Chapter 5

Network Layer:
The Control Plane (Part
1/3)

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Network Layer: Control Plane 5-1
Chapter 5: network layer control plane
chapter goals: understand principles behind network
control plane
▪ traditional routing algorithms
▪ SDN controllers
▪ Internet Control Message Protocol
▪ network management

and their instantiation, implementation in the Internet:

▪ OSPF, BGP, OpenFlow, ODL and ONOS
controllers, ICMP, SNMP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-2

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 The SDN control plane
5.2 routing protocols 5.6 ICMP: The Internet
▪ link state Control Message
▪ distance vector Protocol
5.3 intra-AS routing in the
Internet: OSPF
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-3

Network-layer functions
Recall: two network-layer functions:
▪ forwarding: move packets
from router’s input to data plane
appropriate router output
▪ routing: determine route
taken by packets from source control plane
to destination

Two approaches to structuring network control plane:

▪ per-router control (traditional)
▪ logically centralized control (software defined networking)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-4

Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact with each other in control plane to compute
forwarding tables

Routing
Algorithm
control
plane

data
plane

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-5

 Logically centralized control plane
A distinct (typically remote) controller interacts with local
control agents (CAs) in routers to compute forwarding tables

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA
CA CA CA CA

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-6

Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction
5.2 routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector
5.3 intra-AS routing in the
Internet: OSPF
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP
5.5 The SDN control plane
5.6 ICMP: The Internet
Control Message
Protocol
5.7 Network management
and SNMP
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-7
 Routing protocols

Routing protocol goal: determine “good” paths

(equivalently, routes), from sending hosts to receiving host,
through network of routers
▪ path: sequence of routers packets will traverse in going
from given initial source host to given final destination
host
▪ “good”: least “cost”, “fastest”, “least congested”
▪ routing: a “top-10” networking challenge!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-8

Graph abstraction of the network
5

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
graph: G = (N,E)

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-9

Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2
u cost could always be 1, or
2
3
1 z inversely related to bandwidth,
1 2 or inversely related to
x 1
y
congestion

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-10

Routing algorithm classification
Q: global or decentralized Q: static or dynamic?
information?
static:
global:
▪ routes change slowly over
▪ all routers have complete time
topology, link cost info
dynamic:
▪ “link state” algorithms
▪ routes change more
decentralized: quickly
▪ router knows physically- • periodic update
connected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors • in response to link
cost changes
▪ iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
▪ “distance vector” algorithms
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-11
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction
5.2 routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector
5.3 intra-AS routing in the
Internet: OSPF
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP
5.5 The SDN control plane
5.6 ICMP: The Internet
Control Message
Protocol
5.7 Network management
and SNMP
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-12
 A link-state routing Protocol
Dijkstra’s algorithm
▪ network topology, link costs
known to all nodes
• accomplished via “link state
broadcast”
• all nodes have same info
▪ computes least cost paths
from one node (‘source”) to
all other nodes
• gives forwarding table for that
node
▪ iterative: after k iterations,
know least cost path to k
destinations
notation:
▪ c(x,y): link cost from node x
to y if x , y are neighbors else
= ∞ if not direct neighbors
▪ D(v): current value of cost of
path from source to
destination v
▪ p(v): predecessor node along
path from source to v
▪ N': set of nodes whose least
cost path definitively known
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-13
Find the shortest Path using Dijkstra algorithm

Network Layer 4-16

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
From Source node ‘u’

Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)

0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

v 3 w
2 5 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Network Layer: Control Plane 5-17
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link notes:
❖ construct shortest path tree by
v (u,v) tracing predecessor nodes
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-18
 Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
oscillations possible:
▪ e.g., ‘link cost’ = amount of carried traffic:
Possible solution:
▪ Make link cost independent of traffic load
▪ Randomize time of link state advertisement
• prevent the routers from running the routing algorithm simultaneously. If this is not
done carefully, the routers will tend to self-synchronize.

1
A 1+e A A A
2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0
C 0 1 1+e 0
1 C C C
1
e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing…. find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new costs resulting in new costs
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-19
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction
5.2 routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector
5.3 intra-AS routing in the
Internet: OSPF
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP
5.5 The SDN control plane
5.6 ICMP: The Internet
Control Message
Protocol
5.7 Network management
and SNMP
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-22
Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation
let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dv(y) }
v

cost from neighbor v to destination y

cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-23
 Bellman-Ford example
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
5

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1
x y 2 dx(y) = minv {c(x,v) + dv(y) }
1
Now using B-F equation:
du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
node achieving minimum is next
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-24
 Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
▪ from time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
▪ when x receives new DV estimate from neighbor,
it updates its own DV using B-F equation:

Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

❖ under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y)

converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-26

 y
2 1
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x z
7
x 0 2 7 x

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z
x ∞ ∞ ∞
from

y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-28
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-30
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x cost to cost to = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to cost to

table x y z x y z
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 y
2 1
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 x z
7

node z cost to cost to

table x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7
from

y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Dz(x) = min{c(z,x) + Dx(x), c(z,y) + Dy(x)} Dz(y) = min{c(x,z) + Dx(y), c(z,y) + Dy(y)}
= min{7+0 , 1+2} = 3 = min{7+2 , 1+0} = 1
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x cost to cost to cost to = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1

from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 y
2 1
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
x z
7

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Dz(x) = min{c(z,x) + Dx(x), c(z,y) + Dy(x)} Dz(y) = min{c(x,z) + Dx(y), c(z,y) + Dy(y)}
= min{7+0 , 1+2} = 3 = min{7+2 , 1+0} = 1
 Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 1
❖ node detects local link cost change y
4 1
❖ updates routing info, recalculates x z
distance vector 50
❖ if DV changes, notify neighbors

“good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its

news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast” least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.

t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Network Layer: Control Plane 5-36
Distance vector: link cost changes

Network Layer 4-37

Distance vector: Poisoned Reverse
60
y
4 1
x z
50

Network Layer 4-38

Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
▪ LS:
• suffers from ‘oscillation
problem’
• A lot of advertisements have
to be flooded to the network
▪ DV:
• suffers from count-to-infinity
problem
• Takes time in convergence
robustness: what happens if
router malfunctions?
LS:
• node can advertise incorrect
link cost
• each node computes only its
own table
DV:
• DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
• each node’s table used by
others
• error propagate thru
network
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-41
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction
5.2 routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector
5.3 intra-AS routing in the
Internet: OSPF
5.4 routing among the ISPs:
BGP
5.5 The SDN control plane
5.6 ICMP: The Internet
Control Message
Protocol
5.7 Network management
and SNMP
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-42