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187 Sample Chapter
187 Sample Chapter
CHAPTER 2
Transistor was invented by John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattin of
Bell Laboratory in year 1948. Invention of transistor revolutionized electronic
industry. Transistors have replaced bulky vacuum tubes. Main advantages of
transistor over the vacuum tubes are given below.
(1) Filament (or heater) is not needed. Delays due to heating are very less.
Heating power required is also very less or almost negligible.
(2) These are light in weight and small in size.
(3) Transistors require very low operating voltages.
(4) Transistors have very low power consumption. Thus, they increase circuit
efficiency.
(5) There is no effect of ‘ageing’ on transistors. They have very long life.
(6) Transistors are shockproof.
Two major types of ‘three terminal’ semiconductor devices are:
(1) Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and
(2) Field effect transistors (FETs)
Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) consist of two p-n junctions, which are
constructed in a special way. These junctions are connected in series and/or back
to back. Electric current flows due to both charge carriers viz. electrons and
holes. That is why, these are called ‘bipolar’.
BJTs are very often referred to as “transistors”. BJTs are widely used in
discrete circuits and also in IC design (both analog and digital).
It is basically a
(1) Three-terminal device.
42 Semiconductor Devices
value of ‘α’ near to unity and a very large value of ‘β’. Cross-sectional view of
BJT as shown in Figure 2.2 shows that collector base junction has larger area than
that of emitter-base junction.
Unlike other transistors, BJT is not a symmetrical device. Interchanging
collector and emitter makes transistor to come out of forward active mode and
start operating in reverse mode. Transistor’s internal structure is optimized to
forward mode operation. Interchanging collector and emitter simply reverses the
values of α and β as a result their values become much smaller than those in
forward operation. ‘α’ of reverse mode is less than 0.5. Lack of symmetry is
attributed to doping ratios of emitter and collector. Emitter is “heavily doped”.
Collector is “lightly doped”. Thus, it allows application of a large reverse bias
voltage before collector-base junction breakdown occurs. Collector base junction
is reverse biased normally. It is due to the reason that emitter is heavily doped,
which increases ‘emitter injection efficiency’. ‘Emitter injection efficiency’ is the
ratio of carriers injected by emitter to the carriers injected by base. For ‘high
current gain’, carriers which are injected into emitter-base junction should come
from emitter.
Collector (C)
iC
iC
iB
–
vBC + n ‘Collector’
Base (B)
p ‘Base’
iB
+ Arrow direction
vBE n ‘Emitter’ is always from “p to n”.
–
p n iE
iE
Emitter (E)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.3: (a) n-p-n transportation model (b) Symbol n-p-n transistor
Emitter (E)
iE
E
iE
iB
+ p ‘Emitter’
vEB
– Base (B)
iB
n ‘Base’
–
vCB + p ‘Collector’ iC
iC
C Collector (C)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.4: (a) p-n-p transportation model (b) Symbol of p-n-p transistor
HBT is an improvement over BJT. HBTs can handle very high frequency signals
typically up to several hundred gigahertz (GHz). HBTs are very commonly used in
ultra fast circuits like R.F. systems. H.B.T has different semiconductors for transistor
elements. Emitter of HBT is made up of a “Large band gap” material than its base
material. Two common HBTs are silicon-germanium and aluminum-gallium-
arsenide. Other semiconductors can also be conveniently used for HBT. HBTs are
developed by epitaxy techniques like “MOCVD” and “MBE”.
44 Semiconductor Devices
B Output
E
Input
E C
Input Output
B
E
Input
Output
Number of electrons which cross the transistor base and reach transistor collector
is a measure of BJT efficiency. Heavy doping of emitter region and light doping of
base region causes more and more electrons injection from emitter into base. Less
holes are injected from base into emitter. “βF” or “hfe” represent common emitter
current gain. ‘β’ is called “Base current amplification factor”. ‘β’ is ratio of change
in D.C. collector current to the change in D.C. base current in forward active
region. ‘β’ is around 100. However, it can vary between 20 to 500.
Another parameter is common base current gain. It is denoted by ‘αF’, which
is called “current amplification factor”. ‘αF’ is ratio of change in collector current
to the change in emitter current for a constant collector base voltage (VCB). ‘α’
and ‘β’ are thus given as
∆ IC ∆ IC
α= and β =
∆IE ∆ IB
α β
Also, β = 1 − α and α = 1 + β
( ) ( )
Current amplification factor ‘α’ is always less than unity. As, base current decreases,
‘α’ approaches unity. ‘α’ ranges from 0.9 to 0.99.
Sr.No. Parameter CB CE CC
(1) Input dynamic resistance Low (20 Ω – 100 Ω) Moderate Very high
(750 Ω–1000 Ω) (750K Ω)
(2) Output dynamic Very high Very high Low
resistance (450 K – 1 MΩ) (10 K Ω–1 KΩ) (50 Ω)
(3) Current gain Less than unity High (about100) —
(about 0.98)
(4) Leakage current Very small Very large
(1 µA – 5 µA) (20 µA–500 µA) —
(5) Application For high freqn For Audio freqn Impedance
matching
(6) Voltage gain about 150 about 500 less than 1
Figure 2.8 below, shows three currents viz. iE, iB, and iC, and their flow inside the
transistor and in peripheral circuit.
Reverse current components are due to drift of thermally generated minority
carriers. These are not shown in Figure 2.8.
Forward bias Reverse bias
n p n
iB
– + iB – +
BE CB
B
iE iE iC iC
– + – +
BE CB
There are five (05) distinct modes of transistor operations. Figure 2.9 shows
input-output characteristics of transistor.
Figure 2.10 depicts various transistor operation modes.
Bipolar Junction Transistor 47
IC Saturation
Forward IB
active
Cut off
VCE
Cut off
IB Reverse
active
Saturation
Emitter junction
Reverse Forward
Reverse
Cutoff
or Forward
off active
Collector junction
Forward
Saturation
Reverse or
active on
Condition JE JC Region of
Emitter junction Collector junction operation
2.8.1 Cutoff
If both junctions ‘JE’ and ‘JC’ are reverse biased, transistor is doing nothing. A
very little current flows. It corresponds to a logical “OFF’, or an open switch.
+10 V
RL oA
VBE
oV
E
2.8.2 Active
It is of two types viz. forward active and reverse active. Both these modes have
been described below.
+10 V
RL
IC
IB
+
VBE
E
–
VCC – VCE = IC RC
−1 VCC
or IC = VCE +
RC RC
Comparing above with “y = (mx + c)” equation, which is of straight line Here,
−1 VCC
slope is and intercept ‘C’ is with IC axis. This straight line in the
RC RC
case of transistors is known as “D.C. load line”. It is shown in Figure 2.14 below.
IC (mA)
A
VCC
RC
Q
C
B
VCE (Volts)
O D VCC
(VCC − VBE )
IB =
RB
+ VCC
RB RC
+
VBE –
VCC
‘IC’. I C ≅ β I B provided I C ≤
RC
Step 3: Find collector emitter voltage ‘VCE’.
2.10.2.1.1 Advantages
Advantages of fixed biasing are given below.
Bipolar Junction Transistor 53
2.10.2.1.2 Disadvantages
Disadvantages of fixed-biasing are given below.
(1) It provides poor stabilization.
(2) Stability factor is very high.
+ VCC
(IB + IC)
RC
IB
RB
IB
IE
Here, resistor ‘RB’ connects collector with base (input). Due to feedback,
base current is dependent on collector voltage. This dependence nullifies changes
in base current. This method is also called as “voltage-feedback” bias circuit.
2.10.2.2.1 Disadvantages
Its disadvantages are given below.
(1) Stability factor is high.
(2) It provides negative feedback. Thus, gain of amplifier is reduced.
VBE VBC
IB
R IR F IF
VBE VBE
IF = IES e VT – 1 IR = ICS e VT – 1
IE IC
WB
E B C
WB eff
Here, WB: Physical base width (thickness of doped base region) and
WBeff : Effective base width
If emitter-base junction is forward biased, then ‘WD’ does not change. If
collector-base junction is reverse biased, then ‘WD’ changes with collector voltage
change. It is so because collector is less heavily doped with respect to base. The
principle involved is called ‘charge-neutrality’. This principle governs these two
widths. Emitter-base junction remains unchanged as emitter-base voltage remains
same.
Two consequences of ‘base-modulation’ affecting current are mentioned below.
(1) There is very little chance of recombination within the “smaller” base
region.
(2) Charge gradient is increased across the base. Therefore, current of minority
carriers, which are injected in emitter junction, increases.
These two factors increase collector or “output” current of transistor as
collector voltage is increased. This increased current is shown in Figure 2.23,
below.
IC
VA = Early voltage
– VA VCE
2.13 PHOTOTRANSISTOR
Thus, IC = (β + 1) ICO
If light is turned ‘ON’, additional minority carriers are photo generated. These
additional minority carriers contribute to reverse saturation current, similar to
thermally generated minority charges. Let ‘Il’ be the component of reverse saturation
current due to light, then total collection current ‘IC’ is given as
IC = (β + 1) (ICO + Il)
Current due to radiation is multiplied by (β + 1), a very large factor, due to transistor
action.
Radiations
C E
n p n
IC
JC JE
+ –
VCE
IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIPS
η (o ) =
η po eVBE / VT
60 Semiconductor Devices
Here,
IB : Base current
α : Current amplification factor
and ICBO : Collector-base current with emitter open (Leakage current)
IE (mA)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
VEB (V)
0 10 20 30 40 50
∆ VCB
ri = at constant VCB
∆ IC
∆ VBE
ro = at constant I E
∆ IE
IC (mA)
5 IE = 5 mA
4 IE = 4 mA
3 IE = 3 mA
2 IE = 2 mA
1 IE = 1 mA
IE = 0 mA
0
Collector-Base VCB (volts)
voltage
∆ IC
β=
∆ IB
α
IC = β IB + ICEO β = 1 − α
( )
Here, ICEO : Collector-emitter current with base open
(c) Emitter current ‘IE’ is
α
Here, (β + 1) = ( α )
1 −
IE = (β + 1) IB + ICEO
= (β α )
IB (A)
4
V
0V
3
=1
=1
CE
V
2
CE
V
0 VBE (volts)
0.7 1.4 2.1
∆ VBE
ri = at constant VCE
∆ IB
∆ VCE
ro = at constant I B
∆ IC
IC
5 mA IB = 25 A
4 mA IB = 20 A
3 mA IB = 15 A
2 mA IB = 10 A
1 mA IB = 5 A
0
VCE
∆ IE
γ =
∆ IB
1
or γ= (1 + β )
(1 − α )
(b) Collector current ‘IC’ is
IC = (β + 1) IB +(β + 1) ICBO
1
M= n
1 − (VCB B VCBO )
64 Semiconductor Devices
(β + 1) ∂ IC
S= = at constt I B and β
d I ∂ I CO
1 − β B
d IC
d IB
Thus, =0
d IC
and S = (β + 1)
(V2 − VBE )
IC =
RE
VCC
Here, V2 = R2
R1 + R 2
(V2 − VBE )
and IE = ≈ IC
RE
As, IC = βIB
IC + IB
RC
RB
– +
IC
IB
VCE
+
VBE –
+ VCC
RC
IC
X
CC
IB
Output
Signal IE
Output is available either across ‘RC’ or across terminal ‘X’ and ‘Y’ as shown in
Figure 2.30. Output magnitude remains same in either case.
Performance
In common emitter (CE) amplifier
Input resistance ‘Ri’ is
∆ VBE
Ri = ∆ = hie
IB
∆ VCE 1
Ro = =
∆ I C hoe
RAC = RC || RO
RC × RO
= R +R
( C O)
In a single stage amplifier, effective load is same as collector load ‘RC’. If amplifiers
are cascaded, input resistance ‘Ri’ of next stage plays an important role. Effective
collector load ‘Reff’ is parallel combination of RC, RO and Ri. It is obtained as
RC × Ri
= R +R
( C i)
IB
VBE Rin
SOLVED PROBLEMS
IC = 0
IE = 2 mA
I
We know, =VE VT ln 1 − E
I Eo
In a p-n-p transistor, ‘ I Eo ’ is negative.
Therefore, I Eo = – 1.6 µA
2
Now, VE = 0.026 ln 1 + −3
1 ⋅ 6 × 10
or = 0.1853V
For forward bias case
α I
=Vc VT ln 1 − n E
I Co
0.98 × 2 × 10−3
or = 0.026 ln 1 −
2 × 10−6
or = 0.179 V
(ii) ‘VCE’ is obtained as
or = 0.0063 V
(iii) From above results, we find that transistor is in “saturation region”.
70 Semiconductor Devices
Thus, I=
C (0.99 × 2 × 10 −3
+ 5 × 10−6 )
or IC = 1.985 × 10–3 A
Base current is obtained as
IB = (IE – IC)
or ( −3
IB = 2 × 10 − 1.985 × 10
−3
)
or IB = 15 µA
Q3. In a transistor, if emitter current changes by 4 mA, collector current
changes by 0.83 mA. What is short-circuit current gain of this transistor?
Solution: Short circuit current gain ‘α’ is
∆ iC
α or hfb =
∆ iE
0.83 × 10−3
Thus, α = −3
4 × 10
or α = 0.2075
Q4. A common base circuit is shown in Figure 2.32, below. Find ‘VCB’ and
‘IC’. Transistor is made up of Silicon semiconductor material.
VCC = 18 V
RC = 3 k
IC
IB
IE
RE = 2 k
VEE = 10 V
(VEE − VBE )
or IE =
RE
10 − 0.7
Thus, IE =
2 × 103
or IE = 4.65 mA
Here, I B ≈ 0 so I C ≈ I E
Thus, IC = 4.65 mA
Applying KVL in collector loop yields
(VCC – VCB) = IC RC
or VCB = VCC – IC RC
VCB = (18 – 4.65 × 10–3 × 3 × 103)
or VCB (18 – 13.95)
VCB = 4.05 V
Q5. What will be ‘α’ rating of transistor as shown in Figure 2.33 below?
Also, find value of IC.
IC
= 49
IB = 341 A
IE = 15 mA
or α = 0.98
Further, IC = α IE
or IC = 0.98 × 15 × 10-3
or IC = 14.7 mA
Also, IC = β IB
or IC = 49 × 341 × 10-6A
or IC = 14.7 mA
Q6. In an application, maximum power dissipation ‘PD’ of a transistor is
100 mW. Find maximum allowable collector current without causing
any destruction to transistor. Consider VCF = 25 V.
Solution: We know that
PD = VCE × IC
In this case, 100 mW = 25 V × IC
100 mW
or IC =
25V
or IC = 4 mA
Q7. Potential divider method of biasing is used in a transistor circuit. Here,
R1 = 50 KΩ, R2 = 10 KΩ and RE = 1 KΩ. If VCC = 15 V, find
(a) IC with VBE = 0.1 V, and
(b) IC with VBE = 0.3 V
Solution: It is given that
R1 = 50 KΩ, R2 = 10 KΩ , RE = 1 KΩ and VCC = 15 V
(a) If VBE = 0.1 V, voltage across R2 is
R2
V2 =
R1 + R2
10
VCC = 10 + 50 × 15
( )
= 2.5 V
(V2 − VBE )
Collector current ‘IC’ =
RE
(2.5 − 0.1)
or =
1 KΩ
74 Semiconductor Devices
or ( −3
= 15 − 0.5 × 10 × 2 × 10
3
)
or = 14 V
Q9. In the circuit shown below in Figure 2.35, operating point is chosen
such that IC = 5 mA and VCE = 1V. If RC = 1.1KΩ , VCC = 10 V and β
= 50, find R1, R2 and RE. (assume VBE = 0.3 V and I1 = 5 IB)
+ VCC = 10 V
I1 2.2 k
IC
R1 I1 >> IB
VCE
I1 IB
IE
R2 VBE
RE
IC
Base current ‘IB’ = β
5 × 10−3
=
50
= 0.1 mA
Current via ‘R1’ and ‘R2’ is obtained as below.
Bipolar Junction Transistor 75
Given that I1 = 5 IB
Thus, I1 = 5 × 0.1 × 10–3
or = 0.5 mA
VCC
Further, I1 = R + R
( 1 2)
10
or 0.5 × 10−3 =
( R1 + R2 )
or ( R1 + R2 ) = 20 KΩ
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at collector side, we get
VCC = (IC RC + VCE + IE RE)
or VCC = (IC RC + VCE + IC RE)
In this case,
10 = (0.5 × 1.1 × 103 × 10–3 + 1 + 0.5 × 10–3 × RE)
or (10 – 5.5 – 1) = 0.5 × 10–3 RE
3.5
or RE =
5 × 10−3
or RE = 700 Ω
Voltage across ‘R2’ is obtained as
V2 = (VBE + VE)
or = (VBE + IE RE)
or V2 = (0.3 + 5 × 0.7)
or V2 = 3.8 V
V2
Resistance R2 =
I1
3.8
=
0.5 mA
= 7.6 KΩ
and R1 = (20 – 7.6) KΩ
= 12.4 KΩ
Q10. A Ge transistor (β = 50) is used in a self biasing circuit. In circuit, VCC
= 16V and RC = 1.5 KΩ. Quiescent point ‘Q’ is VCE = 8V and IC = 4
mA. For stability factor ‘S’ = 12, find values of R1, R2 and RC.
Bipolar Junction Transistor 77
16
=
R1
16 RB
Thus, R1 =
V
16 × 7.05
or =
2.76
or = 41 KΩ
(VCC − VBN )
Further, I R1 =
R1
16 − 2.2
or =
41 × 103
or = 0.337 mA
Also, I=
R2 (IR 1
− IB )
or = 0.257 mA
VBN
Thus, R2 = I
R2
2.2
or R2 =
0.257
or R2 = 8.56 KΩ
Note that stability factor is improved. Power drained by biasing resistors
‘R1’ and ‘R2’ from battery is increased.
78 Semiconductor Devices
(
h − h fe hre )
Ri =
ie
1
hoe +
RL
h h
h − fe re
Thus, 0.9 Ri = 0.9 hie = ie 1
hoe + R
L
h ⋅h
fe re = 0.1 hie
So h + 1
oe R
L
0.1 hie
or h fe ·hre 0.1 hie hoe +
=
RL
hie
or 0.1
RL
= (h fe ⋅ hre − 0.1hie hoe )
hie 1 h h
or = h fe ⋅ hre − ie oe
RL 10 10
1
hie
RL = 10
or hie hoe
h fe ⋅ hre − 10
80 Semiconductor Devices
– 10 V
3K ICS
0
7K
hfe = 100
IB
– RE
3V 500
+ IE
+6V
RC IC
90 K 0
= 200
IB
90 K Re IE
–6V
Q3. Consider transistor circuit as shown in Figure 2.38 below. Find ‘VBB’ (input
voltage) required to just saturate the transistor.
Ans. VBB = 14.41 Volts
Bipolar Junction Transistor 81
+ 15 V
500
44 K
+ = 100
VBB 1K
–
– 15 V
Q4. Consider a transistor circuit as shown in figure 2.39, below. Find output
voltage ‘vo’, if transistor is in “saturation region”. Find region of operation.
Also, find output voltage ‘vo’, if input voltage is modified to 1V.
+ 12 V
2.2 K
0
15 K
Vi = 12 V
(initially) I1
100 K
I2
– 12 V
4 K
IB
IE
Figure 2.40: Transistor
82 Semiconductor Devices
Ans. 56.96µA
Q6. Consider a transistor circuit as shown in Figure 2.41 below. If transistor is
operating in “active region”, find
(a) VE (b) VB (c) I2 (d) I C (e) β
(f) I1 (g) V1 and (h) R1
Here, the transistor is in “active region”.
12 V
3.3 K = RC
R1
V1
I1
VB
20 K IB VE
R2 100 = Re
I2 IE = 2 mA
+10 V
IC
vC
IB
VE = – 0.7 V
10 K
–10 V
Ans. 5.45 V
Q8. Consider a transistor circuit as shown in Figure 2.43 below.
Consider Silicon transistor. Find
84 Semiconductor Devices
Hint : ' S ' = (1 + β )
Ans. ∂I B
1 − β
∂I C
I2 R1 RC = 1.5 K
VO
VCE = 8 V
VB IC = 4 mA
IB S = 10
R2 RE
I1 IE
Find
R1
(a) RE (b) VB (c)
R2
(d) If stability factor ‘S’ changes to 3, find the value of ‘R1’ , needed to
maintain the same ratio, as earlier.
R1
Ans. (a) 490 Ω (b) 2.63 V (c) = 4.19 and (d) R1 = 5.25 KΩ
R2