Buildings 10 00037 v2 PDF

buildings
Article
Introduction of the Intermeshed Steel Connection—A
New Universal Steel Connection
Salam Al-Sabah 1 , Debra F. Laefer 2, *, Linh Truong Hong 1,† , Minh Phuoc Huynh 1,‡ ,
Jia-Liang Le 3 , Tony Martin 4 , Pantelis Matis 5 , Patrick McGetrick 6 , Arturo Schultz 3 ,
Mohammad E. Shemshadian 3 and Roseanne Dizon 1,§
1 School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland;
salam.al-sabah@ucd.ie (S.A.-S.); l.truong@tudelft.nl (L.T.H.); phuynh@wit.ie (M.P.H.);
rdizon@punchconsulting.com (R.D.)
2 Center for Urban Science and Progress & Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tandon
School of Engineering, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
3 Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo- Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
MN 55455, USA; jle@umn.edu (J.-L.L.); schul088@umn.edu (A.S.); shems003@umn.edu (M.E.S.)
4 Department of Civil Engineering, Queens University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK; T.Martin@qub.ac.uk
5 School of Natural and Built Environment, Queens University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK;
pmatis01@qub.ac.uk
6 School of Natural and Built Environment, Queens University Belfast and College of Engineering and
Informatics, National University of Ireland, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland; patrick.mcgetrick@nuigalway.ie
* Correspondence: debra.laefer@nyu.edu; Tel.: +1-646-997-0504
† Currently Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CN Delft,
The Netherlands.
‡ Currently South Eastern Applied Materials Research Centre, Waterford Institute of Technology,
X91 TX03 Waterford, Ireland.
§ Currently Punch Consulting Engineers, A96 C7W7 Dublin, Ireland.

Received: 5 January 2020; Accepted: 16 February 2020; Published: 25 February 2020
Abstract: Digital manufacturing has transformed many industries but has had only a limited impact
in the construction sector. To capitalize on advanced manufacturing techniques, this paper introduces
a radically new connection approach for gravity structural steel frames. The proposed intermeshed
steel connection (ISC) exploits robotic abilities to cut structural steel member ends precisely to
accelerate deployment and offer better disassembly options over existing approaches. Forces are
transferred through common bearing surfaces at multiple contact points, and connections can be
secured by small locking pieces. This paper introduces the geometry, manufacturing, and initial
analysis and test results of the connection. The paper demonstrates the ability of the connection to
(1) be manufactured within current industrial tolerances, (2) be erected and disassembled, and (3)
perform at expected design levels.
Keywords: structural steel; connection; advanced manufacturing; disassembly; rapid construction
1. Introduction
Large steel structures are usually made by assembling smaller beams, columns, plates, etc. These
pieces are preassembled in a factory only to the extent that the assembled unit can be transported
from the factory to the site and handled on site with a crane. Ultimately, irrespective of whether in the
factory or field, all component parts of the final assembly must be connected securely to produce a
complete structure. Current connections options include bolting, welding, and less commonly riveting.
The evolution of these connections has depended upon the development of both metal cutting and
Buildings 2020, 10, 37; doi:10.3390/buildings10030037 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

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connecting technologies. As these technologies have advanced, so have the opportunities to use
them to create new structural connections. Yet, to date, there has been little exploitation in the realm
of structural steel connections for the construction sector. Most steel-fabrication shops remain only
semi-automated, with the production lines employing multiple cutting and drilling tools, and the
connections have remained largely unchanged. In response to the unexploited opportunities offered by
current advanced manufacturing techniques, this paper introduces the intermeshed steel connection
(ISC). The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Traditional approaches and manufacturing
advances are described in Section 2. Section 3 then introduces the proposed approach with respect
to manufacturing tolerances and application areas. This is then followed by a discussion of the
connection’s structural performance (Section 4). The paper then presents a short discussion of the
connection’s proposed benefits (Section 5), concluding with a summary of the remaining challenges for
the commercial deployment and widespread adoption of the ISC (Section 6).
2. Background
2.1. Historical Development of Steel Connections

Riveting is arguably the oldest steel connection method. It was used for metals dating back to
the Bronze Age [1] and gained prominence in the 19th and early 20th centuries. However, riveting
is regarded as difficult and dangerous as it requires skilled workers to operate under extreme noise,
vibration, and heat conditions. By the mid-twentieth century, advances in construction technology and
the availability of strong and highly uniform steel were drivers for developing more economical and
safer alternatives. This resulted in welding and high-strength bolts becoming the preferred methods [2].
The main issue with bolts was thread regularization, which was not effectively addressed until 1841,
when Whitworth introduced the first standard thread named the British Standard Whitworth (BSW) [3].
The current International Organization of Standardization (ISO) thread [4] is a close relative to the
BSW thread (as well as the German Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) thread [4]) and is accepted
today, almost universally, as the standard reference bolt.
Bolted connections are the preferred field connection because of the simplicity and reliability of
the installation process, even under adverse weather conditions. However, there are still some aspects
of bolting that cause erection delays and potentially reduced performance. For example, for friction
bolts, there is no direct relationship between the applied bolting torque and the resulting tension, and
preload variations of up to 30% have been reported [5]. The uncertainty of the pretension bolt force
requires a thorough post-installation inspection, which represents a significant part of the cost of using
friction bolts [5]. Furthermore, as each bolt must be installed individually, bolting can be highly time
consuming, particularly for moment connections where a large number of bolts is required.
The other modern connection alternative is welding. In the late 19th century, the discovery of
electricity opened the way for arc welding. By about 1930, the modern welding rod was developed as
part of manual metal arc (MMA) welding. Further technological advances resulted in tungsten inert gas
(TIG), metal inert gas (MIG), and metal active gas (MAG) welding. Today, shop welding in conjunction
with field bolting is the preferred connection approach (with riveting used only rarely). Welding
in the field, especially at height, requires considerable skill. Additionally, most site welds must be
non-destructively tested with an extent of up to 100% [6], which adds cost, time, and the need for highly
trained inspectors. Factors that may complicate the installation or compromise the quality of the weld
include the required portability of the welding equipment, the power requirements, wind, humidity,
welding position, and designed variations of welded joints [7]. This suite of complications contribute
to the general preference of bolting over welding for on-site connections [8], except for moment
connections in seismic zones in countries like the USA and Japan, where welding still predominates [8].
While more recent connections have been proposed such as the ConXtech connection [9] (Figure 1a),
the Kaiser connection [9], and the ATLSS connection [10], to date they remain limited in use due to high
costs, difficulties in manufacturing or installation, and/or lack of adaptability to the various connection
towards selecting the appropriate adhesive and its application to steel overlap connections. A useful
closed-form solution for the peeling and shearing stresses in polymeric adhesively bonded structures
is presented in [15], where it was intended to be used for the design analysis and exploration of such
connections by practicing engineers. However, the use of adhesives bonding in structural steel
Buildings 2020, is
connections 10,still
37 at an early stage of development. Major questions related to fire resistance 3and of 24
ductility need to be answered before a wide-scale application would be possible.

needsThe history
across theofstructural
metal connections demonstrates
steel industry. thatsystems
Of all the the mainmentioned
drivers for above,
change only
are technological
ConXtech is
advancements
commercially available but is marketed strictly as a beam-to-column connection. TheArguably,
that offer better economy and new requirements for erection speed. connectionrecent
relies
advances in manufacturing offer elements of both, along with additional functional advantages,
on a combination of bolts and accurate machining and cutting to provide overall savings gained from as
will be described in Section
faster on-site assembly [11]. 3. A brief overview of steel cutting methods is provided in the following
section.
Figure 1. Intermeshed steel connection (ISC): (a) front ISC; (b) side SC.
Figure 1. Intermeshed steel connection (ISC): (a) front ISC; (b) side SC.
Another promising technique is the use of adhesive bonding in structural steel connections. One
2.2. Current
study Advanced
[12] showed Steel
that theCutting Methods
application and Affiliated
of adhesives Technologies
in steel construction is possible as a stand-alone
solution
Sawsor in oxy-fuel
and combination are thewith bolts. More
traditional recentsteel
structural research
cuttingin methods.
this direction
They[13,14] was applied
are mostly directed
towards selecting
manually, the appropriate
which results adhesivespeed
in highly variable and itsand
application
accuracyto steel overlap
depending upon connections.
the relativeAskill
useful
of
closed-form solution for the peeling and shearing stresses in polymeric adhesively
the tradesperson. The introduction of computer numerical control (CNC) technology and robotic bonded structures
is presented
arms in [15],with
in conjunction where
more it advanced
was intended copingto methods
be used (e.g.,
for the design
plasma analysis
cutting, and
laser exploration
cutting, waterjet,of
suchelectrical-discharge
wire connections by practicing machining engineers.
(WEDM)) However, the use
overcome of adhesives
these bonding
disadvantages and in structural
enable steel
precisely
connections
shaped is still
steel cuts at an
to be early stage
produced moreofaccurately,
development. Major
rapidly, andquestions related
consistently thanto fire resistance
previously and
possible.
ductility
Other need tosuch
methods, be answered
as millingbefore a wide-scale
and machining, areapplication would applications.
used in specialist be possible. These advances in
cuttingThe history of metal
technologies allow connections
the shaping demonstrates that the main drivers
of steel with unprecedented for repeatability,
precision, change are technological
scalability,
advancements
and that offer better
economic efficiency. economy
Furthermore, andcoupling
their new requirements for erection
with robotic-arms speed.
offers newArguably,
options forrecent
3D
advances inthat
fabrication manufacturing
are only beginningoffer elements of both, along with additional functional advantages, as will
to be explored.
be described in Section 3. A brief overview of steel cutting methods is provided in the following section.
2.2.1. Laser Cutting
2.2. Current Advanced Steel Cutting Methods and Affiliated Technologies
Laser cutting focuses a high power laser beam to heat and melt steel. Cutting gas is applied to
Sawsthe
both cool and oxy-fuel
focusing areand
lens the remove
traditional
thestructural
molten steelsteel cutting
waste. Themethods.
technology They are mostly
works applied
to thicknesses
manually, which results in highly variable speed and accuracy depending upon
of about 40 mm in steel and produces precise geometries, but at a slower speed and higher operating the relative skill of
the tradesperson.
costs compared to plasma The introduction of computer
cutting, particularly numerical
as material controlincreases
thickness (CNC) technology
[16]. and robotic
arms in conjunction with more advanced coping methods (e.g., plasma cutting, laser cutting, waterjet,
wire Plasma
2.2.2. electrical-discharge
Cutting machining (WEDM)) overcome these disadvantages and enable precisely
shaped steel cuts to be produced more accurately, rapidly, and consistently than previously possible.
With plasma cutting, a high temperature ionized gas arc is used to melt the steel and remove the
Other methods, such as milling and machining, are used in specialist applications. These advances in
molten waste. High-end plasma cutting differs from normal plasma cutting by its focused arc. This is
cutting technologies allow the shaping of steel with unprecedented precision, repeatability, scalability,
achieved by the introduction of a swirl gas in addition to the plasma gas, which makes the plasma
and economic efficiency. Furthermore, their coupling with robotic-arms offers new options for 3D
arc narrower, more stable, and having higher energy density than normal plasma. This process covers
fabrication that are only beginning to be explored.
a wide range of material thicknesses from 0.5 mm to 160 mm. Though the capital costs are higher
than
2.2.1.conventional
Laser Cutting plasma cutting, they are much lower than laser cutting [16].
Laser cutting focuses a high power laser beam to heat and melt steel. Cutting gas is applied to
both cool the focusing lens and remove the molten steel waste. The technology works to thicknesses of
about 40 mm in steel and produces precise geometries, but at a slower speed and higher operating
costs compared to plasma cutting, particularly as material thickness increases [16].
2.2.2. Plasma Cutting

With plasma cutting, a high temperature ionized gas arc is used to melt the steel and remove the
molten waste. High-end plasma cutting differs from normal plasma cutting by its focused arc. This is
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 4 of 24
achieved by the introduction of a swirl gas in addition to the plasma gas, which makes the plasma arc
narrower, more stable, and having higher energy density than normal plasma. This process covers a
wide range of material thicknesses from 0.5 mm to 160 mm. Though the capital costs are higher than
conventional plasma cutting, they are much lower than laser cutting [16].
2.2.3. Waterjetting
In waterjetting, a thin stream of water under high pressure is combined with an abrasive slurry to
cut the steel by means of erosion [17]. The waterjet has the advantage of being able to accurately cut
steel members up to 100 mm and having no heat affected zone [HAZ] [18]. However, cutting speed is
typically slower than both laser and plasma cutting [19]. Furthermore, integrating waterjet technology
into a typical steel fabrication production line is difficult due to the presence of water.
2.2.4. Wire Electrical-Discharge Machining (WEDM)

In WEDM a wire of brass, molybdenum, or tungsten is continuously fed through the workpiece,
while a dielectric fluid (typically deionized water) fills any gap between the wire and the workpiece [20].
An electric current is passed through the wire to create a spark between the wire and the workpiece
through the dielectric fluid. Each spark results in some erosion in the workpiece and the wire. As such,
the wire must be fed continuously to prevent breakage. The main cutting variables are the wire,
its diameter and feeding speed, the voltage, current, frequency, and fluid type. Current equipment
automatically feeds the wire and controls its inclination by controlling the position of the upper and
lower guides.
2.3. Tolerances: Manufacturing and Erection of Structural Steel

All manufacturing and erection processes work within their respective tolerance ranges. The term
tolerance refers to the permissible range of variation in an object’s dimensions. A manufactured item
cannot be produced to exact design dimensions but, instead, is manufactured within a set of tolerances
that must be set so as to not negatively affect the function or appearance of an item. The actual
dimensional deviations will depend upon a manufacturing method’s accuracy and quality control.
If a manufactured item is composed of smaller parts, then all components must be manufactured to a
tolerance such that the interfaces of the components will not compromise the whole. There are many
sources of dimensional deviations in steel structures. These can be summarized as follows:
1. Section manufacturing. These are specified in national and pan-national standards such as EN
10034 [15] in the European Union (EU) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
A 6/A 6M-07 [21] in the USA. As an example, for typical Universal Beam (UB) and Universal
Column (UC) steel sections used in Ireland and the UK in standard buildings, with section heights
not more than 400 mm and section widths not more than 325 mm, the section height manufacturing
tolerance can be +4/−2 mm, and the section width tolerance can be +4/−4 mm. The section
out-of-square tolerance is 2% of the width with a maximum of 6.5 mm. The manufacturing
tolerance on straightness is 0.15% of the member length. For example, a member 7500 mm long
can be out of straightness by 11.25 mm. Similarly, the section height manufacturing tolerance can
be +4/−3 mm, and the section width tolerance can be +6/−5 mm, for typical W steel used in the
USA in standard buildings, with section heights not more than 310 mm. The section out-of-square
tolerance is 6 mm, and the manufacturing tolerance on straightness is 0.1% of the member length.
2. Cutting. These are specified in national standards and codes of practice such as the National
Structural Steelwork Specifications for Building Construction [6], EN 1090-2 [22], and ANSI/AISC
303-16 [23]. These tolerances are considered to be within the capability of all steel fabricators.
3. Cutting tolerance classification is usually specified according to the international standard ISO
9013 [24]. This standard is applicable mainly to thermal cutting (laser and plasma) but can also
be applied to waterjet cutting and WEDM. Five tolerance ranges are specified with Range 1 (best)
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 5 of 24
and Range 5 (worst). For example, cutting a 10 mm plate to satisfy Ranges 1–5 will result in a
deviation (or perpendicularity) of 0.08 mm, 0.22 mm, 0.50 mm, 1.0 mm, and 1.55 mm, respectively.
WEDM can easily achieve Range 1. The best laser and waterjet cutters can also achieve Range 1,
however the best plasma cutters can only achieve Range 2 or 3.
4. Site erection: A key factor for a successful erection of the steel building is the correct location
of the first lift columns, which depends on the anchor bolts that connect the columns to their
reinforced concrete foundations. The erection tolerance of the column horizontal base position in
Ireland and the UK is ±10 mm. The equivalent tolerance in the USA is similar for anchor rod
diameters between 25 and 38 mm. Bolt position adjustment is achieved through a combination
of oversized anchor bolt pockets; oversized base plate holes and plate washers; and post-fixed
anchor bolts. In a typical bolted connection with normal-sized bolts, the bolt-hole diameter is
usually 2 mm larger than the bolt, for bolts not larger than 24 mm in diameter (22 mm in the
USA). The resulting gap allows for some adjustability of the steel member locations. When more
adjustability is required, slotted holes and shim plates can be used. All of these aspects, as well as
the ambient temperature, contribute to the erection tolerances.
3. Intermeshed Steel Connection (ISC)

Capitalizing on advances in digital manufacturing to accelerate on-site structural steel assembly
and addressing some of the disassembly issues, a new concept in gravity-resisting steel connections
entitled the intermeshed steel connection (ISC), is proposed herein; a brief description of the concept
was previously presented as a conference paper [25]. The fundamental concept of the ISC is to replace
existing field connections with those that are easier and faster to assemble. This is done through
an arrangement of interlocking pieces that involve simultaneous, bi-directional meshing and load
transfer (Figure 1). One direction of meshing is achieved in the horizontal plane at the upper and lower
flanges through fingers cut from the flange. The other meshing direction is achieved in the vertical
plane through the cutting of the web. In all cases, the meshing is achieved by using state-of-the-art
manufacturing techniques to precisely cut the ends of each steel member that is to be connected. Force
is transferred at multiple surfaces primarily through bearing. No intermediary piece is needed. After
positioning the members, the connection can then theoretically be locked, as will be explained below.
Geometric modifications of the bi-directional meshing concept are employed to address
manufacturing complexities, assembly tolerances, and different levels and types of loading for
specific applications including beam-to-beam, column-to-column, and portal frame connections where
a column (i.e., stanchion) is attached to a rafter (Figure 2). In this last instance, the intermeshed steel
connection is designed to accommodate large bending moments, as well as shear and axial forces.
The connection can also be used in a stub-out or “Christmas Tree” arrangement [26] where multiple,
short beam stubs have been affixed to a beam via welding or bolting in the fabrication shop, and the
beam is then inserted in the field between the two column stubs. Finally, there is the option for the ends
to be manufactured separately and then shop-welded to any standard section, thereby enabling the
entire structural steel industry to use this connection without every fabricator having to own robotic
cutting equipment. The ISC was conceived to provide a new path to develop a class of universal and
scalable connections for both buildings or other structures.
As an evolution to the full bi-directional meshing, a simpler, one-directional option was designed,
Figure 1b. This connection can be seen as a transition from traditional, fully bolted connections to
the ISC concept of no bolting. In this instance, the use of a web splice plate provide a simple means
for transferring shear force—supporting the beam during assembly and allowing easier adjustment
of the beam position. This can be achieved easily, as the number of bolts used in web splice plates
is small relative to the number required for a flange splice plate. The two main variations of the ISC
are: (1) front intermeshed (Figure 1a) and (2) side intermeshed (Figure 1b). These are described below
in Sections 3.1 and 3.2. In both instances, small manufacturing-based gaps are expected between the
connected parts to allow a degree of adjustability.
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Figure 2.
Figure Some intermeshed
2. Some intermeshed steel
steel connection
connection configurations.
configurations.
3.1. Front Intermeshed Connection

3.1. Front Intermeshed Connection
The front ISC version was envision to minimize component parts (Figures 1a and 3). The connection
The front ISC version was envision to minimize component parts (Figures 1a and 3). The
was designed for load transfer to occur directly through both the web and flanges. In the web, happens
connection was designed for load transfer to occur directly through both the web and flanges. In the
through bearing at multiple contact points along the stepped, high precision cutting. In the flanges,
web, happens through bearing at multiple contact points along the stepped, high precision cutting.
this is done via precisely cut fingers with flared ends. Specifically, the distal part of each finger is
In the flanges, this is done via precisely cut fingers with flared ends. Specifically, the distal part of
wedged to maximize three-dimensional (3D) inter-meshing (Figure 3a). Once the members are properly
each finger is wedged to maximize three-dimensional (3D) inter-meshing (Figure 3a). Once the
positioned (Figure 3b), a specially designed locking mechanism could be added across the webs of the
members are properly positioned (Figure 3b), a specially designed locking mechanism could be
connecting members (Figure 3c,d). Although the connection was intended to resist gravity loads only,
added across the webs of the connecting members (Figure 3c,d). Although the connection was
a lock could provide robustness and protect against unseating in the case of uplift or unexpected lateral
intended to resist gravity loads only, a lock could provide robustness and protect against unseating
loading at the connection point. In such an instance, disassembly would be achieved by removing the
in the case of uplift or unexpected lateral loading at the connection point. In such an instance,
locking pieces and then lifting the steel pieces apart. Presently, only testing with a simple bolted plate
disassembly would be achieved by removing the locking pieces and then lifting the steel pieces apart.
has been undertaken.
Presently, only testing with a simple bolted plate has been undertaken.
The front ISC connection was conceived to allow rapid assembly and short hook time but requiring
The front ISC connection was conceived to allow rapid assembly and short hook time but
precise cutting of the flanges with only small allowable manufacturing tolerances as achievable with
requiring precise cutting of the flanges with only small allowable manufacturing tolerances as
plasma or laser cutting. High precision cutting is needed to mobilize the bearing and shear load
achievable with plasma or laser cutting. High precision cutting is needed to mobilize the bearing and
transfer through the wedge action, and the required small erection tolerances demand strong, on-site
shear load transfer through the wedge action, and the required small erection tolerances demand
quality control, which are not always possible. The structural performance of the front ISC was found
strong, on-site quality control, which are not always possible. The structural performance of the front
to lack sufficient ductility and strength (See Section 4.1). To address those scenarios and to improve
ISC was found to lack sufficient ductility and strength (See section 4.1). To address those scenarios
both the connection’s strength and the ductility, the side ISC was developed (See Section 3.2).
and to improve both the connection’s strength and the ductility, the side ISC was developed (See
Section 3.2).
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 7 of 24
Figure 3. Front
Figure 3. Front ISC:
ISC: (a)
(a) front
front ISC
ISC components
components with
with lock;
lock; (b)
(b) assembled
assembled front
front ISC;
ISC; (c)
(c) assembled
assembled and
and
locked front ISC; (d) close-up of lock.
locked front ISC; (d) close-up of lock.
3.2. Side Intermeshed Steel Connection
3.2. Side Intermeshed Steel Connection
To accommodate larger tolerances in manufacturing and/or erection, the side ISC arrangement
To accommodate larger tolerances in manufacturing and/or erection, the side ISC arrangement
was devised (Figure 4). Higher tolerances require more “play” in the connection to ensure contact
was devised (Figure 4). Higher tolerances require more “play” in the connection to ensure contact
between the fingers. Larger tolerances reduce the amount of available contact surface through which
between the fingers. Larger tolerances reduce the amount of available contact surface through which
load transfer occurs. These larger tolerances are achieved through the introduction of a set of side plates
load transfer occurs. These larger tolerances are achieved through the introduction of a set of side
at both the upper and lower flanges. In this arrangement, there are fingers at one of the member’s ends
plates at both the upper and lower flanges. In this arrangement, there are fingers at one of the
and also along the flange’s sides (Figure 4a). However, unlike the fingers in the front ISC, those on the
member’s ends and also along the flange’s sides (Figure 4a). However, unlike the fingers in the front
side ISC do not flare at the distal ends. Also, in this arrangement, side fingers both secure the side plates
ISC, those on the side ISC do not flare at the distal ends. Also, in this arrangement, side fingers both
and transfer the load through multiple bearing faces, while those at the front aid only in placement
secure the side plates and transfer the load through multiple bearing faces, while those at the front
and maintaining lateral connectivity and stability. Load is also transferred through bearing at multiple
aid only in placement and maintaining lateral connectivity and stability. Load is also transferred
contact faces in the web through the stepped profile of the web. In practice, the side plates can be
through bearing at multiple contact faces in the web through the stepped profile of the web. In
affixed using a variety of methods, such as locking pins or spring locks. The method shown in Figure 4
practice, the side plates can be affixed using a variety of methods, such as locking pins or spring locks.
uses T-head bolts. The bolt head is inserted in a compatible cut in a side finger (Figure 4b). Then the
The method shown in Figure 4 uses T-head bolts. The bolt head is inserted in a compatible cut in a
side plates can be assembled. Finally, the t-bolts are affixed with nuts at the outer face of the side plates,
side finger (Figure 4b). Then the side plates can be assembled. Finally, the t-bolts are affixed with nuts
Figure 4c. Presently this arrangement with the t-head bolts has been tested only for constructability.
at the outer face of the side plates, Figure 4c. Presently this arrangement with the t-head bolts has
A feature that can be added is tapered finger edges with a small slanted angle, Figure 5. This can
been tested only for constructability.
offset the gaps between the flange fingers and the side plate holes caused by manufacturing tolerances.
A feature that can be added is tapered finger edges with a small slanted angle, Figure 5. This can
Other variations of the connections can be used. These include a bolted web splice plate instead of
offset the gaps between the flange fingers and the side plate holes caused by manufacturing
the multiple web contacts, as discussed earlier in this section. Furthermore, side angles can be used
tolerances. Other variations of the connections can be used. These include a bolted web splice plate
as an alternative to side plates, Figure 6a, or full-depth side plates, Figure 6b. In that case, the side
instead of the multiple web contacts, as discussed earlier in this section. Furthermore, side angles can
plates/angles do not protrude above the top flange. This arrangement can be used when the top flange
be used as an alternative to side plates, Figure 6a, or full-depth side plates, Figure 6b. In that case, the
directly supports a slab.
side plates/angles do not protrude above the top flange. This arrangement can be used when the top
The side ISC can be produced through multiple technologies. While cutting the flanges and web
flange directly supports a slab.
requires a multi-axis robotic arm and a plasma or laser cutter, the side plates or angles are relatively
The side ISC can be produced through multiple technologies. While cutting the flanges and web
small and are, thus, producible via any simple flat-bed cutter with plasma, laser, or water-jet cutting.
requires a multi-axis robotic arm and a plasma or laser cutter, the side plates or angles are relatively
small and are, thus, producible via any simple flat-bed cutter with plasma, laser, or water-jet cutting.
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Figure 4. Side ISC: (a) components of the side ISC connection; (b) assembled components with side
Figure
bolts in4.place;
Figure 4.Side ISC:
Side(c) the(a)
ISC: components
completed
(a) sideofof
components the
ISC side
sideISC
ISCconnection;
connection.
the connection;(b)
(b)assembled
assembledcomponents
componentswith
withside
side
bolts in place; (c) the completed side ISC connection.
bolts in place; (c) the completed side ISC connection.
Figure 5. Side ISC with tapered fingers showing the assembled the connection components and details
Figure 5.
Figure SideISC
5. Side ISCwith
withtapered
taperedfingers
fingersshowing
showing the
the assembled the
the connection components
components and details
details
ofFigure 5. Sideand
the fingers ISCholes
with tapered
of the sidefingers showing theassembled
plates. assembled theconnection
connection componentsand
and details
of the
ofofthe fingers and holes of the side plates.
thefingers
fingersand
andholes
holesofofthe
theside
sideplates.
plates.
a b
aa bb
Figure 6. Alternative
Alternative arrangements
arrangements of
of side
side ISC:
ISC: (a)
(a) side
side angles
angles shown
shown with
with the
the bolted-web
bolted-web option;
option; (b)
(b)
Figure 6.6.Alternative
Figureside
single Alternative
plates. arrangements
arrangementsofofside
sideISC:
ISC:(a)
(a)side
sideangles
anglesshown
shownwith
withthe
thebolted-web
bolted-weboption;
option;(b)
(b)
single side plates.
single side plates.
3.3. Accommodating
3.3. Accommodating Tolerances
Tolerances
3.3. Accommodating
3.3. Accommodating Tolerances
As discussed
As discussed in inTolerances
Section 2.3,
Section 2.3, steel
steel structures
structures are
are made
made with with consideration
consideration of of manufacturing,
manufacturing,
As discussed
fabrication, and
As discussed
fabrication, in
erectionSection
based
in Section
and erection 2.3,
based steel
dimensional structures
2.3,dimensional
steel structures are
deviations. made
The
are made
deviations. with
normal
with
The consideration
practice of of
erecting
consideration
normal practice of manufacturing,
steel structures
of manufacturing,
erecting steel
fabrication,
using bolted
fabrication,
structures and
site erection
connections
andbolted
using erection based dimensional
requires careful
based dimensional
site connections deviations.
adjustment
deviations.
requires careful of The
the normal
interface
The normal
adjustment practice
between of
the erecting
steel
practice between
of the interface the steel
columns
of erecting steel
steel
structures
and their
structures
columns using
reinforced
andusing bolted
theirbolted site
concrete connections
foundation.
site connections
reinforced requires
Once careful
the
requires careful
concrete foundation. adjustment
columns are
Onceadjustment of the
accurately
the columns ofare interface between
positioned,
theaccurately the
interface between the
beams steel
will
the steel
positioned, the
columns
fit between
columns
beams and
willand
fittheir
them.
their reinforced
As
between them. concrete
discussed
reinforced in
concrete
As foundation.
Section 2.3,
foundation.
discussed Once
steel
in SectionOnce the
members
the
2.3, columns
have
columns
steel are
membersareaccurately
different
accurately
have positioned,
geometric
different deviations
positioned, the
geometricthe
beams
beamswill
resultingwill
deviations fit
from between
fitsteel
between
resulting them.
members
fromthem. As
Asdiscussed
manufacturing
steel membersand
discussed ininSection
cutting.2.3,
Section 2.3,
manufacturing steel
Thesesteel
andmembers
deviations
members
cutting. have
are different
accommodated
have different
These geometric
during
geometric
deviations are
deviations
deviations resulting
accommodated duringfrom
resulting from
the steel
steel members
erection ofmembers manufacturing
manufacturing
the structure by the presence and
andofcutting.
cutting. These
These deviations
a small amount deviations
of are
adjustabilityare
accommodated during the erection of the structure by the presence of a small amount
accommodated during the erection of the structure by the presence of a small amount of adjustability of adjustability
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 9 of 24
the erection of the structure by the presence of a small amount of adjustability in the site bolted
connections. Specifically, each bolt hole is 2–3 mm larger than the expected bolt diameter. There are
three means through which the erection of a traditional structural steel connection is accomplished: (1)
adjustability at bolt locations, (2) keeping the connection bolts untightened until the alignment of the
members is finalized, and (3) using a podger spanner to align the holes at the points of connection.
In contrast, with the front ISC, the only possibility to accommodate dimensional variations is
by providing sufficient gaps between the fingers. However, such gaps will reduce the structural
performance of the connection, as they will result in reduced steel remaining in the intermeshed fingers.
Consequently, the front ISC connection cannot accommodate much adjustability and, thus, requires
accurate control over the section geometry, member straightness, and end cutting precision. Hence,
deployment of the front ISC is limited to where the required precision is achievable.
In contrast, the side ISC was envisaged from the start of its development to allow for larger
adjustability without significantly affecting structural performance. In a similar fashion to using bolt
holes that are larger than the bolts themselves, the holes in the side plates (or angles) of the side ISC
can be made larger than the flange fingers. The horizontal dimension of the holes can be increased
to allow for more tolerance in the member length direction. Vertical hole expansion is also possible
where needed. Such cases can be encountered when the section depth and/or the section out-of-square
of the two connected members is different due to manufacturing deviations. Furthermore, tapered
fingers with matching tapered holes allow for easier assembly. In this case, the mating surfaces will
have relatively large gaps when the side plates are aligned to be pushed onto the fingers. The gaps will
reduce, as the side plates approach final positioning.
The typical, non-preloaded bolted connection usually works by transferring the connection forces
through shear. This requires the connected parts to move relative to each other to achieve contact with
the bolts. The resulting slip manifests itself in initial structural deflections and movements that will
develop during construction. In typical steel structures, such deformations can be counteracted by
pre-cambering the members. Similarly, a side ISC can also be pre-cambered to counteract the initial
deflections and slip likely to occur due to the gaps between the contact surfaces.
4. Connection Structural Performance

The relevant ISC design principles are described in this section. As previously mentioned, the ISC
transfers load through multiple bearing surfaces. With the front ISC connection, the tensile load is
transferred in the flange by bearing and friction. While the load in the fingers is mostly axial, there is
some bending moment due to the lateral deformation of the fingers. In contrast, in the side ISC, the
load path into the flange is through the side finger interface with the side plate. The side fingers need
to resist both the shear force and the bending moment resulting from the load. The side plate is mainly
subjected to axial load from the fingers. If the finger/side plate interfaces are located at the centroid of
the side plate, then there is no secondary moment, and the side plate resists the load by pure axial
tension. However complicating factors such as the changing finger/side plate interface geometry that
may result from usage-based deformations and shear forces transferred through the side plates at
large levels of displacement of the steel member can add secondary moments and shear stresses to the
side plates. The connection’s structural performance has been studied through many numerical and
physical experiments as described in the following sections.
4.1. Small-Scale Testing of Front ISC Flange

A small-scale sample of a front ISC (50 mm wide) was cut with a waterjet cutter from a 6 mm
thick S275JR steel plate. The geometry of the tested sample is shown in Figure 7a. A close-up to the
plate interface is shown in Figure 7b. The test was conducted at Queen’s University Belfast.
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 10 of 24
Figure 7. Front ISC: (a) geometry; (b) experimental deformed shape.

Figure 7. Front ISC: (a) geometry; (b) experimental deformed shape.
A Zwick/Roell RetroLine tC II universal testing machine (UTM) was used. It has a tensile capacity
The test load-displacement curve, Figure 8, shows an initial slip of 1 mm with a small resistance
of 100 kN with an accuracy of ±2% and crosshead speeds of 0.001 mm/min–1000 mm/min. Tinius
of around 1.6 kN. This was followed by nearly perfectly elastic behavior up to 17.9 kN when limited
Olsen mechanical wedge action grips were used to hold samples in place. The applied displacement
yielding occurred. Figure
This wasFront
followed bygeometry;
a small (b)
strain hardening region up to an ultimate load of
rate was 1 mm/min. Force 7.was ISC: (a)
measured by UTM load experimental deformed
cell, while displacements shape.
were measured using
19.3 kN. Afterwards, there was a drop in resistance, a slip, and then a nearly linear resistance drop.
a LaVision StrainMaster Portable Digital Image Correlation System.
Resistance
The was completely lost at around 12 mm of displacement.
The test
test load-displacement
load-displacement curve,
curve, Figure
Figure 8,8, shows
shows anan initial
initial slip
slip of
of 11 mm
mm with
with aa small
small resistance
resistance
of
of around 1.6 kN. This was followed by nearly perfectly elastic behavior up to 17.9 kN when
around 1.6 kN. This was followed by nearly perfectly elastic behavior up to 17.9 kN when limited
limited
yielding
yielding occurred.
occurred. This
Thiswas
wasfollowed
followedby byaasmall
smallstrain
strainhardening
hardeningregion
region upup to
to an
an ultimate
ultimate load
load of
of
19.3 kN. Afterwards, there was a drop in resistance, a slip, and then a nearly linear resistance
19.3 kN. Afterwards, there was a drop in resistance, a slip, and then a nearly linear resistance drop. drop.
Resistance
Resistance was
was completely
completely lost
lost at
at around
around 12 12 mm
mm of of displacement.
displacement.
Figure 8. Experimental load-displacement curve.
The load-displacement curve illustrates a few important aspects of the front ISC behavior:
i. The initial slip of nearly 1 mm was a result of the gaps between the contact surfaces. The gap
allowed by the design was 0.6 mm to ensure the fit. Considering the manufacturing tolerance
of ±0.3 mm, the total resulting gap can be between 0.0 mm and 1.2 mm.
Figure
Figure 8.
8. Experimental
Experimental load-displacement
load-displacement curve.
curve.
ii. Following the initial slip, the behavior was nearly linear. This indicates that the majority of
Thecontacts were established
load-displacement curve at nearly the
illustrates same
a few time andaspects
important that the
ofsteel cutting
the front ISCwas executed in
behavior:
i. an accurate
The manner.
initial slip of nearly 1 mm was a result of the gaps between the contact surfaces. The gap
iii. After reaching the peak load, the connection could not maintain that resistance for long. This
means that the front ISC can be used for locations where behavior is elastic.
contacts were established at nearly the same time and that the steel cutting was executed in
an accurate manner.
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 11 of 24
i. The initial slip of nearly 1 mm was a result of the gaps between the contact surfaces. The gap
contacts were established at nearly the same time and that the steel cutting was executed in an
accurate manner.
iii. After reaching the peak load, the connection could not maintain that resistance for long.
This means that the front ISC can be used for locations where behavior is elastic.
iv. The yield load was 22% of the of 82.5 kN full section yield load. If the connection is assumed to
be located at the beam flanges, then the peak resistance would be around 22% of the full section
resistance.; quite small to be considered as a moment connection. The connection should, thus,
according to EN 1993-1-8 strength classification be categorized as a nominally pinned joint [27].
v. If the connection is assumed to be located at the beam flanges, then the stiffness classification
as per EN 1993-1-8 can be considered as a semi-rigid joint, if a nominal beam 100 mm deep,
2500 mm long was assumed [27].
These test results confirmed that the front ISC cannot be used as a moment connection due to its
low moment resistance and inability to maintain that resistance for large displacements (or rotations).
A front ISC might be usable to improve the serviceability (rather than the ultimate) limit state behavior;
for example, to reduce live load deflection by providing some level of continuity without employing
extensive site bolting. However, concerns about the connection ductility, as described in iii above, need
to be investigated further, before such an application can be considered.
4.2. Side ISC Beam Test-2

A 3658 mm (12 ft) W18 × 46 beam with a side ISC was tested with combined bending and shear
effects. The connection was located at mid-span, while the load was applied 914 mm from the support.
The beam was made of Grade 50 steel. Steel angles (rather than plates) were used for the side ISC.
1
The four angles were 63.5 × 50.8 × 9.5 mm (2 2 × 2 × 3/8”), unequal angles made from A36 steel. Bolted
shear splice plates with dimensions of 368.3 × 158.8 × 6.4 mm (14.5 × 6.25 × 1/4”) were used to connect
the two webs. The test arrangement was as shown in Figure 9. The test was conducted at the University
of Minnesota. An MTS 2650 kN load frame located in the Galambos Lab. Force was measured with a
UTM load cell. Displacement was measured by two string potentiometers, which were attached to
each beam flange approximately 25 mm from the connection centerline. The applied displacement rate
was 2.3 mm/min (0.09”/min).
The beam flanges were cut with a Python X Robotic CNC plasma cutter, while the angles were cut
with an OMAX A-Jet waterjet cutter. A tolerance of 1.6 mm (1/16”) was specified. The average measured
cutting deviations for the beam top and bottom flange tooth width were 1.00 mm (0.039”) and 0.74 mm
(0.029”), respectively. The maximum difference from the theoretical values and standard deviation for
the top flange were 1.38 mm (0.054”) and 0.21 mm (0.008”), respectively. The corresponding values
for the bottom flange were 1.15 mm (0.045”) and 0.26 mm (0.010”). The average width deviation,
maximum deviation, and standard deviation in the angle hole width were 0.556 mm (0.005”), 0.65 mm
(0.0125”), and 0.045 mm (0.0018”), respectively. All values were within the specified tolerance. Notably,
the accuracy of the waterjet cutting of the angles was better than the plasma cutter.
The tested beam was loaded with a single point load at its one-quarter span. The beam had a
calculated plastic moment resistance of 512.5 kN m (377.9 kip-ft), based on a yield stress of 344.7 MPa
(50 ksi). The point load producing this moment was calculated as 747.3 kN (168 kip). A connection at
the beam’s mid-span was designed to carry nearly one-third of the plastic moment resistance of the
steel section or 170.8 kN m (126 kip-ft). Each of the two angles was designed to reach its elastic limit at
176 kN (39.6 kip) based on a yield stress of 248.2 MPa (36 ksi). The calculated beam load that would
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 12 of 24
produce yielding in the two angles was 374 kN (84 kip) based on an angle yield stress of 248.2 MPa
(36 ksi)2020,
Buildings and10,
assuming noREVIEW
x FOR PEER flexural contribution from the web shear splice plates. 12 of 24
Figure 9. Beam test-2: (a) general arrangement; (b) loading diagram, (c) string potentiometers.
Figure 9. Beam test-2: (a) general arrangement; (b) loading diagram, (c) string potentiometers.
The load-displacement curve is shown in Figure 10. The peak load was 810 kN (182 kip). This
load corresponds to a beam maximum bending moment of 555.6 kN m (409.8 kip-ft), and a connection
moment of 370.4 kN m (273.2 kip-ft). These values were based on a measured yield stress of the beam
flange ofFigure 9. Beam
379 MPa test-2: (a) general arrangement; (b) loading diagram, (c) string potentiometers.
(55 ksi).
Figure 10. Load-displacement curve of test beam test-2.
The load-displacement curve illustrates a few important aspects of the side ISC behavior:
i. An initial deflection of nearly 13 mm (0.5”) was observed at the start of the test to close the gaps
Figure 10. Load-displacement curve of test beam test-2.
between the contact surfaces.
Figure Most of this deflection
10. Load-displacement curve of was established
test beam test-2. at the small load of 13
kN (3 kip) – less than 2% of the peak load. As mentioned
The load-displacement curve illustrates a few important aspects of the earlier, the side
side ISCangle holes were
behavior:
fabricated
The to be 1.6 mm
load-displacement (1/16”)
curve wideraon
illustrates fewthe two vertical
important faces.
aspects of A
thesimple
side ISCcalculation
behavior:based
i. i. An An
on initial
the
initial deflection
actual average
deflection of of nearly
gaps
nearly 13 mm
between
13 mm (0.5”)
the
(0.5”) waswas
connection observed
fingers
observed at
and
at the thethe
start start oftest
ofholes
the the test
predicted
to to aclose
close the
slipgaps
the of
gaps
between the contact surfaces. Most of this deflection was established at the small load of of
nearly between
9.6 mm the contact
(0.4”) which surfaces.
is close Most
to the of this
actual deflection
value of 13was
mm established
(0.5”). The at the
ability small
to load
estimate 13
the
kNinitial deflection
(3 kip) – less thanadds2%toofthe
thepredictability
peak load. As of mentioned
the connection behavior.
earlier, the side angle holes were
fabricated
ii. Following to be 1.6
the initial mm
slip, the(1/16”)
behavior wider
wason the two
nearly vertical
linear. faces.
Similar A simple
to the front ISCcalculation
examplebased(see
on the actual average gaps between the connection fingers and the
Section 4.1), the majority of contacts was established at nearly the same time. The linearholes predicted a slip
partof
ofnearly 9.6 mm (0.4”) whichcurve
the load-displacement is close to the actual
continued up value
until of 13 mm
nearly (0.5”).
400 kN The(90 ability to estimate
kip). This load
the initial deflection adds to the predictability of the connection behavior.
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 13 of 24
13 kN (3 kip)–less than 2% of the peak load. As mentioned earlier, the side angle holes were
fabricated to be 1.6 mm (1/16”) wider on the two vertical faces. A simple calculation based on
the actual average gaps between the connection fingers and the holes predicted a slip of nearly
9.6 mm (0.4”) which is close to the actual value of 13 mm (0.5”). The ability to estimate the
initial deflection adds to the predictability of the connection behavior.
ii.
Buildings Following
2020, 10, x FORthePEER
initial slip, the behavior was nearly linear. Similar to the front ISC example
REVIEW 13 (see
of 24
Section 4.1), the majority of contacts was established at nearly the same time. The linear part of
corresponded
the load-displacement to a maximum beam moment
curve continued up until ofnearly
274.6 kN400m kN (202.5 kip-ft)
(90 kip). and
This load a moment at the
corresponded
toconnection
a maximum location of 183 kN
beam moment of m (135
274.6 kNkip-ft).
m (202.5 This load and
kip-ft) wasa nearly
moment 7%atlarger than the
the connection
calculated
location of 183beamkN load
m (135causing
kip-ft).yield
Thisin thewas
load angles of 374
nearly kN (84than
7% larger kip). This
the indicates
calculated thatload
beam the
shear splice
causing yield plates
in the shared
angles of some
374 of
kNthe(84moment
kip). This and/or
indicatesthat that
the yield stress
the shear of the
splice angles
plates was
shared
largerofthan
some 248.1 MPa
the moment (36 ksi).
and/or that the yield stress of the angles was larger than 248.1 MPa (36 ksi).
iii.iii. Following
Following thetheendendofofthe
thelinear
linearload-deflection
load-deflectionbehavior,
behavior,the the connection
connection started
started aa non-linear
non-linear
increase
increase in resistance up to a maximum load of 810 kN (182 kip) at a displacement of
in resistance up to a maximum load of 810 kN (182 kip) at a displacement of 70
70 mm
mm
(2.75 in). This indicates that the side ISC can maintain its resistance during
(2.75 in). This indicates that the side ISC can maintain its resistance during large rotations. large rotations.
iv. The measured peak load 810 kN (182 kip) was larger than that causing the full section yield
iv. The measured
based peak section
on a plastic load 810 kN (182load
resistance kip) of
was larger
747.3 thankip).
kN (168 that This
causing theindicates
result full section
that yield
steel
based on a plastic section resistance load of 747.3 kN (168 kip). This
overstrength of the side angles is an important influencing factor of the overall connection result indicates that steel
overstrength
ultimate of theThe
resistance. sideconnection
angles is an canimportant influencing
be categorized factorstrength
as a partial of the overall connection
joint according to
ultimate
the EN1993-1-8resistance. The connection
[27] strength can be categorized as a partial strength joint according to
classification.
the EN1993-1-8 [27] strength classification.
v. Based on the rotation calculated from the beam deflection, the stiffness classification can be
considered
v. Based on the as semi-rigid
rotation joint based
calculated fromon EN1993-1-8
the [27].
beam deflection, the stiffness classification can be
considered as semi-rigid joint based on EN1993-1-8 [27].
Shear force produced permanent vertical slip between the two beam flanges, resulting in the angles
having Shear force produced
an undulating permanent
post-test appearance vertical
(Figureslip11).
between the two
As a result, the beam flanges,
side angles resulting
carried, in the
in addition
angles
to axialhaving
force, an undulating post-test
a combination of shear appearance (Figure 11).moments
forces and secondary As a result, duethetoside
theirangles carried, in
unsymmetrical
additionFurthermore,
section. to axial force, smalla lateral
combination of shear
displacements were forces and atsecondary
observed the end of moments
the test, whichdue indicates
to their
that the beam may have been experiencing the onset of lateral-torsional buckling. The testthe
unsymmetrical section. Furthermore, small lateral displacements were observed at the end of test,
results
which indicates
confirmed that the that theISC
side beamcanmay havetobeen
be used experiencing
provide large moment the onset of lateral-torsional
resistance and continuity buckling.
even at
The test results
locations of largeconfirmed that the side
bending moments. TheISC can be
testing used to provide
demonstrated large moment
the connection’s resistance
ability to provideand
continuity even
predictable at locations
deflection of large
behavior, bendingstrength,
controllable moments. andThe testing as
ductility, demonstrated
well as being the connection’s
produced and
ability with
tested to provide predictable
the design deflection
fabrication behavior, controllable strength, and ductility, as well as being
tolerances.
produced and tested with the design fabrication tolerances.
Yielding of web due to Undulating shape due to shear

combined moment and shear
Figure 11.
Figure Top side
11. Top side angles
angles after
after beam
beam test-2.
test-2.
4.3. Side ISC Beam Test-B

A 1850 mm long beam made from 254 × 146 × 31UB section with side ISC was tested. The
connection was located at mid-span while the load was applied as two point loads around mid-span.
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 14 of 24
4.3. Side ISC Beam Test-B

A 1850 mm long beam made from 254 × 146 × 31UB section with side ISC was tested. The connection
was located at mid-span while the load was applied as two point loads around mid-span. The beam
was made of S355 steel, while the two side plates were made from S275 steel. The test arrangement
and theBuildings
connection
2020, 10, details were
x FOR PEER as shown in Figure 12.
REVIEW 14 of 24
Figure Figure 12. Beam

12. Beam test-B
test-B generalarrangement.
general arrangement. (a) (a)
general arrangement;
general (b) main(b)
arrangement; dimensions; (c) test
main dimensions; (c)
setup.
test setup.
The beam flanges were cut with a Voortman V808 robotic thermal cutting machine with a plasma
cutter. The same machine was used to cut the side plate holes. A tolerance of 2 mm was specified for
the manufacturing of the beam and side plates. The average measured deviations for the beam and
angles
Buildingswas
2020, 2.8 mm and 2 mm, respectively. The plasma cuts were not straight and suffered15from
10, 37 of 24
large irregularities and deviations, Figure 13.
The connection was designed to fail at the side plates. Using the side plates’ yield stress of S275
The beam flanges were cut with a Voortman V808 robotic thermal cutting machine with a plasma
and ultimate stress of 410 MPa, the calculated test beam yield and peak loads were 160 kN and 239
cutter. The same machine was used to cut the side plate holes. A tolerance of 2 mm was specified for
kN, respectively. Both of these loads were smaller than the load able to produce yielding in the steel
the manufacturing of the beam and side plates. The average measured deviations for the beam and
section. The beam load needed for the full UB steel section to reach its plastic moment resistance was
angles was 2.8 mm and 2 mm, respectively. The plasma cuts were not straight and suffered from large
calculated as 319 kN and that of the reduced section due to the flange cuts was 268 kN; both based
irregularities and deviations, Figure 13.
on yield stress of 275 MPa.
Figure 13.
Figure Beam test-B
13. Beam test-B cutting
cutting accuracy.
accuracy. (a)
(a) overall
overall image;
image; (b)
(b) close-up.
close-up.
The connection was designed to fail at the side plates. Using the side plates’ yield stress of S275
This test was conducted at the University College Dublin structural lab using an Instron 1274
and ultimate stress of 410 MPa, the calculated test beam yield and peak loads were 160 kN and 239 kN,
modified frame. The force was measured with a UTM load cell. The displacements were directly
respectively. Both of these loads were smaller than the load able to produce yielding in the steel section.
The beam load needed for the full UB steel section to reach its plastic moment resistance was calculated
as 319 kN and that of the reduced section due to the flange cuts was 268 kN; both based on yield stress
of 275 MPa.
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 16 of 24
This test was conducted at the University College Dublin structural lab using an Instron
1274 modified frame. The force was measured with a UTM load cell. The displacements16were
Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 24
directly
measured measured
from the from
UTMthe load
UTMcell loadmovement.
cell movement. The applied
The applied displacement
displacement rate was
rate was 3 mm/min.
3 mm/min. The
The load-displacement
load-displacement curve
curve is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 14. The
14. The test test
waswas stopped
stopped afterafter reaching
reaching the loading
the loading limit
limit of test
of the the test machine
machine of 253
of 253 kN.kN. TheThe attained
attained peaktest
peak testload
loadofof253
253kN
kN corresponded
corresponded to to aa side
sideplate
plate
stress
stressofof435
435MPa,
MPa,which
whichisisslightly
slightlylarger
largerthan
thanthe
theexpected
expectedultimate
ultimatestress
stressofof410
410MPa
MPafor forthe
theS275
S275
steel.
steel.The
Theside
sideplates
platesstarted
startedtotoyield
yieldatatthat
thatload
load(Figure
(Figure14).
14).
Load-displacement curve
Figure 14. Load-displacement curve of
of test
test beam
beam test-B.
test-B.
The load-displacement
The load-displacement curve
curve illustrated
illustrated aa few
few important
important aspects
aspects of
of the
the side
side ISC
ISC behavior:
behavior:
i. i. An
Aninitial
initiallow
low stiffness
stiffnessbehavior
behavior was was observed
observed at at the
the start
start of
of the
the test.
test. The deflection
deflection at 5 kN
(nearly
(nearly2% 2%ofofthe
themaximum
maximum test test load)
load) was
was 3.53.5 mm. However, the stiffness started to increase
until
untilaamaximum
maximumvalue valuewaswasreached
reached at at
nearly
nearly6 mm6 mmof deflection.
of deflection.TheTheslow stiffness
slow increase
stiffness was
increase
attributed to the rather inaccurate cutting of the steel beam and side plates.
was attributed to the rather inaccurate cutting of the steel beam and side plates. This resultedThis resulted in small
contact
in smallzones between
contact zones the flangethe
between fingers
flange side platesside
fingers at low load
plates atlevels.
low load As levels.
the load Asincreased,
the load
the contact the
increased, zones increased
contact zones due to local
increased dueplastification, which resulted
to local plastification, which in greaterinstiffness.
resulted greater
Importantly, the manufacturing
stiffness. Importantly, deviations did
the manufacturing not affect
deviations thenot
did overall
affectconnection
the overall resistance.
connection
ii. resistance.the initial stiffness gain in the load-displacement curve, a linear relationship continued
Following
to nearly 165 kN. This load corresponded to the yield load of the side plates. A reduced stiffness
ii. Following the initial stiffness gain in the load-displacement curve, a linear relationship
behavior followed this stage up to 253 kN.
continued to nearly 165 kN. This load corresponded to the yield load of the side plates. A
iii. The peak load of 253 kN was slightly smaller than the reduced plastic UB section resistance of
reduced stiffness behavior followed this stage up to 253 kN.
268 kN and that of the full section of 319 kN. The connection can be categorized as a partial
iii. The peakjoint
strength loadaccording
of 253 kNtowas slightly smaller
EN1993-1-8 strengththan the reduced
classification [27].plastic UB section resistance
iv. Based on the rotation calculated from the beam deflection, thecan
of 268 kN and that of the full section of 319 kN. The connection be categorized
stiffness as a partial
classification can be
strength joint according to EN1993-1-8 strength
considered as a semi-rigid joint based on EN1993-1-8 [27]. classification [27].
iv. Based on the rotation calculated from the beam deflection, the stiffness classification can be
The test results confirmed that the side ISC can be used to provide the required moment resistance
considered as a semi-rigid joint based on EN1993-1-8 [27].
even with manufacturing inaccuracies. The connection strength was not significantly affected by such
The test results confirmed that the side ISC can be used to provide the required moment
resistance even with manufacturing inaccuracies. The connection strength was not significantly
affected by such inaccuracies. However, the stiffness was reduced due to the smaller contact area
between the flange fingers and the side plates.
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 17 of 24
inaccuracies. However, the stiffness was reduced due to the smaller contact area between the flange
fingers and the side plates.
4.4. Test Frame

Buildings 2020, 10,Assembly
x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24
As the ISC was intended as an alternative to site-bolted and site-welded connections for frame
4.4. Test Frame Assembly
assembly, constructability is an important factor. Unlike site welding and bolting there is not a body
As the ISC
of experience was industry
in the intended asforanthealternative
detailing,tofabrication,
site-bolted and andsite-welded
erection of connections
steel framesfor with
framerespect
to constructability and the effects of manufacturing and site tolerances (Section 2.3) onbody
assembly, constructability is an important factor. Unlike site welding and bolting there is not a the frame
of experience in the industry for the detailing, fabrication, and erection of steel frames with respect
erection for these types of connections. To begin to address these questions, a frame-assembly test
to constructability and the effects of manufacturing and site tolerances (Section 2.3) on the frame
was conducted.
erection for these types of connections. To begin to address these questions, a frame-assembly test
wasThe main goal was to test the level of ease and duration requirements of a frame erection using the
conducted.
ISC. The Thesecondary
main goal goal was
was to testto establish
the the viability
level of ease of disassembly.
and duration requirements The frameerection
of a frame shown using
in Figure 15
wasthedesigned to represent
ISC. The secondary a two
goal story
was to building
establish where the
the viability effects of fabrication
of disassembly. The frameand
shownerection deviations
in Figure
at 15
onewas
location necessarily impact all other locations. The frame’s center-to-center
designed to represent a two story building where the effects of fabrication and erection width was 3681 mm,
anddeviations
the totalatheight
one location necessarily
was 5000 mm. impact all other locations. The frame’s center-to-center width
was 3681 mm, and the total height was 5000 mm.
Figure
Figure15.15.
Test frame
Test general
frame arrangement.
general arrangement.
The fabrication deviations were selected to represent some of possible values within the
allowable fabrication tolerances of the steel industry. The same concept was applied to the erection
deviations. In all cases, the cumulative deviation effects were arranged to produce the most severe
overall deviations.
The frame was made from 152 × 152 × 30 UC columns and IPE270 beam sections. Two short stub
beams were bolted to the columns at mid-height and top levels. These were used to connect the two
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 18 of 24
beams at these levels. A total of four side ISCs were required to assemble the frame (Figure 16). The
frame assembly/disassembly was conducted according to the following steps:
Step 1: Assembly
The fabrication of frame were
deviations with selected
perfect geometry
to represent some of possible values within the allowable
Step 2: tolerances
fabrication Disassembly of the steel industry. The same concept was applied to the erection deviations.
In allStep
cases,3:the
Introduction
cumulativeofdeviation
geometric deviations
effects were arranged to produce the most severe overall deviations.
Step 4: Reassembly
The frame was made of frame
from 152 × 152 × 30 UC columns and IPE270 beam sections. Two short
stub The
beamsfollowing is a brief
were bolted description
to the columns atof mid-height
the four assembly/disassembly steps.
and top levels. These wereThe frame
used assembly,
to connect the
Step 1, started with erecting the two columns, then connecting the four stub beams, Figure
two beams at these levels. A total of four side ISCs were required to assemble the frame (Figure 16). 16. This
was
The followed by placing level 1 beam
frame assembly/disassembly was into position
conducted and bolting
according thefollowing
to the web splice plates, Figure 17, then
steps:
connecting the side plates, Figure 18.
a b
Figure 16.
Figure Initialsteps
16.Initial stepsof
offrame
frameerection:
erection:(a)
(a)tightening
tighteningof
ofcolumn
columnholding
holdingdown
downbolts;
bolts;(b)
(b)overall
overallview
view
of the
of the frame
frame stub
stub beams.
beams.
Step 1: Assembly of frame with perfect geometry

Step 2: Disassembly
Step 3: Introduction of geometric deviations
Step 4: Reassembly of frame
The following is a brief description of the four assembly/disassembly steps. The frame assembly,
Step 1, started with erecting the two columns, then connecting the four stub beams, Figure 16. This
was followed by placing level 1 beam into position and bolting the web splice plates, Figure 17, then
connecting the side plates, Figure 18.
The same procedure was followed for the level 2 beam. Prior to this documentation, the erector
was given the chance to try assembling the ISC only twice. In spite of the lack of significant experience
with the ISC, the erection progressed well and without difficulties.
The final frame was then disassembled, Step 2, and geometric deviations were introduced as
follows:
• a this deviation was introduced bybadding a 10 mm shim plate cunder one column
Column level:
base, Figure 19.
Figure 17. Erection of level 1 beam: (a) lowering level 1 beam into position; (b) using a podger spanner
• to align
Stub the beam;
beam (c) deviation:
angular bolting webthis
splice plate. was introduced by inserting a 1 mm-thick shim plate
deviation
at the bottom end of the first level stub beam on side (a) of the frame, hence creating an upwards
kink, Figure 20a. This geometric deviation added to the upwards end movement due to the raised
level of the column on this end by 10 mm (see above) relative to side (b) of the frame.
Similarly, a 1 mm thick shim plate was inserted at the top end of the first level stub beam on
side (b) of the frame (Figure 20b), hence creating a downwards kink. A schematic of the effects of the
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 19 of 24
introduced deviations is shown in Figure a 21. The frame wasbassembled again (beam level 1 only),
Figure 22. The
Figure erection
16. Initial progressed
steps faster than
of frame erection: the initial
(a) tightening of erection of Stepdown
column holding 1, despite theoverall
bolts; (b) presence of the
view
loweroflevel of frame
the frame stub alignment
beams. due to the introduction of the shim plates.
a b c
Figure 17. Erection of level 1 beam: (a) lowering level 1 beam into position; (b) using a podger spanner
Figure 17. spanner
to
to align
Buildings 2020,the
align 10, beam;
the xbeam; (c)
(c) bolting
FOR PEER REVIEW
bolting web
web splice
splice plate.
plate. 19 of 24
a b
Figure 18. Installation of the side plates: (a) side plate inserted into the flange; (b) side place secured.
follows: a b
• Column
Figure
Figure18. level: of
18.Installation
Installation this
thedeviation
ofthe side plates:was
sideplates: (a) introduced
(a) side
side plate by adding
plate inserted
inserted into thea
into the 10 mm
flange;
flange; (b) shim
(b)side plate
sideplace
place under one
secured.
secured.
column base, Figure 19.
follows:
• Column level: this deviation was introduced by adding a 10 mm shim plate under one
column base, Figure 19.
a b c
Figure19.
Figure 19.Introduction
Introductionofofcolumn
columnlevel
leveldeviation:
deviation:(a)
(a)base
basecolumn
columnposition;
position;(b)
(b)10
10mm
mmshim
shimplate;
plate;(c)
(c)
column raised 10 mm.
• Stub beam angular deviation: this deviation was introduced by inserting a 1 mm-thick shim
plate at the bottom end of the first level stub beam on side (a) of the frame, hence creating an upwards
kink, Figure 20a. This geometric deviation added to the upwards end movement due to the raised
a on this end by 10 mm (see above)b relative to side (b) of the frame.
level of the column c
Figure 19. Introduction of column level deviation: (a) base column position; (b) 10 mm shim plate; (c)
• Stub beam angular deviation: this deviation was introduced by inserting a 1 mm-thick shim
plate at the bottom end of the first level stub beam on side (a) of the frame, hence creating an upwards
Buildings 2020,
kink, 10, 37 20a. This geometric deviation added to the upwards end movement due to 20
Figure of 24
the raised
level of the column on this end by 10 mm (see above) relative to side (b) of the frame.
Similarly, a 1 mm thick shim plate was inserted at the top end of the first level stub beam on
a b
side (b) of the frame (Figure 20b), hence creating a downwards kink. A schematic of the effects of the
introduced
Figure 20.deviations
FigureIntroductionis shown
20. Introduction of in
of stub beam
stubFigure
beam 21. The (a)
deviations: frame
deviations: 1 (a)
mmwas assembled
1 shim
mm plateplate
shim again
at lower (beam
part
at lower level 1 only),
of stub-side
part a; (b)a; (b)
of stub-side
Figure
1 mm122.mmTheshim
shim erection
plate progressed
at upper
plate part of
at upper faster thanb.the initial
stub-side
part of stub-side b. erection of Step 1, despite the presence of the
lower level of frame alignment due to the introduction of the shim plates.
Figure 21. Effects of all the introduced deviations.

Figure 21. Effects of all the introduced deviations.
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 21 of 24
Figure 22. Side

Side plate
plate installation to the stub beam with deviation.
The frame assembly test illustrates a few important aspects in relation to the erection using the
side ISC:
i. The assembly analysis indicated a fast learning curve with the time required to complete one
i. The assembly analysis indicated a fast learning curve with the time required to complete one
side ISC progressively improving from 12:58 min initially with an average of 12:06 min for
side ISC progressively improving from 12:58 min initially with an average of 12:06 min for the
the first two connections to a final average of 4:32 min for the last two connections.
first two connections to a final average of 4:32 min for the last two connections.
ii. ii. TheTheintroduction
introductionof of
geometric
geometricdeviation
deviation did not
did cause
not any
cause delay
any delayinin
thethe
frame erection.
frame erection.
iii.iii. The
The deviations
deviations introduced
introduced ininthis
thistest
testneed
needtotobe
befollowed
followedbyby further
further studies
studies covering
covering more
more
scenarios of deviations including actual, on-site erections.
scenarios of deviations including actual, on-site erections.
5. Discussion
5. Discussion
The intermeshed steel connection was developed to create a new type of connection that leverages
The intermeshed steel connection was developed to create a new type of connection that
advances in digital manufacturing to increase automation and efficiency. The connection concept
leverages advances in digital manufacturing to increase automation and efficiency. The connection
was developed to be scalable, versatile, and adoptable in three important ways: (1) applicable to any
concept was developed to be scalable, versatile, and adoptable in three important ways: (1) applicable
member size, (2) applicable to a wide range of connection scenarios, and (3) producible by several
to any member size, (2) applicable to a wide range of connection scenarios, and (3) producible by
cutting methods.
several cutting methods.
The side ISC provides larger strength and ductility when compared to the front ISC. The side ISC
The side ISC provides larger strength and ductility when compared to the front ISC. The side
also has more ability to accommodate large manufacturing geometric deviations without significantly
ISC also has more ability to accommodate large manufacturing geometric deviations without
affecting its strength. The connection assembly of the plate and beam tests was straightforward, and
significantly affecting its strength. The connection assembly of the plate and beam tests was
no difficulties were encountered.
straightforward, and no difficulties were encountered.
The side ISC was adopted in a two story steel frame to test the construction and deconstruction
The side ISC was adopted in a two story steel frame to test the construction and deconstruction
speed and the ability of the side ISC to accommodate site tolerance. The test results indicate that all
speed and the ability of the side ISC to accommodate site tolerance. The test results indicate that all
these goals can be achieve with relative ease. The erector’s learning curve was fast, with substantial
these goals can be achieve with relative ease. The erector’s learning curve was fast, with substantial
performance improvements recorded after gaining experience in the assembly and disassembly of the
performance improvements recorded after gaining experience in the assembly and disassembly of
side ISC.
the side ISC.
Manufacturing of the ISC was conducted using a multi-axis robotic plasma, laser, and waterjet
Manufacturing of the ISC was conducted using a multi-axis robotic plasma, laser, and waterjet
cutters. The available technology in this regard was found to be adequate to manufacture the required
cutters. The available technology in this regard was found to be adequate to manufacture the required
geometry of the ISC. All three steel-cutting technologies managed to produce good results. However,
geometry of the ISC. All three steel-cutting technologies managed to produce good results. However,
in one case of plasma cutting, the measured cutting deviations were larger than what was specified.
in one case of plasma cutting, the measured cutting deviations were larger than what was specified.
The experience of the authors regarding the manufacturing of the test samples is that achieving the
The experience of the authors regarding the manufacturing of the test samples is that achieving the
required design tolerances is possible but requires coordination with the steel fabricators to calibrate
required design tolerances is possible but requires coordination with the steel fabricators to calibrate
and adjust their machines to achieve the specified cutting precision.
and adjust their machines to achieve the specified cutting precision.
As the ISC does not have decades of documented testing, multiple numerical models, and
As the ISC does not have decades of documented testing, multiple numerical models, and
extensive experience in its design, detailing, and erection (unlike bolted and welded connections)
extensive experience in its design, detailing, and erection (unlike bolted and welded connections)
history, significant future effort and investment beyond the fundamental initial testing that was
history, significant future effort and investment beyond the fundamental initial testing that was
conducted at University College Dublin, Queens University Belfast, and the University of Minnesota
is likely to be needed. Furthermore, the introduction of the ISC and similar connections using
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 22 of 24
conducted at University College Dublin, Queens University Belfast, and the University of Minnesota is
likely to be needed. Furthermore, the introduction of the ISC and similar connections using advanced
manufacturing to the construction industry will require a willingness across the construction industry
from clients, designers, fabricators, and contractors to adopt it. The main value for the clients is that
the structure can be made more economical and available sooner due to a reduced erection schedule,
with the additional potential benefit of possible future disassembly. However, evidence of the potential
cost savings needs to be demonstrated. A small-scale frame assembly test was conducted, however, a
large-scale test assembly or clients willing to take the risk of using a new system will be needed. Other
issues such as the potential disassembly difficulties resulting from service loads or the presence of
shear studs need to be studied.
6. Summary and Conclusions

A new steel connection method is proposed to allow for more automatic fabrication and fewer
bolts at site connections using currently available robotic plasma, laser, and waterjet cutters. Two
configurations of the ISC were developed and studied. The first, the front ISC, has the advantages of
having a small number of additional parts and rapid assembly. However, this connection requires more
precise cutting of the flanges and has limited ability to accommodate site misalignment. Furthermore,
the test results confirmed that this connection cannot be used as a moment connection due to its low
moment resistance and ductility.
The second connection configuration, the side ISC, has more parts. However, the test results
indicate that this connection can resist much larger moment than the front ISC and has substantially
more ductility. The limit of this moment resistance is the reduced steel section after cutting the
side fingers. Furthermore, the side ISC has more ability to accommodate manufacturing and site
geometric deviations.
From a stiffness perspective, both the front and side ISC can be classified as semi-rigid joints
according to the EN1993-1-8 stiffness classification. Furthermore, both ISC connections have initial low
stiffness resulting from the movement of the connected parts until contact is first established between
the connected parts. This behavior is similar to that of a non-preloaded, bolted connection.
Structures with these connections can be easy to assemble and to deconstruct without damaging the
steel and, thereby, provide better opportunities for reusing steel rather than just recycling. Arguably, the
ISC will also provide an incentive for steel-cutting manufacturers to improve their current technology,
which will result in overall improved efficiency and more economical structures. Where sufficiently
precise digital manufacturing options are not available locally, precisely cut ends can be manufactured
separately and shop-welded to standard sections. While not as cost-effective, this would enable the steel
industry to benefit widely from this new connection without requiring retooling by every fabricator.
Since the ISC will not be initially covered by a design code, its acceptance would require
extensive testing and numerical analysis to establish the expected performance of the connection,
along with a simple design method based on current code principles. A series of publications with
the results obtained from the three methods: physical tests, numerical tests, and simple code-based
design will be forthcoming to help provide the basis for widespread acceptance of the proposed
intermeshed connection.
Based on the experimental test results, the structural performance of the connection proved to
be predictable, consistent, and scalable. The connection was shown to be able to be designed to
provide a reliable performance range from a nominally pinned joint to a partial strength joint exhibiting
semi-rigid behavior. The connection also proved constructible in experimental frames with and
without geometric deviations. Unlike previous novel connection methods, the ISC can be applied to
beam-to-beam, column-to-column, column-to-rafter (portal frames), and dismountable arrangements.
As such, the ISC offers opportunities to make steel construction a more efficient 21st-century industry
that encourages reuse rather than recycling.
Buildings 2020, 10, 37 23 of 24
Author Contributions: Conceptualization and numerical work was undertaken by the team at the University
College Dublin, small-scale testing at Queens University Belfast, and large-scale testing at the University of
Minnesota. All authors contributed to the writing and editing. All authors have read and agree to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by National Science Foundation
(NSF) through the grant CMMI-1563115, by Science Foundation Ireland through grant SFI/15/US/B3234, by
the Department for the Economy (DfE) and Invest Northern Ireland (InvestNI) through grant USI-096, and by
Enterprise Ireland through grant CF20160454.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to express their thanks to Kiernan Structural Steel Ltd. for their help and
support during the course of this project.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to
publish the results.
References
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IL, USA, 1963; Volume 113.
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the-bolt/ (accessed on 28 May 2018).
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© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Keywords: structural steel; connection; advanced manufacturing; disassembly; rapid construction

Buildings 2020, 10, 37; doi:10.3390/buildings10030037 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

2.1. Historical Development of Steel Connections

ductility need to be answered before a wide-scale application would be possible.

2.2.2. Plasma Cutting

2.2.4. Wire Electrical-Discharge Machining (WEDM)

2.3. Tolerances: Manufacturing and Erection of Structural Steel

3. Intermeshed Steel Connection (ISC)

3.1. Front Intermeshed Connection

4. Connection Structural Performance

4.1. Small-Scale Testing of Front ISC Flange

Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24

Figure 7. Front ISC: (a) geometry; (b) experimental deformed shape.

Figure 8. Experimental load-displacement curve.

4.2. Side ISC Beam Test-2

Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 24

Figure 10. Load-displacement curve of test beam test-2.

Yielding of web due to Undulating shape due to shear

4.3. Side ISC Beam Test-B

4.3. Side ISC Beam Test-B

Figure Figure 12. Beam

4.4. Test Frame

Step 1: Assembly of frame with perfect geometry

Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 24

Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24

Figure 21. Effects of all the introduced deviations.

Figure 22. Side

6. Summary and Conclusions

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