Disc Contents © IPA, 2006 - 1st Annual Convention Proceedings, 1972
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PROCEEDINGS INDONESZAN PETROLEUM &SOCIATION
first Annual Convention, June 1972
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HIGH SENSITIVITY AEROMAGNETOMETRY IN INDONESIA
1967 - 1972
1. 1NTKODUCTION
The high sensitivity aeromagnetometric
method (HSS) was perfected during a large
scientific survey called “Magnetic Map of
France”, flown in 1964 - 1965. This means
that the equipment and the technical toleran-
ces of the measurements were improved over
a distance of approximately 60,000 miles,
under the control of specialists from the
“Institut de Physique du Globe” of Paris,
operating under the name of “Centre Natio-
nal de la Recherche Scientifique”. In such
conditions the new airmag method received
its best “baptism certificate”
Many papers have been published from
that date up t o the present, a complete list
of which is given in the biography index.
Among these, we think the following are
most relevant to our present subject:
- “A new airborne magnetometer: the cesium
vapor magnetometer” by R. Giret andL.
Nalnar - Geophysical Prospecting, Volume
XIII, 2, 1965
- “La nouvelle carte magnetique de France”
by E. Le Borgne and J. Le Mouel, Note
IPG, Paris, no 15, May 1966
- “Recent developments in the acquisition,
processing and interpretation of high sen-
sitivity aeromagnetic data” by G. Royer,
J. Thomas, H. Naudy and H. Dreyer,
CGG paper
-- Example of digitised navigation airmag
surveys on off-shore areas” by G. Royer,
Offshore Technology Conference paper
n OTC 1306.
There is no point in repeating the contents
of these papers in detail. However, we can
draw the following conclusions, because they
are still evident in our surveying operations,
especially in Indonesia:
- Accurate narrigation
-- Flexibility of the measurement grid regard-
71
G. ROYER*
ing the geological problem and the accuracy
of the measurement
- Importance of the ground sration
- Necessity of correcting the change in
magneto meter altitude.
From 1965 the interpretation of measurements
was considerably improved in the following
ways:
- Complete collection of abacus (see ITX
gamma method)
- Special processing:
non-linear filtering
upward continuation of the total mag-
netic field
vertical gradient
automatic calculation of depth estimates
cross correlation
two-dimensional models.
Obviously, we are assuming that all data are
processed in a computer center from complete-
ly digitised field data. In particular, the isogam
maps and their transformed maps are obtained
by a series of computing programmes.
2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF HIGH
SENSITIVITY SURVEYS IN INDONESIA
Since 1967, the HSS airborne method has
been used many times and under various
geological and geophysical conditions. The
main object of the present paper is to
examine a series of examples which show that
the various suwcys carried out in Indonesia
allowed a full application of the above
mentioned technical conclusions. We consider
Indonesia as a very interesting country for
aeromagnetometry.
Figure 1 shows the location of the HSS
surveys flown over the Republic of Indonesia
from 1967 to May 1972.
*) Compagnie Generale de Geophysique
I2

Some general technical information regarding
the different surveys i s useful before examining
the technics themselves :
2.1. Java Sea, South Kalimantan - Fig. 2
This survey started with a large grid of
30 x 30 km, including two lines with an
interval of 3 km and two cross-lines with an
interval of 5 km. In the first stage a geophysi-
cist interpreted results in the field in order
t o decide where it was necessary t o add
supplementary lines to reach the final grid
of 3 x 5 km. Figure 2 gives a sketch of the
flights.
For the navigation, an accurtite system of
hyperbolic Toran was used (see the following
chapter “Navigation means t o be used in
airmag surveys”) with three pairs of trans-
mitters (AA’, BB’, CC’).
The final accuracy of the survey was k 0.2
gamma, allowing a detailed interpretation
which was used for locating marine seismic
work.
The total distance flown was approximately
75,000 km. The average production was
25,000 km per month.
2.2. S-E Kalimantan - Fig. 3
As indicated in figure 3, two different
areas were flown : 21 with an hyperbolic
two pairs Toran system, 22 with the Doppler
system (see chapter 3).
On 21 the grid was 6 x 5 ktn ; on 22, only a
series of lines was flown, perpendicular t o the
coast, with an interval of 12 km. In this last
case the direction of the lines depended on
the Doppler system which needs frequent
calibration points on the coast.
The total number of line kilometers flown
was approximately 24,000.
2.3. Sumatra, off-shore Djambi - Fig. 4
This survey used a combination of a hyper-
bolic Toran system on the off-shore area and
a Doppler system on land. Some special lines
were extended over the outcropping basement
t o control the effect of granitic rocks. The
grid was 4 x 20 km.
The total number of line kilometers flown
was approximately 9,000.
2.4. East Kalimantan Fig. 5
73
The Doppler system was used for the
whole of this survey. The grid of measurement
was 4 x 12 km as indicated in Figure 5.
Some 24,000 km were flown.
2.5. Sulawesi - Fig. 6
This survey was also flown with a Doppler
system and represents 10,000 km with a grid
of 4 x 8 km, plus supplementary lines over
basement outcroppings.
2.6. Sumatra, Palembang - Fig. 7
This survey was again flown with a Doppler
system and represents some 5,000 km with
a large grid of .8 x 24 km.
2.7. West lrian - Fig. 8
For the first time in Indonesia, the inertial
guidance system (see chapter 3) was used in
combination with visual navigation on SLAR
mosaics. Due t o the rough topography, the
survey was divided into three blocs A, B, C as
indicated in figure 8, as usual, in order to
fly as low as possible. The size of the grid
vanes from 4 x 10 km to 8 x 10 km. The total
number of kilometers flown was approximate-
ly 10,000.
2.8. General conclusion on the measurements
For all surveys, the total field recorded on
the ground was systematically subtracted from
the air records. The HSS equipment was
always useful because many surveys had series
of ,anomalies with amplitudes ranging from
1 t o 10 gamma ;also, an accuracy of 1110th
gamma was necessary for the interpretation,
especially for vertical gradient calculation.
However we can underlirle the fact that the
more accurate surveys were those which used
the Toran system. Why ? Because the internal
accuracy of this system allows an excellent
navigation but also because the flight coor-
dinates are recorded and digitised every second,
providing an excellent and detailed plotting
of lines. This is very important for areas where
the regional gradient of the terrestrial field is
so big that a slight deviation from the theore-
tical line introduces false anomalies, some of
which can have the same amplitude as weak
anomalies used by interpreters. Obviously the
correlation. test allows a distinction between
false and true anomalies but the quality of the
isogam map is not so good.
 SOUTH K A L l MAMTAN
Scale
100km
- O

?I"

r.
110. u*
Interval of lines: 3-30km
Interval of cross-lines: 5km-30 km
flight measurement: 50UU'(above the sea)

FIG. 2
 SOUTH-EAST KALIWIAITAW
Interval of lines: SkmlZ11-12 km ( Z Z l
Interval of cross-lines: BkmIZ1)
Flluht measurement :2000'labove the seal
Scale
- 0 50 km

I
76

SUMATRA QJAMBI
 I1

EAST KALIMANTAN

Flight measurement :4000'(abeve the sea]

RTIAIY IALElEWT

F16.5
78

SULAWESI
Interval of lines: 4 km
Interval of cross-line :8 km
Flight measurement: 3200'(1& 21 3500'(3)
(above the sea)

I 0
Scale
100km I I I Pi I
F16.6
 79

Fi6.7
 GULF WEST IRIAN
%
'.
0
"p a' .
03
F16.8

Regarding the size of the grid itself, we can
confirm that in Indonesia the 3 x 5 km grid
is the minimum for obtaining complete and
accurate information.
For work that may be undertaken in the
future, we can note that, for instance, the
Makassar strait (see Figure 1) has already been
broadly covered in past surveys. However, it
would be very interesting to complete the
present coverage by some supplementary lines.
As everyone knows, this part of Indonesia
represents an attractive geological event, which
may have had some effect on the tectonic
tied up t o the Borneo and Sulawesi structures.
3. NAVIGATION MEANS TO BE USED IN
AIRMAG SURVEYS
This question has t o be developed because,
due to the lack of good topographic data,
the approximated same percentage between
on-shore and offshore surveys, and the presen-
ce of many forests, the navigation problems
in the Republic of Indonesia are very difficult.
3.1. Visual navigation
Except for some parts of Indonesia for
which recent aerial photos o r SLAR surveys
exist, we can consider this type of navigation
as being very rare. It is a pity because this
system of navigation is still the best for
airmag.
3.2. Other means
There are three groups which can be
subdivided into on-shore and offshore afeasi
Firstgroup : no underframe on the
ground: DOPPLER, IN-
ERTIAL GUIDANCE.
Second group : the underframe exists and
functions permanently:
LORAN chains, some
TORAN installations (for
instance in Borneo), DEC
CA, RAYDIST, OMEGA.
Third group : an underframe is needed.
Two subdivisions:
A. Range higher than
optical range
Hyperbolic TORAN,
Circular TORAN, RAY
DIST.
81
B . Range approximately
equal to the optical
range.
SHORAN system.(300
megahertz frequency)
Very high frequency
systems: MOTOROLA
. RANGE POSITION-
ING SYSTEM,DELTA
AUTO TAPE CUBIC
DOPPLER SYSTEM (Fig. 9 and 10)
On-shore areas
Figures 9 and 10 summarise the Doppler's
theory. For our own purpose, we can note
that:
the accuracy on the velocity depends on
the stability of the antenna,
the final accuracy of the computation of
distances and drifts also depends on the
quality of the gyro-compasses.
If care is taken regarding the two points
mentioned above and we have some control
points on the ground, the final quality of the
location map can be acceptable for high
sensitivity measurements.
However, the Doppler system is expensive
and its installation in the aircraft needs a
certain amount of surveys to be amortised.
The apparent simplicity of the navigation rules
(figure 11)in fact requires a very fine specialist.
As we will see, it cannot be used with safety
on the sea.
Offshore areas.
If the diffusion coefficient of soils remains
constant, -020 decitels for depression angles
between 45 and 90 , that for sea decreases
rapidly from 90° ; thus, Doppler flights
cannot be made if the sea is too calm.
Furthermore, movements of the sea due to
wind or various currents mean that the sea
surface is a moving reflector which disturbs
the aircraft velocity.
The use of Doppler on the sea is strictly
limited to large reconnaissance lines or very
short lines perpendicular to the Coast so that
there can be many control points.
INERTIAL GUIDANCE (on-shore and off-
shore areas)
 82

ELEMENTS OF DOPPLER NAVIGATION

Compas e&fl
&@Y
(9,ll 2 O .
Components of the
aircraft velocity

Vp= proper velocity

/- oc=drift angle
Vw= w in d ve I.ocit y
-c-z
G=ground velocity :Vp+Vw

19,21 A

A = transmitter receiver unit

R = depression angle
,.,.,electromagnetic beam whose
frequency is F
frequency on return, after Doppler’
effect: FrFd
where F d = a 60 R and A&
A F

(9 93)
Drt>ftcalculation

Amplitude!

Frequencies

F16.9
 83

DOPPLER NAVIGATION :JANUS. SYSTEM

Side view Front view

4 beams are emitted.

The 1 and 2 allow a dri1.t calculation.
By couple, the pairs 1,2 and 3,4
provided Doppler spectrum whose
difterences are proportional to the Vp.

3
I ‘\ 4

C16.10
84

Intersection from the

35mm continuous camera

Doppler -
A1

C ,D end of lines

a,c: control point photographied

a;c’: corresponding points in
Doppler navigation
61, E p directly compensed
by IBM
FIG.11
 We know that this type of navigation is now
systematically used on internptional airlines
but its use for airmag surveys is still delicate.
However, it has three main advantages over
the Doppler navigation system:
its installation inside the aircraft is simpler
the navigation can be done by the pilot
himself, the computation of the aircraft
path being read on board through coor-
dinates indication
there is n o restriction on. using it over sea
except for too long lines. In some cases the
drift can be predicated (see after).
It would take too long to explain the
working of the inertial guidance system. Let
us assume that from the general equation:
F = ma where F = inertial force
m =mass
a = acceleration
if we can measure F, knowing m, i t is possible
to have continuously the value of a, i.e. by
integration, the calculation of V : aircraft
velocity and x displacement.
The main components of an inertial guidance
system are :
accelerometers and gyroscopes.
Correcting the measurement from the terrestri-
al attraction and tieing the inertial platform
to a Schuler loop where the oscillation period
is:
.-
T=2n
v, =84.4 minutes
where R = radius of the earth
G = gravitational acceleration
the computer directly provides the coordinates
of the flight in latitude and in longitude.
Before starting in Indonesia with tFis type
of equipment, we compared the inertial guid-
ance system to the LORAN C system and to
the TORAN system for a period of six months.
The examination of the drift curves is very
in tenting.
Figure 12 is an example of a record perfectly
showing the Schuler period every 84.4 minut-
es. To obtain this type of record, it is neces-
sary to start the inertial guidance 90 minutes
before taking off. In Indonesia this is impos-
sible due to the.temperature inside the aircraft.
However, the drift curves can be used for
preparing the flight procedure. For instance.
if we collect many drift curves like that in
figure 13 we see that :
- the drift increases after three hours of
continuous functioning,
- if control points exist every 45 minutes
during this period of three hours, that
means every 200 km, the drift can be
considered as linear and the error on the
positioning is 200 m after compensation.
If we have to fly a grid over sea, B calibration
of the drift has to be carried out in order to
obtain a graph similar t g figure 13. This means
that a climatisation of the aircraft at the
airport has t o be made so that the Schuler
period is observed before taking off.
TORAN SYSTEMS
Hyperbolic system : Appendix A, Figures 1 A,
2 A.
Many surveys were flown with this system,
especially in Indonesia. As already mentioned,
the accuracy is excellent. The only constraints
are :
- a calibration at the beginning and the end
of flights.
- a heavy underframe on the ground and a
good geodetical positioning of the trans-
mitters are necessary.
Circular systexr : Appendix B, Figures 1 and
2 B
The TORAN 0 is essentially a long range
system in which each position is calculated by
trilateration from two or three shore stations.
The geodetical constraint disappears and the
weight of the equipment is considerably less
than the hyperbolic system. A small drift of
circle networks is observed but being linear it
is possible to correct it by some control
points. Obviously, there will be most in-
accuracy on the basis lines. The possible range
of such a system is 1,000 miles.
SHORAN : Appendix C, Figures 1 and 2 C
This system has a 'big disadvantage for
airborne use : having a powerful transmitter
it disturbs the airborne equipment and es-
pecially the magnetometer.
We remind you that the range of Shoran
is close to optical range.
Like TORAN 0, there is considerable in-
accuracy on the basis line.
However it is very convenient for off-shore
 Functionment time (HI
F16. 12
 INERTIAL GUIDANCE : OBSERVED DRIFTS
(Reference system : TORAN)

D R I F T (kms)
d a y n!292
10 1 D l = latitude drift d a y n ? 286
gt 0 I = longitude drift

7-
6-
5-
4-
3-

2
1nL

U
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X
F I G . 13 -1
88

PRINCIPLEOF TORAN FOR ONE PAIR FOCUS

t mobile receiver

FIG.1 A
 x ‘i

GENERAL NETWORK Of T H E R A D I O L O C A T I O N T O R A N SYSTEM

A T L A N T l C SURVfY

FlG.2A
90

TORAN “0’
EXAMPLE OF NETW
(Mediterranean sea)

Scale
aI 100 200km

FIG. 1 B
 T0RAN"O"SKETCH
(with two lines of positlon ]

Ground stat ion A Ground station B

F2 :F+2

MobiI station M

T : transmitters Amp.: amplifliers

S :synthetisers M : mixers
El 6 :frequency standards Ip : phasemeters

FIG. 2 6
 SIMPLIFIED BLOCK DlAG OF IC
RADIO EQUIPMENT OF A SHORAN SYSTEM

Mobile s t a t i o n

I \ I I
I \ I I
I \’ I
I 1( I
I I\ I

Ground station 1
I
I
/
1
/
/I
’ \
\
\
\
\
+
I

G r o u n d station 2
/ \ t
\
TRAWSMITTER \ RECEIVER

RECEIVER TRAMSMITTER
d

Fl6.16
 93

SHORAN SYSTEM

From R
From S ---

Fl6. ZC
94
lines which do not exceed 100 miles. It was
also used on land but it is expensive, es-
pecially in heavily wooded tropical countries.
NOTE: Figure 14 gives a standard airborne
set-up in which we can assume that all the
different navigation systems are digitised.
4. INTERPRETATION METHODS AND
CORRESPONDING PROCESSINGS USED
FOR INDONESIAN SURVEYS
Because of professional secrecy it was not
possible to publish interpretation airmag maps
compared either with seismic interpretation
or drillings. However, it is very interesting t o
look at interpretation models which were used
and led to isobath contouring. As the geology
is rather complicated we can say that most of
the processings developed in our company
were tied t o Indonesian problems.
4.1. General interpretation method - Fig. 15
- 16 - 17
Starting from calcomps already prepared
for interpretation, figure 15 shows a few
possibilities :
- automatic plotting on the location map of
the changes in curvatures observed on a
profile
- IT1 gamma abacus (figure 16).
We advise to look at the H. Naudy‘s paper :
“ Une methode d‘analyse fine des profils
magnetiques, Note CGG ” (a sophisticat-
ed analysis method applied t o airmag profiles).
Figure 16 shows part of a magnetic profile
on which all possible geometric parameters
have been drawn. The latter are divided into
two families, horizontal (B, C, E, F , G) and
vertical (j, k, 1, m). Each of them has a
corresponding abacus. Obviously this analysis
has t o be repeated with different magnetic
sources until a convenient geologico-geophy-
sical solution is obtained.
Of course, this takes a long time. For this
reason, an automatic determination of depth
was developed (see “Automatic determination
of depth on aeromagnetic profiles” by H.
Naudy, 40th Annual International SEG Meet-
ing, 8th Nov. 1970).
Figure 17 shows a simple example where
the scattering of values is not too large. When
it is large, for instance, in case of few magnetic
markers, the final decision is in the inter-
preter‘s hands. For us, automatic determinati -
on is only a new tool, not an automatic
geophysical solution.
To illustrate this remark, in the present
example, the interpreter has decided to choose
compartment symbols €or anomaliesD, F, G
and the thin plate hypothesis for anomaly E
according to the amplitude of the anomalies.
4.2. Calculated vertical gradient
Systematically used on profiles, it allows
different types of anomalies t o be separated.
for this, it is necessary to have accurate total
field measurement otherwise the vertical gra-
dient is considerably distorted by noise.
The calcuated vertical gradient provides
a very useful transformed map.
Figures 18 and 19 give good examples. In
the first case the basement is so magnetically
weak that only the vertical gradient allows an
interpretation ; in the second case it allows an
interpretation of two markers (here volcanism
and basement).
Figures 20 and 21 give an example of
magnetic field (Fig. 20) interpreted through
the transformed vertical gradietlt map (Fig. 2 1).
4.3. Non linear filtering [Fig. 22)
Unfortunately, n o universal filtering pro-
cessing exists. Geophysical literature is full of
mathematical ways of trying to transform
magnetic profiles into mathematical compo-
nents. This kind of filtering is often used in
our interpretation. The present example,
although not completely successful, is a good
way of showing that the expected wide
anomalies superimposed effectively exist.
However their flanks are still perturbed by
narrow anomalies so that manual regularisation
is still necessary at this stage.
4.4. Upward continuation (Fig. 23)
It is mainly used to solve the difficult
problem of a strong volcanic screen which can
mask the effect of the basement itself.
4.5. Interpretation through model calculati-
on (Fig. 24 and. 2 5 )
In special cases, when geophysicists and
geologists agree, it is a good thing to control
the geophysical hypothesis to recalculate the
total mametic field or its vertical gradient
 STANDARD SET UP

Nixies showing

nurne r ico I output

recording on paper

tape list of control

processing center

final data

FIG.14
96

DIAGRAM OF GENERAL INTERPRETATION METHOD

-CALCOMP
(Already slightly smoothed
after correcting them from
regional.ground station and
altitude effects)

AUTOMATIC AUTOMATIC I T I ABACUS

DETERMINATION + AND- (FIG.16)
OF DEPTH CORRELATION

•ON iSOGAMS
Bt PLOTTING OF A
B 2 FINAL CORRELATIONS

- ISOBATH DRAWING

FIG.15
 97

USE OF THE 1.1.1D I A G R A R S

I 10 d

LI

1000 m.
scales

B = 9100 m C = 41 00 r r I = 1067' k = 30%

E = 1400 m F = 3600m I = I4 m = 17 3'

G = 4700 m

8 h 29

4h in. this example 3

h = 3000m
2 h J = 707 312

h J f4

h 12

90° 63O45O 90' 63O 45O

98

FINAL DEPTH
Profile

-
100 UNITS
I i

of anomalies

4 COMPARTMENT INFINITE DOWNWARDS

- THIN PLATE

F16.17
 99

THE CALCULATED Y E R T I C A L G R A D I E N T
A NEW TOOL I N " A 1 R M A G ' Q U A N T l T A T I V E INTERPRETATION

-
HORIZONTAL SCALE
0 2km

w. E.
TOTAL INTENSITY FIELD
t

,
I
500mr ,Flight level

BASEMENT
t t
presumed fault presumed anticline

F I G . 10
CA LCULATED VERTICAL GRADI E NT
VOLCANISM EXTENSION
0 1 Z 3 4 5 K m
t n I

,
II

LCalculateP vertical qradient

Fig. 19
101
INTERPRETATION MAP FROM VERTICAL GRADIENT
ISEE F I G . 201
F16.21
103
104

UPWARD CONTINUATION AS IF FLOWN AT

6000 f t -10000f t above sea level
0 6 10th

107

c.l
ularized

v h0=2.9-0.6 :-2.3Km /

Fig. 23
 105

I I I I
o o o =
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
. - a r m -
EXAMPLE OF INTERPRETATION THROUGH MODEL CAlCUlATlON
Fig.25

from a series of geometrical bodies, by success-
ive approximations which try t o match up the
geological hypothesis with the calculation
until a theoretical curve which is as close as
possible t o the experimental one is obtained.
4.6. Other processings
Many other possibilities exist : reduction
to the pole, polar residual, special filtering . . .
We have noted here the processing which
were used for the Indonesian surveys.
5. CONCLUSION
Nothing can replace a good measurement,
It is obvious that all the above mentioned
processings on which the quality of the
interpretation depends, i.e. the only final
product which interests geologists and geo-
physicists, are only effective if the measure-
ment is accurate. The present paper from the
surveys already flown over the Republic of
Indonesia has shown what practical difficulties
existed for obtaining a high sensitivity measure-
ment, the validity of the HSS itself being
broadly proved. The main points remain : the
navigation rules and ground station. Concern-
ing the interpretation methods and their
degree of success, it appears that at this time
the HSS is an economical and successful
method, either t o start on virgin areas or t o
copplete other existing geophysical mformati-
on. Among the surveys already flown, the
Sulawesi, West Irian surveys helped the
seismicians, the others were used before start-
ing with seismics.
APPENDIX A
TORAN RADIOLOCATION HYPERBOLIC
SYSTEM
Principle of Operation
TORAN is a hyperbolic system : its
principle is based on the measurement of the
phase of an audio-frequency beat realized
between two radio frequencies radiated by
fixed transmitting stations.
This principle can be applied in different
ways called X, Y or Z modes, the choice of
which depends essentially upon the problem
involved.
The Z mode allows an easier and more
107
simple understanding of the fundamenta:
aspects of the TORAN general principle. It
was used for the airmag surveys shown in the
present paper.
APPENDIX B
TORAN “ 0 ”
Almost all radionavigation systems are
based on the measurement of the propagation
time between fixed stations and mobile crafts,
the knowledge of the propagation velocity
allows the conversion of time to distance.
Cristal osciltators do not attain the high
stability level required t o be used as standard
clocks in propagation time measurements of
radio waves bet ween several different locati-
ons. So, expedients, such as double-delay
time measurements by a shore station r e
transmission of a signal received from a mobile
transmitter in range-range systems have been
employed, which implies a limited number of
mobiles and expensive equipment.
However, the recent improvements, in the
field of atomic frequency standards and the
development of more rugged equipment
designed for the worst working conditions
and which have high specificatians, has paved
the way to a solution of the problem.
A technique in which an atomic frequency
standard forms the base of a convenient
portable positioning system is the TORAN
“0“
The TORAN “0”is essentially a long range
phase measuring system in circular mode in
which each position is calculated by trilateratia
on from two or three shore stations.
Each shore station consists of a transmitter
driven by a rubidium frequency standard. On
board, the mobile receiver is also controlled
by a similar frequency standard. Synchronizati-
on of shore stations and receivers is then
made avoiding any link over land path and
any transmitter on board the craft. Con-
sequently any number of vehicles can be
located without mutual interaction.
Rather than the use of atomic frequency
standard, the originality of the TORAN “0”
system is due to a unique design of the
receiver itself.
Particularly as in the well known TORAN
principle, each distance is basically given by
108
a phase measurement on an audio beat
frequency obtained between t w o radic-
frequencies. The phase measurement zorres-
ponds t o a certain time for a given frequency
with an ambiguity regarding the number of
cycles ; distances are computed from t h e time
data considering a given propagation velocity.
Two distances are necessary and enough t o
obtain the mobile position ; however, t h e
system has been designed to process a third
distance in order t o improve t h e coverage
o r to obtain a triangle for each fix. The
distances from the shore stations are thus
directly displayed on the front panel of t h e
mobile receiver.
At each shore station, a transmitter radiates
a continuous unmodulated wave Fo = F -- fo,
F being the basic frequency which must be
chosen below 2 Mcs, considering that t h e
propagation characteristics in this band are the
most suitable to reach a high range with good
sensitivity.
fo frequencies are low frequencies different
for each shore station and remain in the
vicinity of 200 cycles.
The shore station transmitter is driven by
a rubidium frequency standard associated with
frequency synthetizer circuits in order t o
generate the Fo frequency from the output
of t h e atomic clock.
On board each mobile, a R F receiver is
tuned o n t h e F frequency with a sufficient
bandwidth to receive without distortion the
Fo frequencies from u p t o three shore
stations.
The M I mixer circuit is fed by t h e Fo
frequencies and a signal whose frequency is
FL = F - Fi. This signal is generated by the
synthetizers S 1 associated with the receiver
rubidium standard.
At the output of the mixer, a circuit tuned
on frequency FI amplifies the signal Fo - FL =
Fi - fo and feeds a second single side band
mixer together with another signal Fi delivered
by the rubidium clock through the S2
synt hetizer.
At the output of t h e second miser, three
filters tuned on each fo frequency dispatch the
low frequencies of the respective shore stations.
These filters have a sufficient bandwidth to
restitute the signal despite the DQppler effect
in the case of a high speed mobile.
The complete circuit including t h e M2
mixer and the filters compose a coherent
system which is equivalent to a by-pass
directly applied t o t h e carrier wave.
A third frequency synthetizer furnishes
three low f o frequencies ; and t h e phase-
meters connected between f'o and fo display
their phase difference measurements Y O
The phase origin of both signals being
atomic frequency standards the value of90
is thus related to t h e propagation time of t h e
radio wave between t h e shore stations and the
mobile station and through it is related to the
distance between them when the wave length
is known ;
2 n
\PO= - Fo x OM OM =-yoh
C 2 n
C = propagation velocity
h = wave length
OM= distance between shore station
and mobile
APPENDIX C
THE SHORAN RADIOPOSITIONING S Y S -
TEM
The Shoran system is a radar transponder
type of radiopositioning system. The Shoran
mobile station equipment measures the dis-
tance from its location t o those of t w o fixed
ground beacon stations. The position of t h e
mobile unit is thus fixed at the intersection
of the t w o circular distance o r range arcs so
determined. The position of the ground beacon
stations o r base stations is normally accurately
known, so that the corresponding position of
t h e mobile station can be accurately computed
or determined by graphical methods. Should
the position coordinates of t h e base stations
not be accurately known, the mobile station
may still be positioned relative to t h e baseline
determined by the base station locations.
The Shoran mobile unit measures the
distances of t h e t w o base stations by measuring
the time required for pulses of radio signals
t o travel from t h e mobile station t o each base
station and return. The time intervals so
measured are related t o t h e corresponding
distances b y using t h e highly constant velocity
charafteristic of radio waves in air through t h e
simple relationship :

Total distance covered = Elapsed time x
velocity
Because of this relationship, it is possible to
graduate t h e indicating dials in t h e mobile
unit in terms of distance rather than elapsed
time. For example, using radio waves which
have a velocity of approximately 186,000
miles per second, the scale of t h e time-interval
measuring system is graduated so that when
the time interval required for a round trip of
the signal is 1/1000 second, the scale reads
93 miles .(The total 'distance traveled by the
radio signals in 1/1000 second is 186 miles.
Since this 1s round trip distance, it must be
halved t o obtain the distance between mobile
and base stations). The Shoran dials are gra-
duated in terms of statute miles rather than
nautical miles.
The basic equipment units used to create t h e
round trip signal paths originating and termin-
ating at the mobile station are shown in
Figure 1 C. This equipment consists of a signal
source (labeled pulse generator in Figure 1 C), a
transimitter, receiver and indicator unit com-
prising the mobile station and a receiver coup-
led t o a transmitter at each base station.
Pulse signals originating at the mobile station
are radiated from the mobile transmitter and
received by one of the base stations. At this
base station, t h e pulse is sent from t h e output
of the receiver t o the input of t h e transmitter,
and is then retransmitted back t o the mobile
station. After passing through the mobile re-
ceiver, the pulse is routed t o an indicating
circuit where its time lag, or lapse, with res-
pect t o t h e original outgoing pulse is deter-
mined, and indicated in terms of distance
rather than units of time.
Other pulses are transmitted t o the second
base station, using a different radio frequency
t o permit their discriminatiop from those in-
tended for the first base station. These pulses
are received and retransmitted by the second
base station, and o n their return t o the mobile
station are similarly sent through t h e indicating
circuits for measurement of the time required
for their round trip and the indication of cor-
responding distance. Thus t h e equipment pro-
vides continuous, essentially simultaneous, in-
dications of the distance t o b o t h base stations.
'l'he Snoran system operates in the VHF/UHF
portion of t h e radio spectrum. Normally,
three separate frequencies are used. Two of
thesr are transmitted alternately b y the mobile
station t o interrogate each base station in
109
turn, as previously described. The third fre-
quency is utilized by t h e base stations to re-
transmit the received pulses back to the mobile
station. Both base stations transmit o n t h e
single frequency in order to utilize a single
receiver a t the mobile station.
I he propagation characteristics of VHF/UHF
radio signals is such.that they tend t o travel
in straight lines. While they are refracted in
straight lines. While they are refracted in the
atmosphere to some small extent, they do not
tend to follow the earth's curvature as d o
radio signals of considerable lower frequency.
They lack the ability to "see" beyond t h e
radio horizon. Thus the Shoran system is es-
sentially a "line of sight" system, with t h e
maximum range being limited, t o a large
extent, b y the heights of the mobile and base
station antennas.
The range of t h e system under particular
conditions may be estimated from the rela-
tionship
where,
d = estimated maximum range, in miles
h l = height of mobile station antenna, in
feet, above sea level
h 2 = height of base station antenna, in feet,
above sea level
k = empirical range factor
The factor, K, depends upon several factors
among which are included antenna gain,
receiver sensitivity, transmitter power and
atmospheric refractive index. It will vary in
value from 1.5 to 2.5, under normally en-
countered conditions.
The range formula presumes n o obstructi-
ons between mobile and base stations. The
presence of intervening hills or other obstructi-
ons can reduce t h e otherwise obtainable range,
Under certain conditions, abnormally long
Shoran ranges can be obtained by exploiting
the existence of an atmospheric phenomenon
known as a temperature inversion layer. This
is a layer of high-refractive index occurring
with t h e first few thousand feet of the
atmosphere. It has the effect of confining t h e
radio waves near t h e earth's surface, and acts
as a duct to bend radio waves around t h e
curvature of the earth. Under these conditions
the factor, k, may be several times greater
than normal. In some marine areas of the
110
world,this phenomenon occurs quite regularly
during certain seasons.
The instrumental accuracy of the Shoran
equipment, when properly cslibrated, is k 50-
75 feet OR a single range. The overall position
accuracy is related t o the range accuracy by
the angle of intersection, at the mobile station,
between the two Shoran range circles (Fig. 2 C).
In normal geophysical operations, this angle
***
of intersection is held between 30 and 150
degrees.
The range accuracy of the Shoran system
can be improved by correcting the propagati-
on velocity slightly under varying meteorologl-
cal conditions, by the application of more
rigid calibration and operating specifications
For most operations, this additional accuracy
cannot be economically justified.