in Association with Strategic
Forum for Construction, June 2008. www.berr.gov.uk/files/file46535.pdf (20/08/10)
6. Network Group for Composites in Construction (NGCC): Chesterfield, UK.
www.ngcc.org.uk/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=0&tabid=15 (20/08/10)
7. Innovation & Growth Team: Low carbon construction – Emerging findings, Department
of Business, Innovation and Skills, HM Government, March 2010.
www.bis.gov.uk/constructIGT (20/08/10)
8. FibreCore Europe (homepage) http://www.infracore.nl/en/ (20/08/10)
9. Canning, L., Luke, S., Täljsten B. and Brown, P.: ‘Field testing and long-term
monitoring of West Mill Bridge,’ Second International Conference on Advanced
Polymer Composites for Structural Applications in Construction (ACIC 2004),
Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 2004, 683-692.
10. Canning, L.: ‘Mount pleasant FRP bridge deck over M6 motorway,’ Fourth
International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering (CICE2008), EMPA,
Duebendorf, 2008, Paper 7.D.4 p. 6. (CD-ROM).
11. Kendall, D.: ‘Developments in FRP bridge design,’ Reinforced Plastics, May/June 2010,
38-42.
12. Technology Strategy Board: Driving Innovation. www.innovateuk.org/ (20/08/10)
13. Euocodes – Building the Future http://eurocodes.jrc.ec.europa.eu/home.php (20/08/10)
14. European Commission, Enterprise and Industry, Construction: Construction Product
Directive. http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/construction/documents/legislation/cpd/
index_en.htm (20/08/10)

12
 (a) (b)
Figure 1. Examples of universal execution for corrosion resistance using standard pultruded shapes:
(a) water treatment; (b) high acid works. (Courtesy of OSC Structural Plastic (based in Doncaster),
UK.)

12 standard shapes and 22 bolts

Figure 2. Example of universal execution with the 1997 Kolding footbridge, Denmark (Courtesy of
Fiberline Composites A/S).

13
 Figure 3. Example of bespoke execution with the 2002 West Mill road bridge, Oxfordshire, UK
(Courtesy of Mouchel).
914 mm

(a) (b)

+ =

(c)

Figure 4. Examples of bespoke pultruded FRP shapes: (a) ‘1998’ Strongwell double web beam, USA;
(b) 2007 SF200 snap-fit deck, South Korea; (c) Cooling tower components, from Creative Pultrusions
Inc., USA.

14

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