Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Application of pre-fabricated geopolymer permanent formworks (PGPFs): A

novel approach to provide durability and mechanical strength of
reinforced concrete
Erfan Riahi Dehkordi, Ali Akbar Ramezanianpour, Faramarz Moodi *
Concrete Technology and Durability Research Center (CTDRc), Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Permanent formworks (PFs) are elements which remain after construction for various applications including
Pre-fabricated improving strength parameters or thermal and acoustic insulation. In aggressive coastal environments, the
Permanent formwork quality of concrete may decrease due to difficult operating conditions. In this research, a novel application of PFs
Concrete
for enhancing the durability of concrete structures is discussed.
Durability
Strength
To begin with, important evaluation criteria were set for the PFs. Thanks to the desirable properties, a suitable
Geopolymer geopolymer mixture was selected to make PFs. Hence, mechanical and durability performance of the samples
Slag were examined by several experiments. Subsequently, the connection means between the formwork and the
Chloride ions substrate (conventional concrete) were studied by pull-off and Bi-surface experiments. In this way, various
Connection treatments were carried out on the surface of the PFs to ensure a suitable bond in the joints. At last, boundary
between the PFs was found as a threat to the penetration of chloride ions. So that, different adhesives were
applied to seal the PFs borders to finally suggest the desired option.
The findings of this study indicate that the approach of using prefabricated PFs can be effective in ensuring the
durability of reinforced concrete structures, especially against chloride ions penetration. The mechanical prop­
erties of the structure can also be improved with the help of PFs. The use of polyurethane mastic is recommended
to protect the seam between the PFs and also the surfaces indentation through a (square) lattice as well as ridging
the squares are suggested options for better connection of PFs to the substrate.

1. Introduction
Permanent formworks (PFs) are elements which remain after con­
struction. Different purposes can be achieved for utilization of PFs.
Formworks are used for concreting, structural performance improve­
ment (in repair or rehabilitation), thermal and sound insulations and
architectural facades. PFs may be single-functional or multi-purpose.
Besides that, as a new approach, The PFs can be used to protect the
structure from environmental damages. Except for a few cases, practi­
cally there is no study on the durability approach of the PFs. Based on
utilization, the PFs can be made of different materials. Wood, fibers
(glass or carbon), poly styrene, steel, concrete and composites are some
examples in this respect.
Le et al. [1] created the PFs using of ultra-high toughness cementi­
tious composites. They used a double-sided formwork as a surface pro­
tector to prevent corrosion of the steel reinforcement against the
aggressive environment. However, they have only studied the me­
chanical aspects of these formworks in their research. In the production
of formworks, cement, water, fine silica sand, superplasticizer and 2%
volumetric PVA fibers have been used.
Leung et al. [2] studied the strain hardening behavior of cementi­
tious composite PFs for beam and slab members. In part of research, they
noted that in beams and slabs that are under tension, it is important to
control the boundary layer bond. The use of U-shaped formworks and
restraining reinforcement at the end of the formworks is one of these
considerations.
Wu et al. [3] used high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious
composite PFs in reinforced concrete beams. The main purpose of this
study was to investigate the shear strength of the beams. In this regard, a
thin U-shaped architectural and structural piece of high-performance
composite cement containing steel fibers and wire mesh was prepared.
The thickness and height of the PFs were 20 mm and 400 mm

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fmoodi@aut.ac.ir (F. Moodi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103517
Received 19 August 2021; Received in revised form 19 October 2021; Accepted 22 October 2021
Available online 26 October 2021
2352-7102/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E.R. Dehkordi et al.
respectively. Bolts with a diameter of 16 mm have been used to create a
connection between prefabricated formwork and in-situ concrete.
Finally, they reported that the prefabricated U-shaped formwork
significantly increased the shear capacity of in-situ concrete beams and
shear reinforcements.
Kim et al. [4] used glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) PFs and
studied the relationship between flexural strength and
load-displacement of these panels. As conventional non-reinforced
concrete forms are vulnerable to failure due to the demolding and
transportation, they were also reinforced with FRP rod. These PFs are
used for bridge deck and ceiling with a thickness of about 10 mm.
Akmaluddin et al. [5] investigated the bending behavior of light­
weight reinforced concrete slabs with bamboo permanent formworks.
Samples are in 2700 mm long, 550 mm wide and 120 mm thick. Bam­
boos are about 80 mm in diameter and have a tensile strength of 104.5
MPa. The researchers examined the ductility of the composite by
changing the ratio of rebar reinforcement in the sample.
In a laboratory and numerical work, Li et al. [6] investigated and
modeled the heat transfer of permanent panels exposed to high tem­
peratures. Their PFs consist of wood chips and cement.
Rostam [7] has pointed out in his study that achieving a concrete
structure with a long-life cycle in an aggressive environment requires an
impermeable mixture with a special densification. Although this mixture
is necessary for external and exposed layers as coatings on reinforce­
ment, but in general it can be used in the whole structure or exposed
parts. Expectations are met by a combination of these items: low water
to cement ratio (mostly between 0.35 and 0.45), adding pozzolans such
as silica fume or fly ash and also long curing and extensive action to
control the temperature in order to prevent surface cracks at an early
age.
Bhutta et al. [8] investigated the durability properties of retaining
wall covered with Polymer Impregnated Concrete Permanent Form
(PICPF). Standard and PICPF retaining walls were exposed to marine
environment for more than 10 years. They studied carbonation depth
and chloride ions penetration in these walls by core drilling. According
to the outcome of this study, PICPF panels significantly reduced the
carbonation depth (from 8.9∼12 mm to 0 mm) and chloride ions con­
centration in atmosphere, in the ground and water immersion conditions
as well. In comparison of standard wall, mix design of PICPF had lower
water to cement ratio (0.35 < 0.4). Moreover, aggregate size in PICPF
mix design (10 mm) is lower than that in standard wall (20 mm). Lower
w/c and lower aggregate size led to lower permeability in PICPF which
improve durability against corrosive ions.
Leung et al. [9] believed that by utilization of Pseudo Ductile
Cementitious Composites (PDCC) durability of concrete structures can
be promoted. According to their reports, despite the high cost, PDCC
formwork is a highly effective protective layer against reinforcement
corrosion. Because the PDCC can obstruct the main crack formed during
loading and turn it into smaller cracks. They also studied on surface
treatments for better connection by creating a variety of longitudinal
and transverse grooves and sanding the surface. Another measurement
taken in this study was to reinforce the PFs with GFRP rebar, which
required increasing the formwork thickness to 30 mm.
Malheiro et al. [10] studied on chloride transport into components of
concrete and rendering mortar. They reported that rendering mortars
influence chloride transport into the concrete. This effect is more pro­
nounced for less porous mortars with higher cement content. Other
findings of these researchers were chloride accumulation close to the
interface of mortar and concrete region which is attributed to the dif­
ferences on chloride transport ability between the mortar and the
concrete.
Overall, the type of material, thickness, type of reinforcement,
weight, insulation, mechanical and durability properties, and the
connection details are among the factors that can be evaluated in the
subject of PFs.
Examining the studies conducted in the field of PFs, it should be
2
Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517
noted that limited research in this field is not itself related to concrete
PFs but includes various materials for instance polystyrene, wood,
textile, PVC, bamboo [5,11–17].
In the existing research, different parameters such as sound and heat
transfer or even fire resistance have been studied, and some of these
cases are also related to mechanical performance often with the aim of
strengthening flexural and shear capacities and reducing cracking, but
in the mentioned research, no action has been taken on how to connect
durably PFs to the substrate concrete. The least research can be found on
the durability evaluation of PFs too.
In the present study, in addition to providing mechanical specifica­
tions and other requirements of PFs, the main focus will be on the
durability of the composite assembly and providing proper connections
between the components.
One of the important options in choosing the mix design of PFs is
geopolymer mixture. Fast setting time, good mechanical properties and
strong bonding with concrete are some of the advantages of the geo­
polymers [18–21]. Also, studies have been conducted on the durability
of the geopolymer, which mainly show the acceptable performance of
these mixes against environmental aggressive factors [18,19,22,23].
However, there are studies that have different opinions about the
durability of geopolymers [18,24,25]. Therefore, more investigations
should be done on the durability of geopolymers, which in this study will
be elaborated to some extent.
2. Method of research
In this study, the step-by-step laboratory method has been used to
determine the optimal mix design of the PFs and also to measure their
mechanical performance and durability. Finally, the combined perfor­
mance of the formwork and substrate concrete with emphasis on joints is
discussed. So as to achieve the objectives of this study, several experi­
ments including compressive, tensile, flexural and impact strengths,
modulus of elasticity, drying shrinkage, capillary water absorption,
electrical resistivity, pull-off, Bi-surface and chloride ions penetration
tests have been used to go with the subject. The following results are
represented the average of 3 specimens at any age. The variation of each
experiment is less than 3%.
2.1. Material properties
For preparation of geopolymer mixture, blast furnace slag with
specific gravity of 2.88 is used as a binder with composition which is
presented in Table 1. As can be seen from the XRD analysis of slag
(Fig. 1), the structure of this material is mostly amorphous and is
desirable in this respect.
To improve the performance of the geopolymer mixture, slag is
replaced by ordinary Portland cement type I-425 (OPC), Calcium hy­
droxide and Magnesium oxide in limited percentages. Chemical
composition of Portland cement can be seen in Table 1. Sodium hy­
droxide flakes (Chinese product, 99.16% purity) is used to make alkaline
solution. Sodium silicate (Iranian Silicate Industries product, Ms = 2.33)
used for activation as well. Moreover, Sodium carbonate (Iranian
product, 99.98% purity) is used for activation of some mixtures.
The aggregates used in this research include river sand (Pssd = 2540
kg/m3 and absorption = 2.44%). As shown in Fig. 2, the sand gradation
is within the allowable ranges in accordance with ASTM C33 [26] with
fineness modulus of 2.66.
2.2. Mixing proportions
To attain a geopolymer mix design with acceptable mechanical
properties and durability, previous research has been reviewed. Among
them, the mix design reported by Jafari et al. [21] was selected based on
the relatively comprehensive studies they had conducted. Then, the
geopolymer mortar was made of the mentioned design using natural
E.R. Dehkordi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517

Table 1
Chemical composition of binder (%).
Oxide SiO2 CaO Al2O3 MgO BaO SO3 Fe2O3 TiO2 K2 O MnO Na2O SrO P2O5

Slag 37.32 34.8 9.9 6.9 4.1 2.5 0.38 1.3 1.0 1.0 0.46 0.25 0.09
Portland cement 20.8 64.3 4.65 2.2 – 2.3 3.9 – – – – – –

Fig. 1. XRD analysis of slag.

details of which can be seen in Table 3.

In addition to the geopolymer formwork, for better evaluation, a mix
design for conventional concrete used as substrate was determined as
Table 4. Workability in slump test was about 100 mm.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Achieve the optimal mix design

3.1.1. The effect of different material substitution

Compressive strength test was carried out on geopolymer mortar
cube samples with a side length of 5 cm in accordance with ASTM C109
[28].

Fig. 2. Fine aggregates gradation. Table 3

Replacement materials with binder/alkaline solution.

sand. So as to provide the desired flowability, with a few step-by-step Replacement legend Substitution (%
materials weight)
evaluation, finally, 0.6 was selected for NaOH to binder ratio as the
optimal option in aspect of providing appropriate flowability and con­ Control – GC –
sistency. 205 mm was recorded for flowability of modified mix in Binder (slag) replacement Portland Cement Ce 15, 25
with: Type I
accordance with ASTM C1437 [27]. At last, the mix design was Calcium Ca 5, 10, 15, 25
considered as Table 2. Hydroxide
Then, it is desirable to optimize the selected design as much as Magnesium Oxide Mg 1, 2.5, 5
possible. In order to reduce the drying shrinkage and promote the Alkaline solution (NaOH) Sodium Carbonate NC 10, 30, 50
replacement with:
compressive strength, 4 materials were selected for replacement, the

Table 2
Geopolymer mix proportions.
binder (slag) (kg/m3) sand alkaline solution (NaOH) Msa Na2 SiO3 NaOH water
binder NaOH binder solid
Modified mix design 520.7 2.75 6 mol/l 2.33 0.4 0.6 0.371
a
Ms: Silicate modulus of water glass (Na2 SiO3 ).

3
E.R. Dehkordi et al.
Table 4
Conventional concrete mix proportions.
Portland cement type I-425 (kg/m3) water Aggregates (dmax = 19 mm) (kg/
cement m3)
fine coarse
404.5 0.45 951 783
In Fig. 3, the values of compressive strength can be seen in geo­
polymer mixes containing different substituted materials. The legends
used in Fig. 3 are in accordance with Table 3.
As shown in Fig. 3, the presence of Portland cement increases the
short-term compressive strength. This is almost certainly true for cal­
cium hydroxide. However, this positive effect disappears over time,
which is less applicable in samples with lower replacement of the above
substances. Sodium carbonate-containing mixes, although less
strengthened in the short-term, have been able to exactly compensate
this decline over time. In the samples containing magnesium oxide, the
growth of compressive strength can be seen to some extent.
In order to achieve the optimal mix design, drying shrinkage test was
carried out on 2.5 × 2.5 × 28.5 cm geopolymer mortar samples in
accordance with ASTM C596 [29]. In Fig. 4, the drying shrinkage values
can be seen in geopolymer mixes containing different substituted
materials.
The replacement of slag with 15% Portland cement and also 10%
calcium hydroxide have been able to present better performance in
reducing the drying shrinkage as shown in Fig. 4. Meanwhile, with
higher replacement percentages of the mentioned materials, although
better performance can be achieved in the short-term, positive effect has
decreased over time. Magnesium oxide-containing mixes have not been
played a significant role in reducing shrinkage as well. The presence of
sodium carbonate, unlike other mixes, has increased shrinkage from the
beginning.
As a conclusion, in order to reduce the possibility of cracking, less
drying shrinkage is considered as the main criterion for mix selection.
Moreover, proximity of compressive strength of the substrate concrete
and permanent formwork to each other to make the composite set more
compatible as well as higher initial compressive strength are among the
other requirements in selecting the appropriate design. Hence, the mixes
containing 15% Portland cement is selected as a suitable option. Surface
troweling is also another benefits of the presence of Portland cement.
3.1.2. The effect of using fibers
The relatively small thickness of the formworks, transportation im­
pacts, as well as the impacts caused by installation and concreting make
Fig. 3. Compressive strength of geopolymer mixes containing different substituted materials.
4
Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517
it necessary to use fibers to increase ductility and improve impact
resistance of PFs. Shrinkage can be better controlled with the use of fi­
bers as well. Neutral nature, cheapness, availability and acceptable
mechanical performance make polypropylene (PP) fibers a suitable
option for utilization [30–32]. The specifications of the PP fibers are as
Table 5.
At first, the flowability of geopolymer mixes containing different
volume percentages of PP fibers was measured according to ASTM
C1437 [27] and shown in Table 6. It should be noted that super­
plasticizer additive is not used in any mixture.
As can be seen, with the addition of PP fibers, flowability decreases
so that in 1.5% of PP fibers, the mixture become agglomerate. In samples
containing 0.3% of PP fibers, the drop in flowability is not significant
(about 9%). Therefore, in the following, this amount of fibers is applied.
Then, compressive strength, flexural strength and impact resistance
of the samples were evaluated. Flexural strength test was performed on
4 × 4 × 16 cm prismatic samples at 7, 28 and 90 days of age. Then the
compressive strength was determined by the same samples (ISIRI 393
[33]). The results of the compressive and flexural strength experiments
can be seen in Table 7.
As the results show, the geopolymer mixture itself has a relatively
good flexural strength. In the mixture containing PP fibers, the amount
of flexural strength is slightly reduced (less than 4%), which may be due
to the reduced compaction capability of the fresh mixture in the pres­
ence of fibers. According to the observations, the presence of PP fibers
promotes ductility. Flexural ductile failure and reduced crack width are
approved this issue. The same trend is generally true for compressive
strength results.
Following laboratory investigation, according to the ACI 544 [34],
impact resistance test was carried out on disk samples with 152 mm
diameter and 63.5 mm height. During this test, the number of blows
leading to the initial crack and also failure are recorded by releasing a
10-pound hammer from 457 mm height on the sample. Fig. 5 and
Table 8 shows the preparation of the samples and the failure conditions
caused by the impact and the impact resistance results, respectively.
Based on the outcomes, it should be noted that the geopolymer
mixture itself has a good impact resistance in a way that without the
presence of fibers has been able to withstand 301 blows before failure.
High strength and viscoelastic properties of geopolymer can be consid­
ered as the reasons in this respect. The presence of 0.3%PP fibers can
also increase the impact resistance up to 19%.
Due to the relatively acceptable mechanical properties in the pres­
ence of PP fibers and possibly the greater effectiveness of these thin fi­
bers in controlling drying shrinkage and also reasonable price, the mix
containing 0.3% of ordinary PP fibers was selected for further studies
E.R. Dehkordi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517

Fig. 4. Drying shrinkage of geopolymer mixes containing different substituted materials.

(GCF). Final mix proportions are presented in Table 9.

Table 5
Specifications of polypropylene (PP) fibers.
3.2. Supplementary tests - comparison of values with substrate concrete
Specific Tensile strength Length Elongation Color
gravity (MPa) (mm) (%)
After selecting the mix design of formworks as shown in Table 9, in
0.91 400 12 80 white the next step, it was necessary to perform supplementary tests on the
selected mix design and compare values with the conventional concrete
as substrate concrete to ensure the compatibility of the composite. For
Table 6 this purpose, the conventional concrete mix design with a characteristic
Flowability of geopolymer mixes containing different PP fiber volume ratios. strength of 35 MPa (15 × 30 cm standard cylindrical samples) and a
Control (15Ce) 0.3P 0.5P 1P 1.5P water to cement ratio of 0.45 was selected. Then, various mechanical
and durability experiments were carried out on the formwork and the
Flow (cm) 20 18.2 14.6 11 -a
substrate concrete samples and their results were compared with each
a
Compaction was not possible. other.

Table 7
Compressive and flexural strength results.
Compressive strength (MPa) Flexural Strength (MPa)
Table 8
Mix 7 days 28 days 90 days 7 days 28 days 90 days Impact resistance results.
Control (15Ce) 47.5 62.3 71.1 7.79 8.23 8.70
Mix Impact resistance Impact energy (kN.mm)
0.3 PP 46.8 58.9 65.8 7.58 8.01 8.36
first crack (N1) failure (N2) first crack failure

Control (15Ce) 291 301 5923 6126

0.3 PP 341 358 6941 7287

Fig. 5. Impact resistance test procedure: (a). Making temporary molds and pouring PFs, (b). Impact test instruments, (c). Test settings, (d). Failed samples: Control
(top), 0.3 PP (down).

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E.R. Dehkordi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517

Table 9
Final geopolymer mix proportions.
PP fibers (%) binder (kg/m3) sand alkaline solution (NaOH) Ms Na2 Sio3 NaOH water
binder NaOH binder solid
Portland cement Slag

GCF 0.3 78.1 442.6 2.75 6 mol/l 2.33 0.4 0.6 0.371

3.2.1. Mechanical experiments

Table 10
Since PFs can also contribute to the load-bearing capacity of the
Splitting tensile and flexural strength values of the geopolymer and the substrate
structure, it is necessary to measure the mechanical properties of each of
concrete designs.
these two parts to forecast the strength of the composite.
Mix Splitting tensile strength Flexural Strength
(MPa) (MPa)
3.2.1.1. Compressive strength. Fig. 6 shows the compressive strength
results of geopolymer and substrate concrete mixtures on cubic samples 28 days 90 days 28 days 90 days

with a side of 10 cm. The compressive strength of the geopolymer is Substrate concrete (SC) 3.14 3.36 8.67 9
15%–121% higher than the substrate concrete. Better performance of GCF 3.07 3.25 8.01 8.36

geopolymer could be attributed to the different mix designs as well as

differences in maximum aggregate size. However, geopolymer performs
better in the short-term, the differences decrease with age. Table 11
Modulus of elasticity of the geopolymer formwork and the substrate concrete
3.2.1.2. Splitting tensile and flexural strengths. Splitting tensile strength (GPa).
was carried out on 15 × 30 cm cylinder samples in accordance with Mix 28 days 90 days
ASTM C496 [35]. Moreover, flexural strength of the substrate concrete Substrate concrete (SC) 33.8 36.8
was measured as same as the geopolymer mortar only with difference in GCF 20.3 21.4
sample dimensions (7.5 × 7.5 × 28.5 cm). Table 10 shows the results of
tensile and flexural strength experiments. Although, the tensile and
flexural strength of the substrate concrete is slightly better than that of more energy and thus delays the occurrence of micro cracks. The
the geopolymer formwork, may be for positive effect of the larger integrity of the laboratory composite samples under load confirms this
maximum aggregate size, these differences are negligible and their re­ issue.
sults can be considered almost similar.
3.2.2. Durability experiments
In the following, durability tests were performed on each of the
3.2.1.3. Modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity, which repre­
substrate concrete and the geopolymer formwork samples to ensure
sents the ratio of stress to strain generated in the loaded part, can play an
appropriate performance of the PFs in providing durability, especially
important role in maintaining the integrity of the composite and sharing
against the penetration of chloride ions.
the applied loads. For this purpose, according to the ASTM C469-02
[36], elastic modulus of the geopolymer formwork and the substrate
concrete at 28 and 90 days was measured on 15 × 30 cm cylindrical 3.2.2.1. Surface electrical resistance. According to AASHTO T358-15
samples under load with the help of a dial indicator, the results of which [37], surface electrical resistance test was performed on 10×20 cm cy­
can be seen in Table 11. lindrical samples until 90 days with the help of a 4-channel device. The
As the results show, the modulus of elasticity of the geopolymer results can be seen in Fig. 7.
formwork is about 40% less than that of the substrate concrete. To Although the electrical resistance of geopolymer mixture is lower
justify this, it should be noted large aggregates will increase the modulus than the substrate concrete at early ages, but over time, relative supe­
of elasticity, which can be seen in the substrate concrete. riority (up to 20%) is assigned to geopolymer mixture. According to the
Since the geopolymer formwork is placed around the substrate results of surface electrical resistance, the probability of chloride ions
concrete, the viscoelastic property of the geopolymer allows it to absorb

Fig. 6. Compressive strength results of geopolymer (GCF) and substrate con­ Fig. 7. Electrical resistance diagram of geopolymer formwork (GCF) and sub­
crete (SC) mixtures. strate concrete (SC) samples.

6
E.R. Dehkordi et al.
penetration can be determined [37]. According to AASHTO T358-15
[37], if the electrical resistance in cylindrical specimens of 10×20 cm
is less than 12 KΩ-cm, chloride ions penetration will be high and at
higher values, the performance will be better. The line drawn in the
diagram marks this boundary. Based on these data, regardless of the
values at an early age, the outcomes are such that both geopolymer and
conventional concrete samples classify into the category of moderate
permeability. Therefore, it seems that the results of this experiment
cannot itself clarify the significant durability performance of the geo­
polymer formwork. However, the presence of multiple ions in the geo­
polymer matrix may also affect the results of this conductivity-based
experiment.
3.2.2.2. Drying shrinkage. It was necessary to determine the drying
shrinkage values of the substrate concrete and compare it with the
values obtained from the geopolymer mortar. For this purpose, after
making prismatic samples with dimensions 7.5 × 7.5 × 28.5 cm, the
same procedure as the standard shrinkage test (ASTM C596-01) [29]
was occurred. In Fig. 8, the drying shrinkage values of the substrate
concrete can be compared with the geopolymer mixes.
Shrinkage values of the substrate concrete are significantly lower
than the geopolymer mixture. In general, the drying shrinkage of the
substrate concrete is about 91–74% less than the control geopolymer
mortar (GC). With the presence of 15% Portland cement and 0.3% PP
fibers in geopolymer matrix (GCF), this amount has been reduced to 86-
69%. Despite the fruitfulness of the activities carried out to reduce the
drying shrinkage of the geopolymer mixture, another solution was also
examined in this respect. Due to the prefabrication capability of PFs, it is
possible to manage their installation time. For this purpose, 7-days moist
curing was considered for geopolymer PFs containing 15% Portland
cement and PP fibers, and then the drying shrinkage values were
measured (GCF7). This method helps to reduce high drying shrinkage
rates especially at an early age and also, a significant part of that should
be done in a free (rather than restricted) state. As the results show, 7-
days moist curing was itself generally able to reduce the drying
shrinkage about 40–17% (in compared to the GCF) and the overall
drying shrinkage reduction of the substrate concrete in compared to the
GCF7 is about 71–60%. In Fig. 9, some parts of supplementary tests can
be seen.
3.2.2.3. Carbonation. One of the important factors in determining the
durability of concrete structures is their performance against the phe­
nomenon of carbonation, both in terms of increasing the probability of
rebar corrosion and changes in the concrete matrix. More details in this
regard will be mentioned below. The phenomenon of carbonation in
concrete is a complex process that requires long-term investigation. But,
Fig. 8. Drying shrinkage values of the substrate concrete (SC) compared to the
geopolymer mortar mixes: GC (control), 15Ce (GC with 15% cement replace­
ment), GCF (15Ce with 0.3%PP fibers), GCF7 (GCF with 7-days moist curing).
7
Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517
carbonation assessment in most researches is carried out based on
accelerated methods. Bakharev et al. [38] believe that the carbonation
rate of slag-based geopolymer mixture is higher than OPC in the accel­
erated experiment. But in the case of natural carbonation, carbonation
rate in slag-based geopolymer is only slightly higher than OPC [38]. On
the other hand, the results show that the compressive strength of
carbonated geopolymer samples either increases [38,39] or is constant
or slightly decreases [39]. He et al. [40] also reported that slag-based
geopolymer mixtures with a compressive strength between 30 and 50
MPa have better carbonation resistance, with low carbonation rates and
no significant reduction in strength. They also stated that slag-based
geopolymer mixtures with a compressive strength greater than 50
MPa have high resistance to carbonation and are not affected by it. In
addition to the above, it has been suggested that the presence of calcium
hydroxide in slag-based geopolymer mixtures due to reaction with car­
bonate ions can significantly reduce the carbonation rate [40].
Due to the small difference in carbonation rate of geopolymer sam­
ples and OPC in natural condition and also the compressive strength of
samples around 65 MPa (>50 MPa) in this study and the use of 15%
Portland cement which can produce calcium hydroxide in the hydration
process, it seems that the phenomenon of carbonation does not limit the
results of this study and the main determining factor is the penetration of
chloride ions.
At the end of the durability tests section, the chloride ions profile was
also measured, which is discussed in a separate section due to its
importance.
3.3. Chloride ions profile
To determine the chloride ions profile according to the ASTM C1152
[41], cubic samples with a side of 10 cm were made of substrate concrete
and geopolymer mixes. After 7-days curing, all faces of the samples
except one were coated with epoxy resin to penetrate only from one side.
After the epoxy dried, the samples were again submerged in water to
saturate so that the chloride ions penetrate by diffusion only. Then, the
samples were placed in a solution of 165 g/l sodium chloride solution for
2 and 6 months. At the appointed time, the samples were removed from
the solution and after drying their surfaces, powdering is being done at a
successive depth of 2 mm by drilling. Then, distilled water and nitric
acid were prepared to make a solution with powders. The solutions were
then heated and finally filtered. In the next step, the titration process
was performed on the obtained solution by potentiometer device to
determine the amount of chloride ions in each depth. In Fig. 10, the steps
of the above process can be seen.
In Fig. 11, the chloride ions profiles of the substrate concrete (SC)
and the geopolymer mixes (GCF) can be seen after 60 and 180 days
immersion in the 165 g/l NaCl solution.
The chloride ions penetration into the geopolymer mixture is
significantly less than the substrate concrete. In general, after 6 months
of exposure to the 165 g/l NaCl solution it can be said that the progress
of chloride ions into the geopolymer mixture is limited to about 1 cm
depth. However, at the same time, chloride ions penetrated into the
substrate concrete to more than twice this depth. So far, the approach of
using the geopolymer PFs seems to be a desirable option in improving
the durability of the conventional concrete against the penetration of
chloride ions.
3.4. Connections in compound element
To ensure the achievement of benefits mentioned in the previous
sections, it is necessary to have a proper connection between the com­
ponents so that the composite become stable against mechanical and
environmental loads. For this purpose, the connection between the
formwork and the substrate concrete and also the connection of the
formworks with each other in a composite column with a square cross
section will be examined.
E.R. Dehkordi et al.
Fig. 9. Some of supplementary tests: (a). Tensile strength, (b). Flexural strength, (c). Modulus of elasticity, (d). Electrical resistance, (e). Drying shrinkage.
Fig. 10. Steps for determination the chloride ions profile: (a). Preparation of cube samples and coating, (b). Powdering, (c). Making solution and heating, (d).
Filtering solution, (e). Titration.
Fig. 11. Chloride ions profiles of the substrate concrete (SC) and the geo­
polymer (GCF) mixes.
3.4.1. Connections of the formworks with each other
In the proposed composite system, one of the factors threatening
durability is the boundary between the PFs. Despite making the durable
formwork against the penetration of aggressive agents, chloride ions can
easily penetrate quickly through the seam between the formworks,
reach the substrate concrete surface and then, by passing the concrete
cover on the reinforcement over time, cause corrosion. Therefore, in
order to ensure the efficiency of the PFs, it is necessary to carefully
protect the seams. However, in this regard, with the use of integrated
formwork, concerns about seams can be eliminated, but practical con­
siderations in the transportation are also among the factors that may
limit the use of integrated ones. Then, by investigating the options ahead
and consulting the expert, three alternatives were proposed to protect
the seams: 1. Geopolymer slurry, 2. Epoxy adhesive and 3. Polyurethane
mastic. The specifications of polyurethane mastic and epoxy can be seen
in Table 12.
In the first stage, capillary water absorption test was carried out from
the mentioned surfaces. First, disks were made of geopolymer mixture.
Geopolymer slurry, polyurethane mastic and epoxy adhesive were then
applied on the lower sides of the disks. Then, after short-term curing, the
8
Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517
Table 12
General specifications of polyurethane mastic and epoxy.
Polyurethane mastic Epoxy
code P635 Sealant (a Turkish Farco Tile E-G 180 (an Iranian
company) company)
density 1.35 g/cm3 1.7–1.9 g/l
setting time (min) 30 30
tensile strength 1.5 ≥ 15
(MPa)
shear strength 7 ≥5
(MPa)
geopolymer slurry-coated samples were placed in an oven at 40 ◦ C to
stabilize the weight by removing excess water. Then capillary water
absorption test was performed according to ASTM C1585 [42]. This
experiment was also performed on the geopolymer and the substrate
concrete mix designs. Details of experiments and also the results are
shown in Figs. 12 and 13, respectively.
As the results show, water absorption of epoxy and mastic surfaces
are negligible. On the other hand, the slurry impregnated surface has
more water absorption and it is almost in the range of geopolymer
mortar absorption. It should be said that after removing the samples
from oven, despite limiting the temperature to 40 ◦ C and also gradually
increasing and decreasing the temperature, small cracks were observed
on the surface impregnated with the slurry. These cracks can be caused
by thermal gradients. Also, the thin thickness of the slurry and high
shrinkage tendency will affect the formation of cracks. However, this
test assumes an appropriate performance for polyurethane mastic and
epoxy adhesive.
Comparing the outcomes of the substrate concrete and the geo­
polymer, it should be said that water absorption of the substrate con­
crete is less. Assuming that most of the absorption takes place through
the capillary pores of the paste matrix, since significant areas of the
substrate concrete are consisted of fine and coarse aggregates, capillary
absorption will not occur from those parts. Although the geopolymer
mixture has more initial absorption, its secondary absorption that rep­
resents the diffusion phenomenon [43,44], decreases over time. Hence,
it seems that instead of relying on the amount of capillary absorption
(gr/cm2), it is better to pay attention to the secondary absorption
E.R. Dehkordi et al.
Fig. 12. Preparation of samples for capillary water absorption test: (a). Cut samples, (b). Heating, (c). Surface treatments (left), the substrate concrete and the
geopolymer mixes) right), (d). Water absorption settings.
Fig. 13. Capillary water absorption test of different surface treatments.
coefficient of the mixture (gr/cm2/hours0.5) which is the slope of the
second part of the diagram [42]. As can be seen in Table 13, the sec­
ondary absorption rate of geopolymer mortar is very similar to substrate
concrete.
Due to the superiority of the geopolymer over the substrate concrete
in chloride ions penetration test, it seems that capillary water absorption
itself may not be a suitable indicator to evaluate the durability of
mixtures.
In the next step, in order to determine the penetration depth of
chloride ions through the seam, PFs samples were made by simulating
corner connection and each of the mentioned surface treatments was
applied through the seam between the formworks. In some samples, the
formworks were simply placed next to each other without any surface
preparation (only physical contact). Other sides of samples were also
coated with epoxy to penetrate only through the seam area. By sub­
merging the samples in the 165 g/l NaCl solution for 6 months, the
penetration depth of chloride ions through the seam were finally
determined. Fig. 14 shows the steps taken in this section.
The results of the penetration depth of chloride ions after separating
the parts from each other and spraying silver nitrate on the surface are
presented in Table 14. These depths have been measured by calipers and
reported by averaging different parts of the seam.
In PFs with only physical contact, there is practically no barrier
against the chloride ions penetration. As a result, physical contact alone
Table 13
Initial and secondary absorption of geopolymer mortar (GCF) and substrate
concrete (SC).
Mix Absorption (gr/cm2/hours0.5)
Initial (Si) Secondary (SS)
GCF 0.2662 0.0069
SC 0.0802 0.0071
9
Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517
is not enough and protection must be provided. Although the use of
geopolymer slurry has also been able to reduce the penetration of the
seam to a good extent, it showed a weak bond with the bed surface while
separating the molds from each other. The best performance is for epoxy
and polyurethane mastic. The optimal performance of polyurethane in
reducing the chloride ions penetration can be seen in other study too
[45]. It should be noted that the penetration depth reading from mastic
and epoxy surfaces was more difficult due to the lower resolution of the
discoloration on mentioned surfaces caused by silver nitrate spraying.
3.4.2. Formwork connections with the substrate concrete
3.4.2.1. Installing PFs and then pouring the substrate concrete. The
connection of the formworks to the substrate concrete can be provided
in various ways with their advantages and disadvantages, Including the
use of embedded metal elements, creating indentation, applying tongue
and groove joint, and connection with the help of chemicals. For
example, the use of embedded metal elements not only increases the
probability of the corrosion due to metal part addition, but also the
difficulty in compacting fresh concrete, the difficulty in transporting the
formworks, and also increasing the probability of cracking are the other
side effects. Also, when using chemicals, they may dry sooner at ambient
temperature and thus be considered as a barrier for bonding. Also,
chemicals may alter the properties of fresh and hardened concrete by
creating secondary reactions. In this research, by inspiring of urban
objects, an attempt was made to establish a connection between the
formwork and the substrate concrete by applying indentation on the PFs.
For this purpose, square plates (with 15 cm side) made of Plexiglas talc
with smooth surface as well as square and circular grids were cut by
laser. Also, the angles of the nets were inclined by drilling to facilitate
the possibility of removing the sample from the plate. In selecting the
dimensions of square and circular grids, there was an attempt that the
cutting surfaces from the permanent formwork and the substrate con­
crete in shear strength test, which include hollow square and hollow part
cross sections, have the same area. Assuming the same compressive
strength of the substrate concrete and the permanent formwork, pro­
vides similar shear strength.
Finally, in each hypothetical 5 cm square, the hollow square
dimension and the diameter of the hollow circle were 3.5 cm and 4 cm,
respectively. It should be noted that the choice of the 15 cm dimension
for the lattice plate and also the 5 cm dimension for the virtual square is
for modular consideration in construction. Because the dimensions of
most structural elements are a factor of 5.
After preparation of Plexiglas plates and embedding them in metal
molds, PFs were poured. Details are shown in Fig. 15.
After 7-days moist curing, PFs were put back into the metal mold to
pour the substrate concrete between them. After 24 h, the composite
samples had been demolded and they were moist cured for 28 days to be
finally ready for testing.
The performance of different connections of the formwork to the
substrate concrete was evaluated with the help of two experiments: Pull-
off (ASTM D7234 [46]) and Bi-surface shear method [47,48]. Momayez
E.R. Dehkordi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517

Fig. 14. Steps for chloride ions penetration depth evaluation through the seam between the PFs: (a). Applying adhesive, (b). Putting weights for better bonding, (c).
Coating the samples except the seam, (d). Immersing in NaCl solution, (e). Exposing the seam, (f). Spraying silver nitrate and measuring the penetration depth of
chloride ions.

previous section, it was assumed that the formwork was first made in the
Table 14
factory, installed on site, and then fresh concrete was poured beside.
Chloride ions penetration depth through the seam between the PFs.
However, in some cases, such as repair or rehabilitation, the existing
Seam Treatment Penetration depth (mm) concrete structure may require PFs. In this situation, the application of
1 Only physical contact > 40 lattice surface is not a solution. Here, the performance of polyurethane
2 Geopolymer slurry 9.2 mastic and epoxy was investigated. First, the substrate concrete samples
3 Epoxy ≅ 5.5
were cast. After 90 days, the PFs were also poured in the same way as the
4 Polyurethane mastic ≅4
previous section. After 7-days of moist curing, the surfaces of the
formwork and the substrate concrete were ridged. After drying the
surface, adhesives were applied on the surfaces. Then, weights were
et al. [47] reported that the results obtained from the direct shear
placed on the composite so that the parts could be connected well
(Bi-surface) test is more accurate than the splitting prism method. In
together. After the adhesive had dried, the composite samples were
order to perform a pull-off test, it is first necessary to scrape around a
immersed in water until testing.
cylinder of the sample by core drilling machine. Then, the metal part of
the device is fixed to the upper surface of the cylinder by special glue.
After the glue is completely dried, the Pull-off test can be started (see 3.4.2.3. Results of Bi-surface and pull-off tests. The failure surfaces under
Fig. 16). Bi-surface and pull-off tests can be seen in Figs. 19 and 20, respectively.
In the case Bi-surface test, with the help of hydraulic jack and by The results of Bi-surface and Pull-off tests of various joints are
installing metal parts, the shear load is applied until the failure. Fig. 17 compared with each other in Figs. 21 and 22, respectively. The reported
shows the steps of this experiment. results are the average of 3 samples. Considering that in the samples
Then, another option was considered to enhance the connection, and connected with polyurethane, failure occurred inside the substrate
that was ridged surface, which was done with the help of wire and rotary concrete, the data obtained from the Bi-surface test can be considered
saw (see Fig. 18). Shear strength and pull-off tests were also carried out equal to the shear strength of the substrate concrete and it was assumed
on these samples. that the shear strength of polyurethane will be higher than this value
(see Fig. 21).
3.4.2.2. Connecting the PFs to the existing concrete structure. In the

Fig. 15. PFs (from idea to implementation): (a). Inspiring of urban mosaics, (b). Schematic of lattice plates, (c). Plexiglas lattice plates, (d). Inclining angles, (e). Mold
preparation and pouring, (f). PFs.

Fig. 16. Preparation of Pull-off test samples: (a). PFs, (b). Embedding the PFs into the molds, (c). Composite sample, (d). Core drilling, (e). Pull-off test settings.

10
E.R. Dehkordi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517

Fig. 17. Preparation of Bi-surface test samples: (a). PFs, (b). Embedding the PFs into the molds, (c). Composite sample (d). Bi-surface test settings.

Fig. 18. The ridged PFs: (a). Longitudinal grooves (b). Transverse teeth.

Fig. 19. Failure surfaces under Bi-surface test: (a). Flat, (b). Circular lattice, (c). Square lattice, (d). Ridged, (e). Epoxy impregnated, (f). Polyurethane impregnated
(failure inside the substrate concrete).

Fig. 20. Failure surfaces under Pull-off test: (a). Flat, (b). Circular lattice, (c). Square lattice, (d). Ridged, (e). Epoxy impregnated, (f). Polyurethane impregnated.

3.4.3. Select the desired connection option
Observing the appearance of the loaded samples in the Bi-surface
test, it should be said that in the flat state, after reaching the shear
strength, the permanent formwork and the substrate concrete are sud­
denly separated from each other. This is also true to some extent for
ridged and epoxy impregnated samples, but with higher strength values.
In contrast, in samples with lattice surfaces, although bearing less me­
chanical load than the ridged and epoxy surfaces, after the first crack
and even in some samples until the end of loading, the parts are not
separated from each other and the composite remains integrated well.
As a result, in connecting the PFs to the substrate concrete, it is necessary
to apply surface preparations. Among alternatives, the use of formworks
with lattice surfaces, preferably in square shape can be a proper option
in this regard. However, ridging the squares can also double this effect.
Regarding the protection of the seams against chloride ions pene­
tration, it should be said that the only physical contact of the PFs next to
each other is not effective. Therefore, necessity of seam protection
should be considered. Among the adhesives, the polyurethane mastic
due to its flexibility, acceptable mechanical properties and suitable
durability, can be an appropriate option to protect the joints between the

11
E.R. Dehkordi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 45 (2022) 103517

Fig. 21. Results of Bi-surface test of various types of joints.

Fig. 22. Results of Pull-off test of various types of joints.

PFs. with the results of this study.

Regarding the repair or rehabilitation of existing reinforced concrete
structures with the help of PFs, thanks to maintaining the connection in
Bi-surface test and also other mentioned advantages, polyurethane
mastic is recommended as a desirable option. In situations where
bonding forces dominate the structure, the advantages of epoxy can be
considered. Polymers are generally vulnerable to UV radiation [49–52].
Due to the fact that the joints are not exposed to direct sunlight, it is
expected that the possible damaging effects of UV radiation on a variety
of polymers including polyurethane are not relevant here.
Finally, a schematic of the proposed PFs system for a composite
column structure can be seen in Fig. 23. In this system, 2 L-shaped or 4
rectangular PFs can be used.
By applying low-thickness durable PFs from cementitious materials,
the service life of reinforced concrete structures can be significantly
increased. By using a PFs system due to the creation of a protective layer
against water evaporation, the need to curing the substrate concrete will
be minimized. Also, the effects of low quality performance on concrete
in hot and humid coastal areas can be reduced. As research continues in
this area, PFs can be gradually replaced by temporary molds and
backings during concreting too. Depending on the requirements of each
project, changes may be made to the selected design that do not conflict
4. Conclusion
According to the findings of this study, the following results can be
drawn:
- Geopolymer mixtures, theoretically, can be considered as a serious
option for concrete structures. However, some of their features
including fast setting, relative difficulty in construction, environ­
mental problems, health items, high shrinkage and high cost have
restricted the application of this technology in worldwide.
- The requirements of the PFs system need to consider a mix design
providing appropriate mechanical and durability specifications from
an early age. Thanks to the prefabrication capability of the form­
works in the factory, it is possible to overcome the implementation
problems of making geopolymer mixtures on site, control the health
considerations more precisely, and also reduce the costs due to the
small proportion of geopolymer mixture of the composite element.
Therefore, PFs approach can provide a good basis for the wider
application of geopolymer mixtures.

Fig. 23. Proposed PFs system for a composite column structure.

12
E.R. Dehkordi et al.
- In this research, by using such as 15% Portland cement and 0.3% PP
fibers and also 7-days moist curing of PFs, there was an attempt to
reduce the drying shrinkage of geopolymer mixture. Also, by adding
PP fibers, in addition to reduce the possibility of micro cracks, the
impact resistance of the PFs against the loads caused by trans­
portation and concreting will be developed.
- Experiments show better performance of the geopolymer mixture
than the conventional concrete in aspect of compressive strength and
durability against the chloride ions penetration. As a results, PFs
made of geopolymer lead to increase the service life of the reinforced
concrete structure by protecting it against aggressive environmental
conditions.
- The integrity of the composite structure cannot be ensured by using
PFs with flat surfaces. Therefore, it is recommended to indent the
surface through a (square) lattice as well as ridging the squares
- Lack of treatments in the joints between the PFs threatens the
durability of the composite structure. Due to the desirable properties
of polyurethane mastic, this study suggests its utilization to protect
the joints and also to strengthen the existing concrete structures by
gluing PFs.
- The advantages of the novel approach of PFs are not limited to
enhance the mechanical properties and durability. Concrete PFs
system can bring other benefits such as minimum need for the sub­
strate concrete to be cured, and minimum need for temporary molds
and backings in concreting. Further study in this area can pave the
way for further progress.
Author statement
Erfan Riahi Dehkordi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Valida­
tion, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing -
original draft, Visualization. Ali Akbar Ramezanianpour: Conceptu­
alization, Methodology, Resources, Supervision. Faramarz Moodi:
Investigation, Resources, Project administration, Writing - review &
editing, Supervision.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to acknowledge INSF for their technical support of
the project.
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