Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143

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Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Connections and structural applications of fibre reinforced polymer T

composites for civil infrastructure in aggressive environments
Hai Fanga, Yu Baib,∗, Weiqing Liuc,∗∗, Yujun Qia, Jun Wanga
a
College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211816, China
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Australia
c
Advanced Engineering Composites Research Center, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211816, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have become known for their specific advantages for civil infra-
Fibre reinforced polymer composites structure construction. High corrosion resistance in particular is one such strength, which has led to successful
Civil infrastructure applications worldwide. This paper focuses on the structural applications of FRP composites as major load-
Construction carrying members (therefore strengthening of existing structures is not included) in aggressive environments. It
Aggressive environments
is review and comparatively studied for environmental effects on FRP composites at the structural level mainly
Connections
Structural stiffness: load-carrying capacity
about joints and connections, including elevated environmental temperatures, humidity and water immersion,
and ultraviolet (UV) exposure. The quantifications of such environmental effects on structural responses further
assist development of large scale civil structures made from FRP composites. We therefore also present a few
implementations of FRP composites in civil infrastructure construction including i) FRP truss and frame struc-
tures in high humility areas, ii) FRP composite bumper systems for bridge piers, iii) floating FRP structures for
solar panels, iv) FRP steel composite piles for foundation applications, and v) FRP sheets, planks and piles for
modular assembly of a retaining wall. These results are introduced as initiatives from own experiences, with the
aim of demonstrating their applicability and providing examples for others with similar needs.

1. Introduction used as rods for internal reinforcement in reinforced concrete structures

In recent decades, fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have
gained considerable attention for construction in civil infrastructure
[1–3]. The demand for building civil infrastructure systems with FRP
composites in aggressive environments has grown due to their excep-
tional material properties such as high strength, light weight, and ex-
cellent fatigue and corrosion resistance [4–12]. In the retrofitting of
existing structures, FRP fabric and plates are often used as reinforce-
ment, externally bonded or mechanically fastened to reinforced con-
crete (RC) beams, slabs and columns [13–20]. The performance of FRP-
strengthened RC structures has been reviewed [21] with a strong focus
on studies which contributed directly to the development of strength
models. The use of FRP to strengthen steel structures has become an
option, the critical issue in the strengthening of steel structures being
the bond between FRP and steel [22–24]. Reviews and gap analysis
have also focused on the durability concerns of FRP composites in civil
infrastructure applications [25–29]. FRP composites are successfully
[30,31]. Furthermore, applications of FRP composites have been re-
ported in new structural constructions as structural members [32–38],
particularly including bridge decks for pedestrian and highway bridge
superstructures [39], supporting frame structures [40–42], multi-storey
office building [43] and residential buildings [44,45], electricity
transmission towers [46] and composite piles used for foundation
construction [47]. With specific connections such as the sleeve con-
nection in Ref. [48], it is also possible to form primary load-bearing
structures such as space frames and building frames using FRP tubular
members.
Hollaway reviewed and discussed in 2010 the development in the
applications of FRP composites materials in buildings and civil infra-
structure [49]. Bakis et al. [50] presented a comprehensive state-of-the-
art report on FRP composites for construction in civil engineering. The
review was organized into specific sections on structural shapes, bridge
decks, internal reinforcements, externally bonded reinforcements, and
standards and codes. Later, Cheng and Karbhari [51] presented a state-

∗
Corresponding author.
∗∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: fanghainjut@163.com (H. Fang), yu.bai@monash.edu (Y. Bai), wqliu@njtech.edu.cn (W. Liu), qiyujun11@163.com (Y. Qi),
wangjun3312@njtech.edu.cn (J. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.047
Received 14 July 2018; Received in revised form 27 October 2018; Accepted 8 November 2018
Available online 13 November 2018
1359-8368/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Fang et al.
of-the-art review of the developments of typical FRP bridge components
(i.e. decks and girders) as well as bridge systems that had become
available from the early 1980s to 2006. Reviews of advanced FRP
composites [52,53] highlighted their use in prefabricated pavement,
utility poles, pipelines, renewable energy harvesting, chimneys/flues,
rapidly deployable housing, natural composites for green buildings,
decking for marine and naval structures and advanced retrofitting. Al-
though FRP composite systems as primary loading-bearing elements are
relatively new concepts in civil construction, recent developments have
demonstrated that these systems provide a cost-effective alternative
when each component is appropriately designed [54,55].
The material responses of FRP composites subjected to various en-
vironmental effects have been well reported [56]. However, reviews of
their performance at structural level such as for joints and connections
are still limited and initiatives on applications and practices of FRP
composites in civil constructions are not well introduced in literature.
As FRP composites are relatively new materials for structural con-
struction in civil engineering, it becomes important and necessary to
review results on the mechanical performance of their joints and con-
nections and to introduce developments of new structures made from
such materials in actual practices especially under aggressive environ-
ments. Considering the existing reviews available in literature and
thanks to the recent practices of new constructions of civil infra-
structure using FRP composites, this paper focuses on research into the
mechanical performance of such composites at structural level mainly
for joints and connections subjected to environmental effects that in-
clude elevated environmental temperatures, humidity, water immer-
sion and ultraviolet (UV) exposure. Although fire is another critical
environmental scenario, fire performance of FRP structures is not re-
viewed in this study because this topic has been covered in recent
publications [57–61]. This paper also introduces some practices in de-
velopments of civil infrastructure using FRP composites in corrosive
environments, most from the authors' experiences in the last decade.
This overview of the authors' own initiatives and practices includes: i)
frame and truss assemblies in port regions; ii) FRP composite bumper
systems for bridge piers; iii) floating FRP structures for solar energy; iv)
FRP composite piles; and v) modular FRP retaining walls. These
structures are currently in service, showing satisfactory structural per-
formance and durability, thereby demonstrating their applicability and
providing examples for similar needs.
2. Effects of typical aggressive environmental factors on FRP
joints and connections
In order to provide focuses on FRP joints and connections at
structural level and emphases on real applications and practices of FRP
composites in civil constructions, this section first reviews the results of
connection performances under aggressive environments. Remarks are
also given at the end of this section to highlight the importance of
understanding in degradation of such mechanical performance due to
environmental factors for further structural applications.
2.1. Elevated temperatures
Structural FRP components can be fashioned in standard shapes
similar to those used for steel members: I, L, box, tube and channel
sections for construction. Experimental investigations have been con-
ducted of pultruded FRP materials cut from structural components in a
few studies, where the failure modes indicating load capacities for
various loading scenarios (e.g. compression, tension and shear) were
obtained at different temperature levels [59,62,63]. Such results, to-
gether with empirical and mechanism-based modelling approaches,
were given in Refs. [59,64]. This paper, however, focuses on the con-
nections of FRP composites at structural level.
Mechanical bolting, as a prevailing approach for steel structural
construction, is often used to connect FRP members. Studies of
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Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143
temperature effects on bolted FRP joints are still limited in comparison
to those on FRP materials. Two types of single-bolt FRP joints were
tested in tension at 20 °C, 60 °C and 80 °C by Turvey and Wang [65].
The tests were designed to achieve a bearing failure (Type I) or a ten-
sion failure (Type II) at room temperature, based on two different
configurations of the end-distance (E) to bolt-diameter (D) ratio and the
width (W) to bolt-diameter (D) ratio. All Type I joints showed a con-
sistent bearing failure mode as that which occurred at room tempera-
ture. A reduction of 38.7% in load-carrying capacity was found at 60 °C
and a reduction of 51.0% was found at 80 °C. A more significant re-
duction in load-carrying capacity was identified in Type II joints, with a
48.5% decrease at 60 °C and 56.4% at 80 °C; this was because a tran-
sition of failure modes from tension to bearing in Type II joints com-
menced at 60 °C.
Recently, Wu et al. [38] conducted an experimental study in 2016
on pultruded FRP bolted joints subjected to tensile loading and elevated
temperatures. Consistent shear-out failure mode was identified for the
joints examined at various temperatures from room temperature to
220 °C. Reductions in load-carrying capacity compared to that at room
temperature were found as 14% at 60 °C, 38% at 100 °C, 64% at 140 °C,
78% at 180 °C and 85% at 220 °C. Less reduction in capacity up to 60 °C
was found for a new type of blind bolted joints while similar reductions
reported after 60 °C. Temperature effects on singled bolted FRP joints
with close-fit bolt-hole clearance and laterally unrestrained condition
(representing pin-bearing behaviour) were investigated by Anwar in
2017 [66]. About 44% decrease in pin-bearing strength was identified
when temperature increased to 60 °C as the highest temperature in-
vestigated in this work.
Multi-bolt FRP joints with a series of geometric configurations in
terms of end-distance (E), pitch distance (P), side distance (S) and bolt
diameter (D) were examined by Turvey and Wang [67] at room tem-
perature and at the elevated temperature of 60 °C. The geometric con-
figurations were found to considerably affect the reduction in joint
strength at the elevated temperature. The maximum degradation of the
ultimate joint strength was found to be 36%, corresponding to the
scenario of E/D of 4, P/D of 2 and S/D of 4. No degradation was
identified in the joints associated with the geometry of E/D of 2, P/D of
4 and S/D of 2. Finally, an average reduction in ultimate joint strength
was obtained as 17% for twelve groups of multi-bolt FRP joints with
different geometric characteristics. In addition to ultimate joint
strength, a damage load was defined in that study prior to the ultimate
load, in accordance with the joint load–displacement curve as the first
evidence of load reduction. A more significant decrease was identified
in the damage loads of multi-bolt FRP joints when the temperature was
increased from room temperature to 60 °C. The glass transition tem-
perature and decomposition temperature of the composite material
were investigated through dynamic mechanical analysis and thermo-
gravimetric analysis. Three empirical or mechanism-based models were
proposed to characterize strength under elevated temperature and were
confirmed by providing good predictions for maximum loads.
Like bolted connections, adhesive bonding has aroused strong in-
terest as a connection technique for FRP structural components. In an
experimental study, Zhang et al. [68] investigated adhesively-bonded
double-lap joints (with a bond length of 50 mm) in tension, composed
of pultruded FRP adherends and an epoxy adhesive at temperatures
ranging from −35 °C to an elevated temperature of 60 °C. Almost no
difference was found for the joint ultimate loads at −35 °C and room
temperature. However, obvious reductions in joint ultimate load were
recorded when the temperature increased to 45 °C, and a maximum
decrease of 32% was identified at 60 °C in comparison to that at room
temperature. The failure mechanism was also found to change from
fibre-tear to adhesive failure when the temperature increased, espe-
cially at temperatures above 50 °C. It should be noted that bond length
might affect the temperature dependence of the load-carrying capacity
of adhesively-bonded joints. Only one bond length of 50 mm was ex-
amined by Zhang et al. [68].
H. Fang et al.
2.2. Humidity and water immersion (deionized, salted or alkaline solutions)
It has been reported that the presence of water may slightly reduce
the elastic modulus and strength of polymer resins or structural ad-
hesives, because moisture ingress can lead to plasticization or chemical
and physical breakdown of the interfacial adhesion forces within the
molecular structure [69]. Because FRP composites, as a combination of
polymer resin and fibres, may show degradation of mechanical prop-
erties, such degradation has been experimentally studied since the
1990s. For example, Liao et al. [70] exposed pultruded FRP composites
(glass fibre reinforced vinyl ester) to deionized water or salt (NaCl)
solutions at either room temperature or 75 °C for various durations. Chu
and Karbhari [71] examined several material properties (such as glass
transition temperature, tensile strength and short beam shear strength)
of pultruded E-glass vinyl ester composites after deionized water sa-
turation at different temperatures of 23, 40, 60, and 80 °C for up to 75
weeks. Further studies were conducted by Nkurunziza et al. [72] on
pultruded glass fibre reinforced vinylester rebar under combined tensile
loading and water immersion; by Karbhari et al. [28] on pultruded E-
glass/vinylester composites with deionized water immersion (at room
temperature) and sustained bending simultaneously; and by Riebel and
Keller [73] on pultruded glass fibre reinforced polyester composites
under compression with exposure of 18 months to an alkaline solution
(pH 13.4) at different temperatures (20, 40 and 60 °C).
This section focuses more closely on the connection performance of
FRP structures. An experimental investigation was performed by
Turvey and Wang [65] on pultruded FRP single-bolt tension joints after
water immersion at different temperatures (room temperature, 60 °C
and 80 °C) for a maximum of 13 weeks (91 days). After water immer-
sion at room temperature for 13 weeks, the joints (Type I) which had
been designed to achieve a bearing failure mode at room temperature
showed almost no loss of load-bearing capacity, whereas a loss of about
10% was found in the joints (Type II) which had been designed with a
tension failure mode at room temperature. More significant reductions
in load-bearing capacity were found in the joints after water immersion
at higher temperatures. For example, the residual load-bearing capacity
of Type I joints was only 22.5% and the residual load-bearing capacity
of Type II joints was only 30.6% of that at 80 °C before water immer-
sion. It should be remembered that the joint strength also decreased
significantly at elevated temperatures (60 and 80 °C) prior to any water
immersion, as discussed previously in Section 2.1. Pultruded FRP joints
with two bolts in one column were designed by Turvey and Wang [67]
with a series of geometric parameters, as explained in Section 2.2. Such
joints were immersed in water for 6.5 weeks (about 45 days) at two
different temperatures (room temperature and 60 °C) and the residual
load-bearing capacity was measured. All the joints with different geo-
metric parameters showed more or less reductions in load-bearing ca-
pacity after environmental conditioning. The most significant loss of
28% after water immersion at room temperature corresponded to the
joints with E/D of 2, S/D of 2 and P/D of 2. More severe loss of load-
bearing capacity was found in the joints immersed to 60 °C in water,
with a maximum reduction of 56% for the scenario of E/D of 2, S/D of 4
and P/D of 4.
In adhesively-bonded pultruded FRP joints, specimens with a bond
length of 50 mm were all preconditioned for 70 days in 40 °C water;
subsequently, they were subjected to fatigue loading (with a tensile
stress ratio of 0.1 and four stress levels of about 44%, 53%, 63% and
76% of the ultimate joint strength) simultaneously under different en-
vironmental conditions [74]. These were 1) −35 °C without humidity
control, 2) room temperature (23 °C) and 50% relative humidity (RH),
3) 40 °C and 50% RH, and 4) 40 °C and 90% RH. The general conclusion
was that higher temperatures and/or humidity levels induced a shorter
fatigue life. The joints loaded at a stress level of about 44% of the ul-
timate joint strength achieved fatigue lives ranging from 484,288 to
1,909,376 cycles under 40 °C and 50% RH, and ranging from 553,739
to 1,313,940 under 40 °C and 90% RH. At the same stress level, the
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Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143
fatigue life of joints examined under room temperature and 50% RH
ranged from 1,030,600 to 2,215,704 cycles. Although a higher stress
level caused a shorter fatigue life, this phenomenon did not become
more pronounced in the presence of the elevated temperature of 40 °C
and/or the presence of a higher humidity level (90% RH). This finding
was supported by the research of Zhang et al. [74] which produced
derived SeN curves from different environmental conditions with al-
most the same slope, indicating that the ultimate joint strength and the
corresponding stress level dominated joint fatigue life.
2.3. UV effects
Ultraviolet (UV) light is believed to have negative effects on most
polymers, since it is associated with wavelengths of 290–400 nm and
can dissociate the molecular bonds in most polymers. UV effects on
different types of FRP composites were reported in 2003 by Karbhari
et al. [27], mainly at the material level. Further experimental study was
conducted by Correia et al. [75] in 2006 for UV effects on pultruded
FRP composites (E-glass fibre and polyester resin), including two sce-
narios of UV exposure. In the first scenario, a UV-accelerated weath-
ering apparatus was employed to provide repeated cycles of light (with
an irradiance of 0.77 W/m2/nm at 340 nm) and moisture up to 6346 h
(about 265 days). In the second scenario, a xenon-arc light accelerated
weathering apparatus was used to supply a constant irradiation of
0.5 W/m2/nm at 340 nm, and cycles of water spray (18 min) plus dry
intervals (102 min), up to 2000 h (about 84 days). No obvious loss in
flexural strength was detected from the first scenario. A slight decrease
in the average tensile strength was observed for the specimens after
exposure of 2000 h (about 84 days) in both scenarios. That average
decrease was associated with a relatively large data variation. It was
concluded that UV mainly resulted in gloss loss and a change in colour
(surface yellowing), rather than a compromise in mechanical proper-
ties. This result is consistent with studies of UV on FRP composites in
general [27].
It appears that UV effects alone are restricted to a limited thickness
near the surface. Studies of UV effects on the mechanical performance
of FRP connections and structures are therefore of less concern. A re-
levant work in this regard was reported by Nguyen et al. [76], in which
steel/carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites double-strap
joints made by the hand lay-up process were exposed to an irradiation
level of 1.26 W/m2/nm at 340 nm for 371 h (equivalent to about 16
days) on each side of the joints. An obvious improvement of joint
stiffness was observed and this was attributed to post-curing effects of
the heat associated with the UV exposure. However, the joint strength
after UV exposure showed a considerable reduction in comparison to
the initial strength, with the maximum value of 50% corresponding to
the shortest bond length of 30 mm. Similar strength degradation was
found from exposure to an elevated temperature produced without UV
radiation but at the same level as that during the UV exposure. It was
therefore determined that, as the adhesive layer within the steel/CFRP
double-strap joints was well protected from UV by the CFRP adherend,
the strength degradation was mainly caused by the elevated tempera-
ture rather than by UV radiation.
2.4. Summary and remarks
Through the efforts of previous studies as reviewed above, valuable
data are obtained which can quantify the degradations due to en-
vironmental factors in the major mechanical properties of FRP com-
posites as structural components and of both adhesive bonding and
mechanical bolting as main connection methods for FRP structures.
Furthermore, a few design guidelines have been developed to provide
partial safety factor approaches considering such degradations in me-
chanical performances for structural resistance of FRP composites and
connections due to environmental effects [77–81].
This knowledge can assist further applications of civil structural
H. Fang et al.
construction using FRP composites as load-carrying structural compo-
nents in civil infrastructure in aggressive environments. Research worth
noting concerns a pedestrian bridge located in the Alps region of
Pontresina, Switzerland. After eight years of use, a detailed inspection
of the bridge exposed to a harsh Alpine climate was conducted in 2005
during safety and serviceability testing [82]. In addition to a colour
change from initial white to light yellow, a variety of local defects and
damages were found such as local crushing caused by impacts or local
cracks due to inappropriate storage and lifting, and fibre blooming and
degradation of cut surfaces. The cracking and damages were mainly
observed from open sections due to local bending of free flanges. This
finding highlights that members with closed cross sections may be su-
perior to open sections for such structural applications, leading to a few
further structural developments using FRP members with closed sec-
tions assisted by specific joint configurations [41,83]. Nevertheless, no
materials stiffness losses were found from the pultruded structural
members taken from the bridge after eight years' service; however no-
ticeable decrease in material strength up to 18% was identified. Such
strength degradation was deemed noncritical because of proper safety
factors considered in the initial design.
This bridge was further examined in 2014 after 17 years' service in
relatively aggressive environment of Swiss Alps [84]. Again the results
about the material stiffness showed no obvious decreases over the 17
years. Significant losses in axial tensile strength were observed espe-
cially for couples cut from the flanges of structural members (up to
32%). Full-scale structural testing indicated no further decreases in the
overall structural stiffness of the two truss spans in 2014, after the in-
itial slight reduction of stiffness measured in 2005. The serviceability
criterion was still satisfied therefore after service of 17 years. In terms
of the structural safety, a secured margin still remained, again because
of the initial safety factors considered for the strength properties.
However application of an appropriate coating to FRP structures ex-
posed to harsh environments is highlighted mainly for limit of fibre
blooming. Inspired by the satisfaction of structural serviceability and
safety after a long term of service based on this work, a few new
practices from our own initiatives are introduced next, demonstrating
their applicability and providing solutions for cases with similar needs.
3. Frame and truss assemblies in port regions
3.1. Frame structures
Frame structures made using glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP)
composites have attracted interest since 1990s [85]. The dynamic
performances of very large GFRP frames (five storey and sic storey
frames) were recently evaluated in Refs. [86,87], highlighting the ab-
sence of material ductility of GFRP materials. This may be improved by
introducing an innovative steel sleeve connection for GFRP beams and
columns [88], showing satisfactory ductility and energy dissipation
capacity through the yielding of steel connections.
GFRP frame structures were used to replace traditional steel frames
for a few applications in ports in China. One example is in Yangshan
Deepwater Port in the Shanghai International Shipping Center (built as
the first fully automated container terminal in China). In addition to the
electrical insulation of GFRP composites (to minimize electrical signal
interference) and reduced maintenance costs, this project may also
suggest applications of FRP structures for requirements of durability in
coastal corrosive environments and electromagnetic shielding. The
GFRP frames were constructed to support cooling containers in the
storage yard of Yangshan Port (Fig. 1a). A single GFRP structure is a
three-storey frame supported by columns of identical height (8.1 m),
each storey consisting of three spans in the longitudinal direction and
one span in the transverse direction (Fig. 1b). Each span has identical
length (6.1 m) and width (1.5 m).
The main frame structure is made of pultruded FRP sections with
wood core. The columns are 184 × 184 mm in section and the frame
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Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143
beams 110 × 210 mm, each with the wall thickness of 10 mm. In the
pultrusion process, the wood core and the GFRP skin are integrally
bonded and formed through high temperature moulding. The beam and
column components are connected through embedded steel plates with
assistance from stainless steel bolts. Polyester felt is used on the outer
surfaces of the GFRP skins including the connection locations (Fig. 1b),
to ensure satisfactory durability and appearance of the structural
components. Compared to common GFRP pultruded sections, such
components with wood cores may effectively mitigate local indenta-
tions, splitting and buckling of the GFRP skin, consequently providing
better mechanical properties [5]. In addition, moulded FRP grids are
used for the stair and deck structures (Fig. 1c). Those grids were made
through a continuous resin infusion process with fibre roving alter-
nating in both longitudinal and transverse directions to form a grid
structure with stiff nodes. The cross-sections of moulded GFRP grids in
two directions are identical. The handrails are assembled with pul-
truded composite profiles of circular section (Fig. 1d). Based on the
results reported about the applications of FRP structures in literature, a
design service life of 40 years is expected for the main structure under
the premise of no major maintenance requirements. The structures were
built in 2010 and have now been in service for eight years.
Axial compression experiments were performed on the GFRP
column components (Fig. 2a), identifying the typical failure mode of
global buckling followed by local wrinkling and structural collapse
(Fig. 2b). The resulting load–displacement curves are shown in Fig. 2c,
where the corresponding ultimate capacity was 1026 kN. Four-point
bending experiments were conducted on the beam components, as
shown in Fig. 3a. Failure was initiated due to tensile cracks occurring
near the loading point and the beams finally lost their load-carrying
capacity due to cracks propagation along the side of the beam and
through the depth (Fig. 3b). Typical load-displacement curves are
plotted in Fig. 3c, with failure initiated at 154 kN and the ultimate
capacity marked at 211 kN.
3.2. Truss bridges
GFRP composites have been successfully used as structural compo-
nents in the construction of truss bridges. Such truss structures are
characterized by a clear loading path, where loads are transmitted
through transverse beams to chord members and diagonal members.
Again, satisfactory overall structural stiffness can be achieved con-
veniently in a truss configuration at structural level rather than through
the elastic modulus of GFRP materials. A truss footbridge was devel-
oped using pultruded GFRP sections and built in 1997 for ski tourism in
the Swiss Alps by Keller et al. As already mentioned, this bridge was
evaluated for long-term performance [82] in 2005 and later again in
2014 [84]. A vehicle truss bridge consisting of thick-wall GFRP mem-
bers with square hollow sections was presented as an example of truss
bridge applications [89]. Structural testing was performed on a reduced
scale truss girder with a simply supported span length of 13 m made by
assembling GFRP tubular profiles and steel jacket joints [90]. One of
the concepts in this structure was to introduce prestressing and keep all
members in compression for possible load combination. Space truss
structures were developed by Yang et al. [41,42] using pultruded GFRP
tubular members and specific space nodal connectors. The space frame
structures were evaluated statically and dynamically for implementa-
tion in supporting structures of pedestrian bridges. Hybrid FRP-alu-
minum space truss structures were also developed [91] for fast con-
struction of bridges showing satisfactory load carrying capacities.
However, the proposed truss structures were not specifically dedicated
for applications in aggressive environments and no long-term perfor-
mance was reported for them.
Several truss bridges were required for boat docks in Yangshan
Deepwater Port in the Shanghai International Shipping Center. Previous
successful experiences suggested the GFRP structures as a potential
solution considering their corrosion resistance to the harsh coastal
H. Fang et al. Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143

Fig. 1. Supporting frames for cooling containers at Yangshan Port: a) and b) overall view, c) FRP stair and d) FRP grid deck and handrail.

Fig. 2. Axial compression experiments for pultruded FRP columns with wood core: a) experimental setup, b) failure modes and c) typical load-deflection curve.

133
H. Fang et al.
Fig. 3. Four-point bending experiments of pultruded FRP beams with wood core: a) experimental setup, b) failure modes and c) load-deflection responses.
Fig. 4. All GFRP short span truss bridge a) after completion, b) subjected to flexural loading testing, and c) resulting load deflection responses.
environment as well as their light weight and convenience for fast as-
sembly. Fig. 4a shows a bridge assembled at Nanjing Tech University
for experimental evaluation with the intention of use in harsh en-
vironments such as port regions. The bridge is 6.1 m in span length and
1.3 m in width, resulting a self-weight of 120 kg and an expectation of a
design load-carrying capacity of 3.5 kN/m2. Full-scale experimental
investigation was conducted on the truss bridge under a simply sup-
ported boundary condition with a clear span of 5.5 m and load was
applied using sandbags corresponding to 3.6 kN/m2 (Fig. 4b). The re-
sulting maximum vertical deflection was 22.3 mm at mid-span (Fig. 4c).
After the understanding achieved from the full-scale experimental
evaluation, seven GFRP truss bridges 3 m in span length, 1.5 in width
and 1.48 m in depth were installed at several boat dock locations in
Yangshan Port (Fig. 5). The GFRP members were manufactured in
factory through the pultrusion process and assembled into the truss
structures, then transported to the sites and placed in position using a
crane (Fig. 5a), and finally fixed at the two ends of the bridge (Fig. 5b).
They are still in good service currently, as shown in Fig. 5c. A few
advantageous features have been acquired through this practice, in-
cluding the fast construction process due to the modular design for
assembly, the absence of requirement for painting and maintenance and
the absence of biodegradation under such harsh environmental condi-
tions, as well as the possibility for disassembly and relocation.
Fig. 5. Installation process of composite truss bridges: a) transporting to the construction site, b) to be hoisted into position, and(c) end anchorage.
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4. FRP composite bumper systems for bridge piers
Ship collisions with bridge piers are among the most frequent ac-
cidents in waterborne traffic. In view of the large variations of dead-
weight tonnage and approach speeds, ship-bridge-pier collisions can
not only cause severe damage to the bridge but also result in tragic loss
of life [92,93]. According to the Federal Highway Administration in the
U.S., collision damage of a vehicle or a ship impacting a bridge is the
third main cause of bridge failure or collapse, following the first two
causes which are flood and overweight vehicles [94]. Thus, the pro-
tection of bridge piers against ship collisions is of high importance and
increasingly invokes research attention to proper design of bridge anti-
collision systems [95].
In the past two decades, several types of system have been devel-
oped on the basic principles of energy absorption and momentum
buffering. Six major anti-collision systems for bridge piers were re-
viewed by Voyiadjis et al. [96], namely pile fender systems, rubber
fender systems, hydraulic/pneumatic fender systems, retractable fender
systems, gravity-type fender systems and floating fender systems. Dis-
tinctive characteristics and service conditions were clearly identified for
each type. It appears that steel fender systems have been most com-
monly used [97]. Such systems are associated with a few disadvantages,
such as high initial cost, poor corrosion resistance and high main-
tenance requirements, but the advantages are high rigidity and low
deformability due to the structural steel material [98]. From this point
H. Fang et al. Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143

Fig. 6. a) Components of fixed composite bumper system and applications of b) Xinmengge Bridge, c) Oubei Bridge, and d) Side tower of Wuhan Yingwuzhou
Yangtze River Bridge.

of view, FRP composites are particularly attractive for applications in
such anti-collision structures due to their exceptional material proper-
ties such as high strength and light weight, excellent corrosion re-
sistance and satisfactory cushioning performance [5,49,99]. A few
studies have been conducted to develop composite structures in-
corporating FRP composites for effective energy dissipation applica-
tions [100–102]. From the extensive research and development activ-
ities in the last several years, three of anti-collision system types using
FRP composites have been developed and put into practice through our
own experience: the fixed composite bumper system, the floating
composite bumper system and the large-scale floating composite
bumper system.
4.1. Fixed composite bumper system
Fig. 6a shows segments for a composite bumper system used to fix
on the bridge piers as an anti-collision system. The main structure is
made of continuous GFRP composite blocks containing PU foam as the
core material. The outer shell is formed by GFRP with a thickness of
8–10 mm; this layer is expected to distribute compact forces through its
elastic deformation. The inside spatial grids are reinforced with GFRP
webs and filled with foam core, resulting in satisfactory load-bearing
capability and energy dissipation capacity. The structure can be fabri-
cated by a vacuum-assisted resin infusion process. Connections between
fender facilities and bridge piers are made of concrete-filled steel tube
gauge piles and expansion bolts. This new anti-collision system offers
several remarkable advantages over steel bumpers, such as modular
fabrication and assembly of segments, efficiency for on-site installation,
excellent corrosion resistance, as well as ease in replacing damaged
segments. Such systems have already been installed on more than ten
bridges in China. Fig. 6 shows applications of the anti-collision system
on the Xinmengge Bridge (Fig. 6b), Oubei Bridge (Fig. 6c) and Wuhan
Yingwuzhou Yangtze River Bridge (Fig. 6d).
Experimental and numerical studies were conducted on FRP and
foam core panels as the basic elements in such anti-collision systems.
The panels consisted of two GFRP skins with a PU foam core sand-
wiched in between. They were tested under quasi-static compression to
investigate the deformability and energy absorption through the foam
core. However, the sandwich panels with foam core presented relatively
low stiffness and peak strength in compression due to the low strength
and stiffness of the foam core, and thus may not be adequate in the case
of large impact forces. Foam core sandwich panels reinforced with
lattice webs were therefore developed [103,104], consisting of not only
two GFRP skins and PU foam core but also orthogonal GFRP lattice
webs between them, as shown in Fig. 7a. Results from compression tests
on such sandwich panels with lattice webs (see Fig. 7b) registered
largely improved peak load and stiffness in comparison to those without
lattice webs as demonstrated in Fig. 7c.
An in-depth numerical investigation was also conducted [105] to
evaluate and understand the impact performance of the fixed composite
bumper system installed on a bridge pier of a stayed bridge using a
nonlinear explicit dynamic finite element approach (LS-DYNA)
(Fig. 8a). The modelling results indicated that the fixed composite
bumper system effectively reduced the peak collision forces (Fig. 8b) to
a non-destructive level for the bridge pier through an effective manner
of energy dissipation.
4.2. Floating composite bumper system
As the fixed composite bumpers are firmly connected to bridge piers
they are not suitable for situations where a large change in water level
is expected. To resolve this problem, a floating composite bumper
system was developed which can move up and down with changes in
water level (Fig. 9).
In this application, the bridge is located across Wulong River in
Fuzhou, China. This bridge is a long-span prestressed concrete T rigid
frame bridge with the total span length of 552 m and depth of 33 m. As
shown in Fig. 9a, the floating system consists of six modular segments
connected through six pairs of concave and convex joints. It was in-
stalled surrounding the bridge pier and individual modular segments
could be easily replaced due to the joint design configuration using high
density polyethylene (HDPE) go-through bolts (see Fig. 9a). The mod-
ular segments were manufactured through a vacuum-assisted resin in-
fusion process (VARIP) similar to that of FRP wind blades for wind-
turbine applications. The cross-section of the FRP floating system was
designed with a box shape with height of 2 m and width of 1 m re-
spectively. The surface FRP shell was 10 mm thick and most of the in-
ternal webs were 8 mm thick. Sixteen arch rubber fenders 0.5 m in
height were installed between the inside surface of the floating system
and the bridge piers. As well, several 30 mm thick polytetra-
fluoroethylene (PTFE) plates were arranged between the rubber fenders
and bridge pier. FRP guardrails were also installed on top of the floating
system for safe operation above the structure (Fig. 9a). Finally, Fig. 9b
shows a view of the bridge piers after installation of the floating system
in 2011, with clear completion and structural integration. It has been in
service since then without further maintenance.
4.3. Large-scale floating composite bumper system
The successful development of the floating system using GFRP and
foam core sandwich configuration has opened opportunities for further
applications to major bridges with large diameter piers. The associated
challenge for large-scale applications lies in the manufacture of such
foam-filled FRP blocks with lattice webs using an integral moulding
method. An innovative approach was recently developed for such a FRP
floating bumper system at a very large scale [106]. As shown in Fig. 10,
the large-scale anti-collision system consists of six or more large-scale
cylindrical segments in which each segment is composed of upper and
lower half circular subsegments through VARIP and HDPE bolts with a
diameter of 240 mm connecting the modular segments. This innovative
large-scale bumper system offers the advantages of self-floating ability,
modular assembly for convenient installation on site, excellent corro-
sion resistance and low maintenance requirements, as well as ease in
potential replacement of damaged units.

135
H. Fang et al.
Fig. 7. a) Foam core sandwich panels reinforced with lattice webs before and after testing, b) compression experiment and c) resulting load-displacement curves.
This system provides great design flexibility, with its size and geo-
metry adaptable to the bridge piers. The cross-sectional geometric
features, PU core depth, GFRP skin thickness and GFRP lattice web
spacing can be optimized and designed according to the requirements
of load capacity and energy absorption capacity. Moreover, the prop-
erties of the GFRP skin and lattice web can be designed through opti-
mization of fibre orientation and stacking sequence, as intensively
studied in Refs. [107,108]. In that floating bumper system, ceramic
particles were added into the inner cylinder to achieve better energy
absorption, as also indicated in previous studies [109]. Fig. 11a shows
the experimental setup for evaluation of the stiffness and energy dis-
sipation capacity of the segments with and without ceramic particles.
The comparisons (Fig. 11b and c) are for the resulting load-deflection
curves and energy absorption respectively. It was found that, with the
use of ceramic particles, the ultimate elastic load and energy absorption
were increased by about 37% and 660%, respectively.
The large-scale floating system has been successfully applied in
more than ten bridges for pier protection in China. Fig. 10 shows a
completed project of a suspension bridge in Wuhan, China across the
Yangtze River. The on-site assembly of such a large-scale modular
system for a single bridge pier in this project normally took only days,
as the majority of the time for manufacturing the cylinder units was
completed in the factory. The installation sequence was i) the modular
units were transported to the riverside, lifted from the trailer using a
small crane and placed at the side of the wharf (Fig. 10a); ii) six HDPE
bolts were prepared for the floating system to connect one side unit and
two corner units so that half of the ring structure was formed (Fig. 10b);
iii) then the other two corner units and one side unit were connected to
form the other half of the ring structure using six HDPE bolts; iv) each
of the half ring structures was floated on the water and dragged to the
bridge pier by a barge (Fig. 10b); v) the structures were finally located
to enclose the bridge pier and HDPE bolts were carefully inserted
through the bolt holes in the concave convex joints of adjacent half-
loops. Fig. 10c shows two bridge piers of the suspension bridge from a
Fig. 8. Numerical modelling of FRP bumper system installed with a bridge pier subjected to ship collision: (a) FE model and (b) time history curves of collision force
with and without FRP bumper system.
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Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143
distance where the ring structures surround the piers elegantly and
have been in service in the current without maintenance for the past
three years.
5. Floating GFRP structures for supporting solar panels
Compared with the traditional photovoltaics (PV) power plants on
the ground, water floating PV power plants reduce land occupation and
minimize dust accumulation on the solar panels, with improved energy
efficiency. The floating support structure for the solar panels is im-
portant not only in terms of load-carrying capacity but also in long-term
performance in such corrosive environments, especially considering the
current life requirement of 25 years for PV power plants.
Light weight, excellent resistance corrosion and freezing-thaw ef-
fects and sufficient structural stiffness to wind and wave loads need to
be considered for the design of such floating structures. It has been
reported that some such structures are usually made in small scale from
HDPE materials. Their service life has been from 10 to 15 years and has
been difficult to meet the 25 year service life requirement for applica-
tions of PV power plants [110]. Moreover, the brackets used to support
the solar panels are often made of galvanized steel which needs to be re-
galvanized about every three years, resulting in high maintenance costs
for applications in such corrosive environments. These challenges se-
verely hamper the development of floating PV power plants.
FRP composites appear to be a promising material option to tackle
the aforementioned challenges; however studies in this regard is still
very limited. A floating support system was successfully developed
using GFRP composites, through our efforts for development of PV
power plants on water. The first practical application is shown in
Fig. 12a. The floating support system consists of mainly GFRP primary
and secondary beams and supporting brackets (Fig. 12b). The primary
beams are 10.2 m long, 500 mm wide and 500 mm high. A 150 mm
deep groove is opened on the upper surface along the length of the
primary beams. The secondary beams of the floating structure are with
H. Fang et al.
Fig. 9. An application of floating composite bumper system for Fuzhou Wulong River Bridge with a) segments and completed installation and b) an overview with
FRP guardrails.
9.5 mm long, and 200 mm high and 150 mm wide. Therefore, the sec-
ondary beams can be placed into the grooves as shown in Fig. 12b,
connecting individual primary beams into the floating structure. Apart
from the mechanical interlocking at the groove locations, bolts are used
to fix the secondary beams with the primary beams to form an in-
tegrated structure. Steel plates (4 mm thick) are embedded at both ends
of the primary beams during the manufacturing process. These steel
plates can be connected through bolts so that the primary beams can be
joined and extended in the longitudinal direction.
GFRP brackets are fixed on the secondary beams through bolted
connections, as shown in Fig. 15b, so that solar panels can be secured
within the FRP frames. The total self-weight of such a GFRP floating
structure (9.5 m by 10.2 m, including the aforementioned GFRP bracket
frames and solar panels) is about 3.6 tons and it can float on water
independently (Fig. 12a). Without consideration of wind load, the
draught depth of the floating structure is about 230 mm. If wind load is
taken into consideration, this depth becomes 330 mm and still meets
the service requirements in general.
The manufacturing of such GFRP floating structures uses different
approaches and processes for different components, including the pri-
mary and secondary beams and various sections of the bracket frame
(Fig. 12). As the cross-sections used for the bracket frame include
constant shapes of square tube and L and C channels, pultrusion is used
for their manufacture. While the GFRP primary and secondary beams
consist of lattice-reinforced sections with PU foam core inside, i.e. the
beam surface layer and lattice webs are made of glass fibre reinforced
resin matrix and PU foams are filled between the lattice webs and face
sheets (Fig. 12c). Because that structural form is more complex than the
other GFRP components, therefore a manufacturing process based on
vacuum infusion and resin transfer is employed for the primary and
secondary beams (Fig. 12c). Fig. 12a shows the completed GFRP
floating structure with the supporting GFRP bracket frames and solar
panels installed. It was manufactured in factory in 2016 and assembled
on site in the same year, providing service of more than two years so far
without maintenance.
Fig. 10. Application of large-scale floating composite bumper system in a suspension bridge in Wuhan China across the Yangtze River with a) floating components
ready for transportation to construction site, b) floating transportation process, and c) installation and in position.
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6. FRP composite piles
6.1. Sheet piles
GFRP composites sheet piles have stimulated interest for geo-ap-
plication because of the complex harsh operating environments such as
high humidity and various chemical contents. In general, two structural
forms have been applied using GFRP sheet piles, cantilever application
and frame revetment. The former usually consists of Ue or Z-shaped
sections joined laterally through mechanical interlocking connections.
The frame type revetment consists of a continuous sheet pile wall with
transverse beams to enhance overall structural stiffness. It has also been
reported that composites sheet piles can be pulled out without struc-
tural damage. Single, connected and concrete-backfilled GFRP sheet
pile panels were investigated by Shao and Shanmugan [111], with focus
on the moment capacities, deflection limits and failures modes. It was
found that single panel GFRP piles showed a higher average capacity
than that of three connected panels, which suffered from uneven load
distribution and connection effects. The dynamic responses of a pul-
truded GFRP sheet pile with the total length of 9 m was studied by
Boscato et al. [112], who was concluded that the GFRP sheet units
could be satisfactorily installed using a pile driving rig in a procedure
similar to that in steel sheet piling applications. Considering the rela-
tively low elastic modulus of pultruded GFRP profiles, strengthening
methods were proposed by Wang et al. [113] to enhance the GFRP
flange using steel plates. Different layers of fibre volume were studied
and the results indicated that fibre volume affected not only the failure
mechanisms of the GFRP sheet piles but also their stiffness and load
capacity. Furthermore, strengthening steel plates improved the sheet
pile stiffness but with negligible enhancement of the ultimate carrying
capacity because of the interface debonding between steel and GFRP.
In view of the advantages of FRP composite sheet pile systems, a
construction project for revetment applications was pioneered in April
2016 with our practice to enhance a retaining wall along a river for
50 m using FRP sheet piles 5 m in height. Fig. 13a shows the FRP sheet
piles manufactured using a VARIP and assembled in factory. Such piles
H. Fang et al.
Fig. 11. Quasi-static compression experiments on cylinder specimens for large-scale floating composite bumper system: a) experimental set-up, b) load displacement
responses and c) energy absorption responses for specimens with and without ceramic particles as filler.
are corrugated sections with a constant thickness of 11.5 mm. An in-
terlocking connection configuration was designed at the edge of the
corrugated sections of the sheet piles (Fig. 13a). The piles were trans-
ported to the site and installed into the soil using a hoist machine
(Fig. 13b) and completed as shown in Fig. 13c. Such FRP sheet piles
were applied in long distance for a waterway project in Jiangsu China
(Fig. 13d), where their performance such as the deformation was in-
spected after every two years with satisfactory service condition in-
dicated so far.
6.2. Tubular piles
FRP piles with tubular sections have also attracted interest for ap-
plications in bridge piers, pile foundations, bollards and structures to
prevent soil erosion [47,114], especially when corrosion resistance is
required, such as in humid environments or those with sulphate con-
tent. Such tubular piles are mainly designed to carry lateral pressure
from surrounding soil and to transfer vertical loads to soil foundation
below; therefore, adequate load-bearing capacity and buckling re-
sistance are required. A solution is to form a composite section con-
sisting of an FRP tubular section as the outer layer and a steel tubular
section within it. The FRP outer layer protects the inner steel tube by
isolating the steel from corrosive environments. Meanwhile, vertical
loads can be sustained by the composite section. This solution may
reduce the overall need for steel thickness and therefore the pile self-
weight. Additional advantages may include more convenient trans-
portation and deployment and fast installation due to their light weight
in comparison to concrete piles.
Through our practices, two projects were completed in 2013 where
tubular piles were installed as bridge piers to support a bridge super-
structure overpass in Taiyuan, China and to support a highway bridge
along the Hang-shen line from Shanghai to Hangzhou, China. Both sites
were reported to contain corrosive soil environments and therefore high
corrosion resistance was required for the pile structures. For the piles
implemented as foundations for the overpass structure in Taiyuan, two
steel tubular sections were used, with outer diameters of 1800 mm and
1500 mm respectively. The steel tubes were 10 mm thick and 12 m long,
Fig. 12. Composite material floating support system for PV power generation: a) practical application, b) assembly of composite material floating support system,
and c) manufacturing of floating main beams.
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Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143
covered by FRP layers 2.5 mm thick (Fig. 14a). The installation of piles
was completed using a hoist (Fig. 14b–d), through the process used for
traditional concrete piles. For the application of the tubular piles in the
Hang-shen highway bridge, the composite section had a 609 mm outer
diameter and a 16 mm thick steel tube within covered by a 2.5 mm
thick FRP layer for the length of 11.1 m (Fig. 15a). The tubular piles
were manufactured by wrapping a steel tube in a FRP layer of +45/-45°
fibres to the longitudinal axis. A filament winding process was used to
wrap the continuous fibre impregnated by resin into the steel tube
surface before the process of curing, resulting in excellent wear re-
sistance and corrosion resistance. After sufficient curing, the tubular
piles 11.1 m in length were shipped to the construction site (Fig. 15b)
and then piled into soil using a piling machine (Fig. 15c).
7. GFRP modular retaining wall system
Apart from inland applications, GFRP composites have also at-
tracted strong interest for the construction of retaining walls in coastal
regions because of their superior corrosion resistance to steel and steel
reinforced concrete and their superior decay resistance to that of
timber. It has been reported [115] that the installation of a GFRP
composites seawall system may not require heavy machinery, sig-
nificantly saving construction time in comparison to traditional con-
crete seawalls. In practice, backfills create pressures on retaining walls,
introducing bending stress and deformation to the wall components.
Therefore, the seawall system must provide sufficient bending re-
sistance and satisfy relevant strength and deformation requirements.
Especially regarding deformation, although there are no specific design
specifications for GFRP seawall structures as a retaining wall system,
allowable deflections in the range of L/100 to L/60 [116,117] are re-
commended for retaining walls in general.
Considering the relatively low elastic modulus of GFRP composites,
appropriate design is important to achieve adequate structural stiffness
in bending, and such sections are further required to be designed for
convenient connection in order to form continuous retaining walls with
adaptation to possible changes in wall orientation. A modular GFRP
seawall system (ArmourWall) was developed in Australia using web-
H. Fang et al. Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143

Fig. 13. Manufactured FRP sheet piles for a) assembly in factory, b) installation and c) completion; and d) large-scale application for waterway in Jiangsu China.

Fig. 14. FRP steel composite piles for an overpass structure in Taiyuan: a) composite tubular sections; b), c) and d) installation process on site.

Fig. 15. FRP steel composite piles for bridge piers in Shanghai-Hangzhou highway: a) manufacturing in factory, b) shipping transportation, and c) on-site in-
stallation.

flange plank and pile sections with assistance from a specifically-de-
signed mechanical interlocking connection and this system has at-
tracted a few applications in Australia since 2016 with satisfactory
performance received so far (Fig. 16). The web-flange section is double-
H plank with adequate sectional inertial moment contributed by flange
areas distant from the neutral axis. The plank section is designed with
pin and eye connections in the flanges to join with other plank or pile
sections. Such connection configurations are provided at a few locations
around a pile section and therefore wall orientations can change at pile
locations (Fig. 16).
The double-H plank sections were manufactured through a pultru-
sion process with nominal depth, width and thickness of 260 mm,
580 mm and 6.4 mm respectively. The nominal diameter of the round
pile is 300 mm and the thickness is 6.4 mm. A series of experimental
studies was conducted to evaluate the bending performance of the
hollow GFRP double-H plank and round pile sections [118]. As shown
in Fig. 17a and b, such specimens were loaded under four-point bending
with a span length of 2.8 m. The load–displacement curves for both
double-H plank and round pile sections are shown in Fig. 17c, and the
slope in the linear stage was used to determine the corresponding

139
H. Fang et al.
Fig. 16. A modular GFRP seawall system with web-flange plank and pile sec-
tions and mechanical interlocking connection.
bending stiffness. The plank specimen failed through shear cracking
along the web-flange junction, due to the shear stress there exceeding
the corresponding inter-laminar shear strength, as also observed in a
few previous studies [119–122]. The pile specimen showed much
higher bending stiffness and also a larger ultimate load. It lost its load-
carrying capacity due to local crushing failure at the loading location.
As mentioned, in many cases the design of a retaining wall system is
dominated by deflection limits and this requirement is even more cri-
tical in structures made from GFRP composites because of their low
elastic modulus.
The plank and pile sections further allow filling of concrete (or other
backfill materials) to improve the bending stiffness. Four-point bending
experiments were conducted on the plank and pile specimens filled
with concrete (Fig. 17d and e respectively). The resulting load–displa-
cement curves (Fig. 17f) received from the middle span evidenced
considerable improvements in bending stiffness for both sections [123].
This study however focused only on the short term mechanical re-
sponses of the GFRP modular retaining wall system. Long-term per-
formance such as material viscoelasticity and creep-induced deflection
may be of interest as intensively investigated in several previous studies
[124–126].
To evaluate the connection performance of two adjacent sections in
terms of load transfer and rotation capacity, three plank sections
415 mm in length were assembled through their specific joint config-
urations and tested in the transverse direction (Fig. 18a). The web-
Fig. 17. Bending experiments on GFRP double-H plank and round pile sections: (a) and (b) test setup on plank and pile specimens without concrete filling and (c)
load-displacement curves; (d) and (e) test setup of plank and pile specimens filled with concrete and (f) load-displacement curves.
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Composites Part B 164 (2019) 129–143
flange sandwich sections were evaluated in Refs. [127,128] to under-
stand the effects of the rotational stiffness of the web-flange junctions
on the ultimate capacity of the GFRP bridge decks. It should be noted
that in this study the two ends of the specimen were fixed covering the
web-flange junctions to minimize end rotation and junction rotation, so
that the connection rotation could be the focus. The load and dis-
placement curve measured at the middle span is shown in Fig. 18b,
where an excessive deformation of more than 60 mm can be seen due to
rotation of the connection. The large deflection introduced high tensile
stresses at the web-flange junction and the transverse direction was also
associated with weak material strengths of the pultruded GFRP com-
posites. Initial cracking at web-flange junctions was noticed first at
about 7 kN (Fig. 18b) and the cracking developed with the increase in
loading. However, the cracking at the junctions did not bring ultimate
failure and the load continued to increase with larger deflection
achieved until the loading was manually stopped (Fig. 18b). It was
evident that the mechanical interlocking system was mechanically ef-
fective in transferring the stresses to adjacent sections up to a joint
rotation of 12° or greater, and it was also convenient for assembly.
8. Summary
FRP composites have shown their advantages in mechanical prop-
erties under in aggressive environments as reported in numerous stu-
dies. The many advantages of FRP composites support the development
of low weight, high strength and more durable civil infrastructure
under aggressive environments. However there is a clear lack in reviews
about the demonstrations of large scale civil structures and infra-
structure constructed using FRP composites. This paper therefore fo-
cused on such practices of FRP composites as major load-carrying
members for civil construction in aggressive environments, and em-
phasizes the suitability of FRP composites for such specific applications
in comparison to conventional materials. The paper started with a re-
view on major results for environmental effectiveness of FRP compo-
sites at structural level in form of connections and in situations in-
cluding elevated environmental temperatures, humidity and water
immersion, and UV radiation as the main aggressive environmental
factors. Quantification on the changes in material properties of FRP
composites subjected to various environmental effects and loading
conditions were not included to avoid repeated reports as these are well
covered in a few existing reviews and articles.
H. Fang et al.
Fig. 18. Mechanical interlocking connection under bending evaluation: (a) experimental setup and (b) load-displacement responses.
Furthermore this paper presented several implementations of FRP
composites for construction of large scale structures in civil infra-
structure applications, mainly from the authors' practices over the last
decade, including i) FRP truss and frame structures in high humility
areas, ii) FRP composites bumper systems for bridge piers, iii) floating
FRP structures for solar panels, iv) FRP composite piles for foundation
applications, and v) GFRP planks or piles for modular retaining walls.
These structures, currently in service and regularly inspected, show
satisfactory structural performance and durability so far, demonstrating
remarkable advantages including cost effectiveness. It is expected that
such practices may demonstrate applicability and provide solutions for
other similar needs, therefore providing insightful indications to further
assist design and industry uptake of such FRP applications for civil
infrastructure in aggressive environments.
Further research is being conducted to fully maximize the applica-
tions of FRP composites for civil infrastructure construction. Other
development work needs to be carried out, especially with respect to
modular solutions, improved high temperature performance, recycling
and reusability, and performance based design approaches.
Acknowledgements
The support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grant No. 51578285 and 51778285) and the Natural Science
Foundation of Jiangsu Province (Grant No. BK20161545) and the
Australian Research Council through the Discovery scheme
(DP180102208) are acknowledged. Thanks also go for the industry
supports and to the technicians at Nanjing Tech University and Monash
University for their assistance in conducting relevant experiments.
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