Reasons for Bengal Partition

Geographical factors
1. Vast Area + Administrative difficulty
2. Difficult Terrain
3. The thick population of both Hindu’s and Muslims

Explanation
1. The province was spread over an area of 1,8900 square miles. It was the largest
province, its population expanded to 95 million which was ten times the population
of Brittan at that time. The vast distance thus created administrative problems and
Bengal couldn't be administrated by one lieutenant governor. The governor could not
tour the whole province in one of his tenures. The province was hence partitioned to
make possible an easier administration.

2. Features such as those of dense jungles, deep marshy areas dominated the province
of Bengal. The sources of communication in the provinces were limited due to rivers
and forests. The law and order condition of the province was also worse due to
insufficient police and ineffective management. Therefore, the need of partition was
felt severely due to the natural topography.

3. The province of Bengal consisted of thick population of both Hindu’s and Muslims. At
the end of the nineteenth century it consisted of a population which composed 42
million Hindu’s and 12 million Muslims. Eastern Bengal and Assam with a population
of 12 million Hindu’s and 18 million Muslims. Hindu’s and Muslims were two
communities which did not get along well and there were considerable outbreaks of
conflicts which may have been a threat for British rule in the longer run. Partition was
necessary to maintain peace under British monarchy.

Political factors
1. To reduce Hindu threat through divide and rule policy
2. To handle tensions between Muslims and Hindus
3. Formation of nationalist societies.

Explanation
1. The British wanted to ensure to a harmonically rule over the Indian subcontinent
particularly after the radical nationalism that had begun to develop during the
nineteenth century. The Hindu’s being a majority holder and aware of their rights
posed a greater threat. One strategy was dividing Bengal into a smaller unit to prevent
rebellious opposition attempts for the British rule and to solidify their control over the
subcontinent. Behind the scenes, the intention was the “divide and rule policy” under
the cloak of Bengal separatism.

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2. The Muslims were oppressed under Hindu landlords. They had been given fewer
opportunities in education and employment. Many important Muslim families had been
reduced to near poverty. Muslim community served as the labor force for their Hindu
business owners. For the social, economic, and political uplift of the Muslims and to earn
the support of the fast-politically growing Muslim population of India which constituted
¼ of the colony partitioning of Bengal was considered.

3. During the 19th century extremism activities were witnessed. Leaders such as Bal Gandhar
Tilak made impassioned speeches calling for freedom of Indian people, he also wrote
proactive articles arising the anti-British feelings of the Indians. During the late 1870’s
many secret societies and political groups sprung up aiming to rid India of British e.g.
Sarvajnik Sabha. In 1897 A British officer and his companion were assassinated. These
activities worried the British who were forced to take measures to clamp down, one way
in which they did this was the partition of Bengal.

Social factors
1. Hindu oppression
2. Language

Explanation
1. The British wanted to appease Muslims and certainly, the partition went in favor of
the Muslims. Before the partition, only Western Bengal was developed and
industrialized. It was a striking contrast to the eastern part where the Muslim
peasantry was crushed under the Hindu landlords, the river system was infested with
pirates, and very few funds were allocated for education. The Muslims could not
practice their religion freely in the Hindu-dominated province, call to azan was banned
in some places. The partition helped boost Bengali literature and language; Efforts
were also made towards the social, economic, and educational uplift of the Muslims.

2. There was also a difference of language and civilization in the natives of West Bengal
and East Bengal, the natives of West Bengal considered themselves to be superior in
culture and language to those of East Bengal. The striking difference and superiority
complex called for the partition of the two provinces.

Economic reasons
1. Equal footings
2. Calcutta port

Explanation
1. West Bengal and East Bengal differed greatly in economic conditions. East Bengal
had a higher illiteracy rate. There were hardly any educational institutions. The
crime rate was high in the area and law order conditions were poor. The local

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 population was depressed due to the prevalent economic crisis. West Bengal in
comparison had a higher literacy rate, greater government funds were allocated
and educational institutions were available. In order to bring both provinces on
equal footings economically, British portioned Bengal.

2. The division of provinces was the needed to develop trade in both areas. West
Bengal had all the factories but it lacked other human inputs needed for adequate
development i.e. labor force, raw materials. East Bengal on the other hand had the
inputs needed but lacked capital investment and resources for processing. Hence
by dividing, the British aimed to improve trade in both the areas for example the
port of Chittagong was developed in East Bengal after partition.

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 Successes and Failures of Bengal Partition

Successes
1. Better Administration
2. Freedom of Muslims from Hindu oppression/ End of Hindu – Muslim conflicts
3. Appeasement of Muslims
4. Equal footings

Failures
1. Hindu View
2. Day of mourning
3. Swadeshi moments
4. Assassination attempts

Explanation
Successes
1. Before partition, the province was spread over an area of 1,8900 square miles. It was
the largest province, its population expanded to 95 million which was ten times the
population of Brittan at that time. The vast distance thus created administrative
problems and Bengal couldn't be administrated by one lieutenant governor. The
governor could not tour the whole province in one of his tenures. The partition thus
enabled an ease for the government and activities were easy to monitor.

2. Previously, the Muslims were oppressed under Hindu landlords. They had been given
fewer opportunities in education and employment. Many important Muslim families
had been reduced to near poverty. Muslim community served as the labor force for
their Hindu business owners. The partition allowed for social, economic and political
uplift of the Muslim community. It freed them from Hindu dominance and provided
a province where they were in a majority.

3. The British wanted to appease Muslims and certainly, the partition went in favor of
the Muslims. Before the partition, only Western Bengal was developed and
industrialized. It was a striking contrast to the eastern part where the Muslim
peasantry was crushed under the Hindu landlords, the river system was infested with
pirates, and very few funds were allocated for education. The Muslims could not
practice their religion freely in the Hindu-dominated province, call to azan was banned
in some places. The partition helped boost Bengali literature and language and
ensured a recognition of Muslim rights.

4. West Bengal and East Bengal differed greatly in economic conditions. East Bengal had
a higher illiteracy rate. There were hardly any educational institutions. The crime rate
was high in the area and law order conditions were poor. The local population was
 depressed due to the prevalent economic crisis. West Bengal in comparison had a
higher literacy rate, greater government funds were allocated and educational
institutions were available. Through partition, the British were able to bring both
provinces on equal footings.

Failures
Explanation
1. The Hindu’s believed that the British had tried to weaken Hindu Muslim unity by
dividing Bengal and establishing East Bengal with a Muslim majority. This meant that
their dominance and threat would be reduced. The Hindus also accused the British of
dividing Bengal as a target for their “Divide and Rule Policy” and not due to the need
for administrative efficiency. A conflict was caused between the Muslims as an
immediate result of the partition.

2. The partition aroused fury amongst the Hindu’s and as the largest party of India, they
began to call for reform. They declared 16th October 1905 as the day of mourning or
black day. Hindus fasted and took bath in Ganga, wore black clothes. They walked
barefoot in processions singing Bande-Mataram. The law and order situation of the
subcontinent was disrupted. There were camp shutdowns and British lost control in
many areas.

3. The Hindu’s also decided to introduce a boycott on British goods. Instead of British
salt, cloth or any manufactured goods Hindu’s vowed to buy locally produced goods.
The Swadeshi movement spread rapidly. British cloth was thrown into bonfire and it
became a matter of owner to wear locally produced clothes. At the same time some
Indian workers such as those in Calcutta organized a series of strikes to show their
opposition. Soon the sale of British goods dropped dramatically.

4. Hindu community was angered to the extent that assassination attempts were made
on Lord Minto, the British viceroy and Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka. The British were
worried about the lives of their officals. The British also realized the extent till which
the Hindu’s could go to undo the partition of Bengal. The assassination attempts
served as the last straw eventually convincing the British to reverse partition of
Bengal.
 7 Mark Questions
Partition of Bengal
Take few lines from 2nd, 3rd
Q. Why was Bengal Partitioned in 1905? point, write Muslim view
complete. (3rd reason)
 Vast area + Administrative problems
 Hindu View (Failures, 1St point + N.K page 53 “Hindu view”)
 Muslim View (Successes 2nd, 3rd point + add N.K page 53 “Muslim view”)

Q. Why was Bengal partition reversed?

 Day of mourning/ Black day Refer to N.K page 53-54
 Swadeshi movement
 Assassination attempts on Lord Minto

Q. Explain how the British reacted to Hindu- led protests against the partition of Bengal
between 1906 and 1908
Refer N.K page 54
 Restrictions placed on newspapers + press act
 Leaders i.e. Tilak imprisoned.
 Introduction of Minto- Morley reforms

Q. Why did Hindus oppose partition of Bengal?

 The partition guaranteed the betterment of the Muslims politically and socially. The
Muslims now formed a majority in the province and the Hindu’s feared that the
Muslims might emerge as their equal competitors in political grounds reducing the
supposed “Hindu threat”, domination and representation as the majority community.
The capitulation of Hindu demands may have no longer remained a priority
responsibility of the British and may have shifted as a secondary task. The idea of
seeing Muslims as equals was too terrifying for Hindu’s to imagine and thus they begin
to call for reform and opposed the partition.

 The partition ensured the growth of Muslims, it freed them from Hindu dominance in
the economic field. They would get opportunities of services, employment. The
partition also allowed for advancement in agricultural sector. The city of Dacca, where
the Muslims were in a majority was the center of Muslim culture. In Dacca Muslims
had a greater chance of social and cultural advancement than Calcutta. The partition
ensured religious freedom too and freed the Muslims of the continuous competition
with the Hindu’s. The appeasement of Muslims was not what the Hindu’s favored and
thus called against the partition.

 The partition effected the economic condition of the Hindu’s in various fields. Most of
the raw material was provided by the eastern side of Bengal which was now under
Muslim domination, previously Muslims also acted as the labor force for their Hindu
 landlords. The Hindu’s will therefore have to face a shortage of inputs. Hindu lawyers
also objected as both the provinces now had their own courts and their practice would
be effected. The economic crisis led the Hindu’s to protest against the partition of
Bengal.

Q. Why did Muslims support the partition of Bengal?

 Freedom from Hindu oppression (Successes, 2nd point)

 The partition of Bengal offered Muslims an opportunity for the Muslims to realize their
political liberty and a chance to stand together against the Hindu community, as the
Muslims were now in a majority. Majority of Muslim community also created a greater
chance for representation of Muslims at governmental posts. The Muslims could now
communicate their demands to the British with a much stronger stance. The Muslims
were also relieved from the competition with Hindu’s in political field in particular.

 Social and cultural representation (Why did Hindus oppose partition of Bengal – 2nd bullet)

14 Mark Questions
Basic layout

Q. Partition or Reversal? The reasons for partition of Bengal were more important
than the ones which caused its reversal…
 4 reasons – Partition
 Vast area + Administrative problems
 Hindu View (Failures, 1St point + N.K page 53 “Hindu view”)
 Muslim View (Successes 2nd, 3rd point + add N.K page 53 “Muslim view”)
 Equal footings
 3 reasons – Reversal
 Hindu view
 Day of mourning/black day
 Swadeshi movement
Q. “Bengal was partitioned due to geographical factors” …
 3 reasons – Geographical factors
 2 reasons - political factors (1. divide and rule and 2. Nationalist parties)
 1 reason - social factor (language)
 1 reason - economic factor (1. Equal footings)

Q. “Bengal was partitioned due to “economic factors” Whatever factor is mentioned in Q.

write 2 explanations of that factor, 2
 2 reasons – Economic factors
explanations of 2 other and 1
 2 reasons – Geographical
explanation of the remaining. factor.
 2 reasons – Political
 1 reason – Social
 FORMATION OF MUSLIM LEAGUE
Reasons for formation of Muslim League

Partition of Bengal
1. Hindus protested against partition of Bengal
2. Muslims were increasingly aware that their rights would not be advanced if they continued
to rely on Indian National Congress.
3. By not organizing a Muslim group, they would continue to be disorganized and disunited.

Explanation
1. The Muslims had watched the reaction of Hindu’s to the partition of Bengal with dismay.
They saw a massive wave of organized protest which they feared would result in partition
being reversed. They knew that they the Muslims, were not able to provide such a level
of a protest to maintain the partition. This agitation conveyed to Muslims the Hindu
designs of domination over whole of India. Muslims wanted to use the new party as a
forum to confront the movement of Hindu’s against the partition of Bengal, this factor
thus led to the establishment of Muslim league.

2. The Muslims were also aware that their political rights would not be advanced if they
continued to rely on the Indian National congress. This view had been at its earliest
highlighted by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. Congress branded the title of “representing all
Indians” but the Muslims soon developed a realization that congress was of little help
towards advancement in political field for the Muslims and to earn positions and voice at
governmental level. It was the Muslims who had to help their own selves and not rely on
congress for earning political rights. Muslim league therefore was a platform for Muslims
to ensure that Muslim views were represented to the British.

3. By not organizing a Muslim group it was felt that the Muslims will be disorganized and
disunited. To foster a sense of common aim, it was important to unite all Muslims on one
political platform to earn a stronger stance and to display to the British that capitulation
of Muslim demands was as important as those of Hindu demands. Once united it was felt
that there is a greater opportunity of acceptance of Muslim demands. Through the
Muslim league it was aimed to remove any mis understandings amongst the Muslims as
to the intentions of any government measure. Unity of Muslim community was therefore
an important target for the Muslim league.

Simla deputation
(Also answer to the question “Why was Simla deputation an important political development?”)

1. The Simla deputation represents a crucial turning point for the Muslims of British
India. All the efforts of Muslims like Sir Syed paid off in removing the bad feeling
between the Muslims and the British. The acceptance of the demands shows how far
the British were willing to go to restore relations particularly after the Bengal episode.
 The British were now prepared to work with the Muslims and even to make
concessions with them. This gave confidence to Muslims to present their aspirations
to the British and therefore simla deputation is an important political development.

2. The long term importance of this meeting was that the underlying tensions between
the two main communities in the subcontinent, the Hindu’s and the Muslims now
existed on a constitutional plane. The Muslims had made it clear that they had little
faith in the Hindu majority and wished to have constitutional protection and
safeguards. A realization was developed that the Muslims have to help their own
selves in order to progress politically therefore this deputation is an important
development.

3. The idea of a single nation was implicitly rejected by the Muslims. The granting of
separate electorate to a community as large as the Muslims has to be seen as a major
step. Many Muslims had now come round to the idea that they were a separate
community who should be treated in a different way than the Hindu’s. It was the first
real step towards political development.

Labor party election

 The Muslim fear of being sidelined was increased by the election of liberal party in
Brittan in 1905, who stated that they were going to increase local participation in the
British government of India through elections. Since the Hindu’s were in majority,
Muslims feared that they would soon be dominated by the Hindu’s in the local
government, it meant that the larger community will totally override the interests of
the smaller community. The fear of Hindu majority rule was difficult for the Muslims
to consider and thus proved to be the spark which led to the formation of Muslim
League.

Congress Party
1. Congress was overwhelmingly dominated by Hindu’s and the Muslims would not receive a fair
share of hearing. The Muslims also feared that congress agitation will result in Hindi becoming the
national language. It was seen as a predominantly Hindu organization for the Muslims to wish to
wish to join and the Muslims were disturbed by congress demand that India should be treated as
a cultural whole. It had now become inevitable to establish an organization to safeguard and
protect Muslim interests.

2. Refer to point 2 under the heading “Partition of Bengal”

3. Refer to point 3 under the heading “Partition of Bengal”
4. Although the British had portioned Bengal and accepted the Simla deputation, it was still felt
by the Muslims that they lacked the influence which Hindu’s had gained through the congress.
The Muslims wanted to set up a political party to counter the congress and gain an equal or greater
 influence to firm their footings as a social and political entity. Countering the growing influence of
the congress was one of the reasons which led to formation of Muslim league.

5. Congress had a demand that there shall be open competitive examinations to decide
government posts, this was unsuitable because the Muslims lacked behind the Hindu’s in areas of
education, science, technology and research as they were hesitant to acquire British education.
This would result in an unbalanced exam result and thus the decision of occupation of
governmental posts. It was now necessary to establish and organization where Muslims were
equals in these areas and did not have to compete with the Hindu’s.

Emergence of Hindu extremist groups

 Emergence of extremist Hindu groups such as those of Arya Samhj, which aimed at forcibly
converting Muslims to Hinduism further terrified the Muslims. Arya Samahj aimed to purify
Hinduism of some of the impure practices in which it had fallen. During the 1920’s Arya Samaj
was a powerful agent for spread of education and social reform. Together with Hindu
Mahasaba it carried out militant activities in 1924 which helped further strain relations
between Muslims and Hindus. The formation of a sole Muslim platform now proved to be the
utmost need for religious security and cultural protection, therefore the Muslim league was
found.
 Emergence of revivalist moments of Hindu’s such as the one’s led by leaders such as
Balgandhar Tilak were an added threat. They indicated Hindu nationalism. Tilak made
impassioned speeches and wrote proactive articles arising the sentiments of Hindus for their
“Mother India”. The Muslims feared that this might be a threat and a new era of nationalism
might emerge. To counter this influence, it was important for a platform to be setup. Hence
the Muslim league was established.

Urdu – Hindi controversy

 Hindu’s were pressing for the replacement of Urdu written script in Arabic by Hindi written in
Devanagari script. The Muslims strongly argued that Urdu was not a religious or imported
language although originally mainly spoken by Muslims in the subcontinent. The Hindus on
the other hand claimed that Urdu was nothing more than legacy of the days when the Muslims
ruled the subcontinent and as Urdu’s script was Arabic it was Muslims language. A platform
was needed for the protection of Urdu as a language, therefore Muslim league was
established to protect Muslim heritage and language.

Two nation theory

 Refer to “Urdu – Hindi controversy”
 Refer to Point 1 under the heading “Congress party”
 Point 5 under the heading “Congress party”
 Formation of Muslim League
Questions
Q. Was the need for their own political party the most important reason why the Muslim league
was established…

 2 reasons – Need for own political party

 Point 2 under the heading partition of Bengal
 Point 3 under the heading partition of Bengal
 5 other reasons
 Simla deputation - 1st point under the heading “simla deputation”
 Labor party election - point under the heading” labor party elections”
 Hindu extremist and revivalist moments - point under the heading “Hindu extremist
and revivalist movements”
 Congress as predominantly Hindu organization – 1st point “Congress party”
 To counter the growing influence of the congress – 4th point “Congress party”

Q. Muslim league was formed because the Hindus had their own political party…

 3 reasons – Hindus had their own political party

 1st 3 reasons under “congress party”
 4th reason can also be taken as an alternative to any of the reasons.
 4 other reasons

 Simla deputation - 1st point under the heading “simla deputation”

 Labor party election - point under the heading” labor party elections”
 Hindu extremist and revivalist moments - point under the heading “Hindu extremist and
revivalist movements”
 Congress as predominantly Hindu organization – 1st point “Congress party”

Q. Why was the Muslim league formed?

 Congress as predominantly Hindu organization – 1st point “Congress party”

 Labor party election - point under the heading” labor party elections”
 Hindu extremist and revivalist moments - point under the heading “Hindu extremist
and revivalist movements”
 Minto Morley Reforms 1909

Explanation for 14-mark question

(How important & How successful)
Successes:
1. Under the Morley-Minto reforms some far reaching provisions were introduced, one of the
most important provision was the enlarging of the Imperial council to 60 members and the
Provincial councils to 50 members in the larger and 30 in the smaller provinces. The major
point of these councils to allow the Indian legislators to express their opinions. The British at
this stage were interested in getting a loyal and polite sample of Indian elite to express their
views respectfully in various chambers. The reforms provided the Indians an opportunity to
voice their demands to the British and gain political participation and therefore are an
important constitutional development.

2. Morley-Minto reforms also marked the acceptance of the right of Muslims to have separate
electorates. The granting of the right of separate electorate to as large and important group
as the Muslims has to be seen as a major step. The Muslims were guaranteed an independent
role in the political process. The league had suddenly attained a significant position within the
council chambers and was heard with as much respect as the congress despite it’s much
smaller numbers. These reforms guaranteed the Muslims a political security and can be
rightfully credited as an important political development.

Failures
1. A major point of this act was not so much to enact laws but to allow the Indian legislatures to
voice their opinions. Members of the Central council were only allowed to discuss and debate
matters such as budget, raise questions regarding official policies and matters of general
importance. The Indians had not been given the power to change or influence decisions. The
advisory nature of the powers allotted was not favored by the Indians as the legislative power
was still retained in the hands of the British by ensuring an “official majority” in the imperial
council. The act therefore faced criticism due to its advisory nature.

7 Mark Questions

Q. Why did the Hindu’s oppose Minto – Morley reforms?

 Self-rule
 Advisory nature
 Acceptance of separate electorates of Muslims

 The Minto-Morley reforms had ensured that the British government remained in
charge of the legislative matters by establishing an “official majority” in the imperial
council, British nominated members were included. Morley himself pointed out that
the ultimate constitutional power lay with the British. This idea was not welcomed by
the Hindu’s who now demanded self-government and the right to rule their country
by themselves. This act however proved disappointing as the British had managed to
hold main powers with themselves. The reforms therefore faced opposition from the
Hindu’s.
 A major point of this act was not so much to enact laws but to allow the Indian legislatures to
voice their opinions. Members of the Central council were only allowed to discuss and debate
matters such as budget, raise questions regarding official policies and matters of general
importance. The Indians had not been given the power to change or influence decisions. The
advisory nature of the powers allotted was not favored by the Indians. The British had stated
that the Indians were seen a long way from the possibility of establishing a democratic
government by themselves. The Hindu’s were angered as they wanted more say in the
government particularly the legislative matters. The reform therefore faced opposition from
the Hindu’s.

 Morley-Minto reforms also marked the acceptance of the right of Muslims to have separate
electorates. The granting of the right of separate electorate to as large and important group
as the Muslims has to be seen as a major step. The Muslims were guaranteed an independent
role in the political process. The league had suddenly attained a significant position within the
council chambers and was heard with as much respect as the congress despite it’s much
smaller numbers. The Hindus who had always favored an undivided India, considered such an
action un-democratic and the British were asked to remove such “anomalies”. The reform
therefore faced opposition due to the acceptance of separate electorates for the Muslim
community by the British.

Q. Why were the Morley – Minto reforms introduced?

 The reforms were introduced to ensure the satisfaction of the Indian people. The
reforms of 1892 did not satisfy the Indians. The imperial legislative council or the
provincial legislative councils had not been given enough power, so the Indians
demanded a new set of reforms. Minto- Morley reforms therefore were introduced
to win the support of the Indian community and the moderate Hindu’s. An idea of
satisfaction driven by greater political concessions led to the announcement of these
reforms.

 The administrative policy of Lord Curzon had alienated the sympathy of the Indian
people. His autocratic attitude had caused resentment among the Indians. His believes
such as those of considering Indians unfit for governing India and allowing all good
jobs to English men made him less popular among Indians. Lord Curzon’s decision of
portioning Bengal had resulted in a massive wave of organized protest from the Hindu
community, upsetting law and order. Minto- Morley reforms therefore were
introduced to end the resentment and to ensure harmony under British rule by
restoring peace between two main communities by offering a solution and possible
concessions.

 Muslim league had been formed in 1906 and a delegation of Muslims led under Agha
khan had secured for Muslims a promise of granting separate electorates in the
coming reforms. Lord Minto agreed to look into their demands with favorable
consideration in the new reforms. Minto-Morley reforms were hence introduced as a
capitulation of British to Muslim promises by granting separate electorates and
securing their rights in the political front.
 Q. Why were the Morley-Minto reforms important?
 1st two points successes (1st, 3rd reason)

 Under the Morley – Minto reforms the functions of the legislative councils were also
increased. Elaborate rules were made for the discussion of the budget in the Imperial
legislative council and the Provincial legislative councils. The members could move
resolutions on the budget and on any other matters of general interest within the
competence of the legislative body. The members were given the right to ask
questions and supplementary questions. The extended power to question, to some
extent offered an inclusive Indian atmosphere at governmental level, therefore these
reforms can be credited as important.

- Alternative 3rd reason:

 The act of 1909 proved to be highly defective and failed to satisfy the Indians. It led to demand
for further reforms. This demand led to common ground between the Muslims and the
Hindu’s. It was Muslim disillusionment with the British and the neglected grant of self-rule
 in the reforms which brought the two parties together. Minto Morley reforms proved
important therefore in leading to first Hindu-Muslim pact, a symbol of unity hence was
established.
 Montague Chelmsford Reforms

Explanation for 14 Mark Question

(How important & How successful)

 A system of diarchy was introduced which was a list of reserved and transferred subjects in
which there was to be a division of power between the governors, provincial legislatures and
executive councils. The Central government had reserved for itself sweeping powers under
the principle of Diarchy. This meant that the British had tight grip on the local bodies and there
were only minor concessions. The viceroy could enact or pass any bill he chooses if he decided
that an act was necessary for the safety of India. This “certification” power still kept the real
control in the hands of the viceroy. All these measures still ensured that the British had tight
grip at governmental level.

 A council of princes was established under this act with 108 members to debate matters of
importance but it was given no power and was not attended by several princes. Despite the
extension of the voting qualification only 250 million people were allowed to vote. Many
Indians had helped the British in war and they had expected much greater concessions. In
spite of the grievances, one million Indian soldiers were sent to fight in France, Belgium, East
Africa, Mesopotamia and gave a proof of their gallantry and loyalty. In return of their services
they expected self-rule but were disappointed by the structure of the new reforms.

 The reforms held out concessions to political parties on the behalf that they accepted the right
of the British government to remain control.

Q. Why were the Montague-Chelmsford reforms opposed?

 The viceroy could enact or pass any law he chooses, if he felt that it that an act was necessary
for the safety or tranquility of India. This certification kept the real power in the hands of the
viceroy. The provincial governors, appointed by the viceroy, also had sweeping powers,
particularly in the case of law and order. This meant that the British retained adequate
amount of power in the making and amending of laws. The Indians objected to this who
wanted the complete say in running the government of their country

 A system of diarchy' was introduced for the provincial governments. This was a list of
'reserved' and 'transferred' areas, in which there was to division of powers between the
governor with his Executive Councils and the Provincial Legislature, from which ministers were
drawn. The governor still retained vast powers as he kept not only reserved subjects under
his control, but even transferred subjects were maintained by ministers chosen by him from
the Legislative Council. The British had tight grip on the local bodies and there were only minor
concessions, they had reserved sweeping powers for themselves under this principle which
also included the right of provincial government to dismiss assemblies. The Indians had been
provided power in successive stages and thus the reforms faced opposition.

 Under these reforms, though the qualifications required for voting were relaxed so as to allow
more voters in the next election but the new list still allowed only 5.5 million voters out of 250
 million people. The number of voters were limited due to the property qualifications. This was
resented by the Indians as they wanted more say in the political process and particularly the
elections to allow for their voices to be heard. The reforms therefore faced opposition by the
Indians.

Q. Why was India not granted self-rule by Brittan in 1919?

 After WWI Brittan was weakened and lacked finances due to the war expenses. Throughout
the world demands were put forward by the colonies to acquire freedom from their colonial
masters, despite the demands, the British were not ready to leave India as it was considered
the jewel in the crown by the British establishing its role as one of the important colonies of
the British due to its goods and raw materials such as those of spices and cotton which proved
to be a source of valuable trade earnings. India was too valuable an asset for the British to
leave and therefore was not granted self-rule by Brittan in 1919.

 The British wanted to establish a strategic port in India to protect its trading interests in other
areas. India had a strategic location with it’s warm sea port guaranteeing the trade throughout
the year. India also proved an important target for British navy due to its adequate sea routes
which made transportation of goods and soldiers easier and quicker which was a much needed
requirement in war events. India’s strategic location was also a sign of British influence and
power and influence. India’s well choose location allowed the British to refuse to India
demand of self-rule in 1919.

 There were many thousands of British people living in India who could not be abandoned. The
British government did not want to lose these businessmen, missionaries and civil servants.
The British were concerned about losing their own experienced officials and members which
may played a vital rule at a governmental level and in the social politicization of the Indian
subcontinent. As these people were experienced and important force for the maintenance of
British prestige and rule. The British concern towards their own members did not allow them
to abandon India.

Q. Why were Montague-Chelmsford reforms introduced?

 The reforms introduced by the Act of 1909 failed to satisfy the people of India. These did not
give enough powers to the Indians. The structure of Parliamentary form of Government was
introduced but the Executive was not made responsible to the Legislature, Official majority
wan retained in case of the Imperial Legislative Council and non-official majorities were
introduced in case of the Provincial Legislative Council. This meant that the power was in the
hands of the representatives of the people. The Indians showed a dissatisfactory attitude and
therefore a new set of reforms had to be introduced.

 The annulment of the partition of Bengal came as a shock to them and they began to lose faith
in the British Government. They interpreted the action the Government as a concession to the
Hindus who had agitated the Government. Moreover, Britain did not help Turkey against Italy
during the Turco Italian War and the Indian Muslims resented this policy of the British
Government of leaving Turkey alone. Muslims felt dissatisfied with the British Government.
 To earn the support of the Indian Muslims which formed 1/4th of the population, Montague
Chelmsford reforms were announced.

 The World War I started in 1914. The Indians, in spite of their grievances, helped the British
with men and money during this War, about one million Indians went overseas to fight for the
British. The war prolonged and the Indians felt that the British Government was not making
any promise of granting self-government to the Indians. Mrs. Annie Besant started the Home
Rule Movement. A large number of Indians sympathized with the Movement. The Congress
President advised the British Government to make a declaration of their goal in India with a
view to pacifying the Indian youths, The British Government realized that something should
be done for the Indians and therefore the Montague Chelmsford reforms were announced.

Montague reforms as a cause of violence

 Indians led by Gandhi attacked the proposal, the Indians were dissatisfied with the reforms
and processions and protests stir up.
 Lucknow pact

Explanation for 14 Mark Question

(How important, How successful)
 In the Lucknow pact common demands had been made such as those of increasing the
number of elected seats on the council, protection of minorities and autonomy for provinces
was also demanded. It was also said that motions passed by majority in the council shall be
accepted by the British. This was the first time that a set of political demands had been made
by the two main political organizations in the subcontinent to the British. It marked a high-
water mark of Hindu Muslim unity. This pact brought closer together Hindu and Muslims in
an effort to get their aspirations fulfilled and was therefore important.

 Through this pact, Congress also agreed that the Muslims had the right to separate electorates
in electing representatives in Imperial and Provincial legislative councils. This would even
apply to Punjab and Bengal where they did not yet exist. Muslims were delighted that the
questions of weightage had finally been accepted by the Congress and were pleased by the
promise to press for greater provincial autonomy. This was the first time that Congress had
moved away from its belief that India was one indivisible nation. The Lucknow pact marked
the congress acknowledgement of Muslim rights and is therefore important.

 To the credit of Lucknow pact, Muslim league realized for the first time that the Muslims, if
they wished to safeguard their political rights, had to work with all parties. The Hindu’ s also
became convinced that Hindu-Muslim problems were so deep rooted that some degree of
partition would be inevitable. The ambassadors of the two communities stood united in
acceptation of demands and a general realization was established that partition of India is
closer if unity is established and it was an opportunity of earning greater concessions,
therefore Lucknow pact was important.

Q. Why was the Lucknow pact brought up?

 1st point refer FB page 101

 Muslim league had re-defined its role from “promoting loyalty” to the British to form a “self-
government suitable to India”. This brought congress closer to the Muslim league as congress
had been demanding home-rule. The re-defining of aims had mutualized the aims of both
political groups of the subcontinent. Both Muslim and Hindu’s were brought together on a
common political demand from their British rulers. Both parties were therefore ready to unite
to put forward their demands to the British. The joint political demands were hence discussed
in the Lucknow pact.
 Congress had moved away from its earlier stance that Muslim league was a “British front”. It
acknowledged that it was an organization safe guarding Muslim interests. This
acknowledgment led to a realization that congress had now accepted the Muslims as an entity
and led to common ground with the Hindu representative party. It was this recognition and
further disillusionment with the British which led to the expectation that an Hindu-Muslim
agreement was possible to discuss future constitution, therefore the Lucknow pact was
formed.
 Rowlett Act

14 Mark Question Explanation

1. To deal with the growing revolutionary activity in India, Justice Rowlett suggested the
measures such as those of arrest without warrant, detention without bail and the right of
provincial governments to order people where to live. The proposals caused an uproar in India
as they seemed to go against two of central principles of British justice, namely trial by jury
and safeguards against illegal imprisonment. The measures were seen as repressive, especially
as people could be made to live in a particular place and were stopped from attending
meetings. Rowlett act therefore caused opposition in India.

2. The announcement of Rowlett act had disrupted the law and order condition of the Indian
subcontinent. Jinnah resigned from the Imperial legislative council and Gandhi launched a
“hartal” against the proposals. Throughout April there were strikes and demonstrations across
India. The strikes and demonstrations caused the British to ban anti-government publications
and forbid public meetings. Despite this protests continued. The Rowlett act arose the anti-
British sentiments of the Indians and therefore it was a cause of violence.

Q. Why was the Rowlett act announced by the British in 1919?

 During World War I the British had used the Defence India Act to help them maintain
law and order in the Indian subcontinent. This act was introduced temporarily and
was due to expire in 6 months. The British government had a good idea regarding
growing demands of self-rule by the Indians and knew that if another act was not put
in place, the law and order condition will be disrupted and the ensuing violence will
be at its peak. It was important to introduce another act as a counter to previous one
to ensure that the British had a tight grip on law and order. The Rowlett act was
therefore introduced to maintain a harmonically rule in the Indian subcontinent.

 Events in Russia terrified the British, the communists had overthrown the
government, murdered the royal family and confiscated the property. Viewing the
anger and opposition of the Indians, the British were too frightened to imagine a
similar fate as the protests took a new zeal each day and the anti-British feelings were
at its maximum. The law and order condition was in a dire condition and was growing
out of hand each day. The British considered it the utmost need to introduce a new
act to limit the revolutionary activities of the Indians to ensure the security and safety
of their rule in the Indian subcontinent. The Rowlett act was therefore introduced by
the British to ensure that their rule continued in India in the safest and strongest of
manner.

 Communist leaders promised that communism would spread worldwide.

Communism appealed to some Indians who believed that their country was being
exploited by the British. The British worried that the growing unrest could be
provoked by communist agitation and could lead to armed struggle. The fear of
another encounter with the communist’s blocs threatened the British as the neither
they wanted economic losses and nor they wanted to loose India as it was the jewel
in the crown for the British and an asset too valuable to handover. Justice Rowlett
looked at the situation and recommended tough new laws to deal with those who
stirred up protests. Rowlett act was therefore introduced to control unrest and
protect India from being a target of communist expansion and to allow for Indian
attraction towards communism to settle.
 Amritsar Massacre

14-mark question explanation

1. General Dyer the British commander in the area was determined to restore order He banned
all public meetings in the city and was angered when an estimated crowd of 20.00 turned up
for a peaceful demonstration at a public park called Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. General Dyer
stationed his troops at the entrances and, without warning, fired on the unarmed crowd of
men, women and children. The troops fired over 1600 rounds. 400 people with a further 1200
wounded or injured in the panic to try to flee the bullets.

2. Dyer was eventually removed from active service, but he received no further punishment.
General Dyer stated that he had fired on the crowd in the park to make sure that the people
of the Punjab understood that they should obey British rule. In the eyes of many Europeans
he was a hero who had shown local troublemakers what would happen if they did not conform
to British rule. Not surprisingly, the Indian people were highly insulted by the British failure to
punish Dyer It was one of the reasons why Gandhi now stated that “cooperation in any shape
or form with this satanic government is sinful”. The Indian’s were offended by the British
attitude and this resulted in further violence.
 Simon Commission
Q. Why was Simon Commission sent to India?

1. The Simon Commission came to India in 1927 to generate a report on how well the 1919
Government of India Act was working. The Government of India Act established the new
Indian constitution and Great Britain appointed British officials to the Simon Commission in
order to oversee the effectiveness of the constitution.

2. The conservative party feared that it might soon lose power to the labor party which was too
sympathetic towards the Indian people. It was felt that this might attract support for the labor
party, in the hope of greater concessions and recognition. The British government felt that it
needed to gain Indian support to allow its rule to continue. Therefore, Simon commission was
sent to India to earn support of the Indian people.

3. Simon Commission was a committee formed by the British Government to examine the Indian
constitutional problems and to provide recommendations for reform. The existing
Government of India Act 1919 was an intermediate and transitional arrangement. So the
British Government wanted the commission to review the constitutional arrangement and
provide the recommendation for future implementation. The commission was announced
on 26thNovember 1927 with a seven members team.

Q. Why was Simon commission opposed?

1. It was a seven membered all “white commission”, all members were British. It was disliked
because the Indians did not like to consider the idea that their future was being decided by a
commission whose members were all British and no consideration was paid towards
understanding Indian culture and views. The reason stated for including all British members
was to avoid any biasness. This justification was not liked by the Indians.

2. No Indians were included; this was considered as an insult because it highlighted the fact that
Indians were not included in the political or constitutional development. This was considered
as an insult and it was believed that the British considered Indians as incapable to be added
to the constitution designing process. The Indians thus resented the Simon Commission.

3. The ultimate demand of the Indians had now become that of self-rule and they were not ready
to accept another proposal like Simon commission which did not grant them self-rule once
again. The Indians now wanted self-rule and felt that they had demanding long enough for it
and now the British should capitulate to the Indian demands. The Simon commission was
therefore rejected by the Indians.
 Round table conferences

1st round table conference

Successes
1. It was agreed that federal system of government shall be adopted in India, and responsible
and representative government shall be introduced at provincial level. It was an achievement
because congress had suggested in Nehru report that a “unitary form” of government shall be
introduced. Full responsible and representative government in provinces was a greater step
towards self-rule. This fulfilled the Muslim vison which was initially rejected in Nehru report.

2. The princes also declared that they were ready to join a future federation of India if their rights
were recognized. The support of the princely states had been earned and a greater step
towards political development was taken.

Failures
1. Congress refused to attend unless there was a guarantee given that anything agreed at the
conference would be implemented. No such guarantee was given, instead it begins its
program of non-cooperation, since congress was India’s largest party no significant progress
could be made in its absence.

Second round table conference

Successes
1. Gandhi agreed to attend the next set of talks and called of his non-cooperation
campaign. Since India’s largest party was now taking party in the conference, it was
possible for decisions to be agreed upon for the future constitution.

2. It was agreed that NWFP and Sindh should be made provinces with their own
government. Both these areas were of Muslim majority and the agreement was
considered as an accomplishment towards recognition of Muslim rights.

Failures
1. Labor party had lost power in Brittan and the new coalition government was less keen to
reach compromise in India. This meant that no considerable discussions could be made
regarding the future of the subcontinent, due to the carefree attitude of the current
government and therefore the conference ended in failure. No considerable decisions
could be made in the conference with such an attitude and this resulted in the failure of
the conference.

2. Gandhi refused to recognize the problems of minorities in the subcontinent and dubbed
them as “communists” and “hangers on”. There was obviously little chance of an
agreement with congress taking such a hardline. The situation became even more
complicated with non-caste Hindu leaders demanding separate electorates for
themselves. The conference therefore ended in failure as Gandhi was not ready to pay
consideration to minority rights.
 3. Gandhi presumed himself as the leader and spokesman of all India. This stubborn attitude
of Gandhi was not liked by representatives of other political parties. Gandhi refused to
accept that 14 points of Jinnah should be included in the future constitution. This was
disliked by the Muslims in particular who had declared 14 points as their basis of any
future constitution agreed. The conference therefore ended in failure.

3rd Round Table Conference

Failures
1. Congress party re-started its non-cooperation campaign and thus did not attend the
conference. As Congress was India’s largest party, it’s absence caused a significant effect
on the development of the conference. No decisions could thus be made. Congress was
also the key spokesman for Hindus

2. Jinnah who was the key spokesman of Muslims and had gone into a voluntary exile from
politics. He was therefore not invited to the conference. Muslims were India’s second
major community, and their absence meant that no decisions could be reached. The key
political parties were absent from the conference and therefore the conference ended in
failure.
 Nehru Report
Q. Why was Nehru Report introduced?

1. Lord Birkenhead, secretary of state for India challenged the Indians h the British parliament that
Indians were so divided so opposed and so against each other that they couldn't agree to any
constitutional recommendations and couldn’t produce any agreed condition hence the challenge
was accepted and Nehru Report was announced.

2. To prevent the publications of Simon commissions, report to be implemented in India as a

constitution. The Indians did not approve of the terms of the Simon commission and therefore did
not want it to be published. The Nehru report was provided as an alternative report suggesting
terms which could be implemented in place of the report suggested by Simon Commission

3. Indians were upset and disappointed British and they wanted self-rule, then dominion status for
India, the way by the it was produced in Canada and Australia so Nehru Report was announced to
point to the British. convey this view and to provide them a framework for Indian demands if they
wished to satisfy the Indian community. It was an attempt to try to define some principles which
might govern a future Indian constitution.

Q. Why was Nehru report opposed by the Muslims?

1. The committee believed that if full religious liberty was granted there was no need for separate
electorates. The re-emergence of the old belief of Hindu nationalists that separate electorates
only divided the Indian population. Muslims could not accept a report which did not grant them
separate electorates because their representation as a separate and distinct entity was at
question.

2. As far as the Muslim League was concerned, the Nehru Report went on to say that there
should be no reserved seats for Muslims at the center and that the concept of weightage
should be abolished. Nehru report only focused on the rights of the Hindus and the rights of
the Muslims which were earlier given to them were cancelled. This was seen as an
implementation of Hindu plan to dominate and curb the rights of the Muslims.

3. The Muslim League envisaged a loose federation in the future in which the provinces would
have the right to decide matters like education and finance. This vision was rejected by the
Nehru Report which stated clearly that India should have a unitary form of government with
a strong center. This meant a monopoly of Hindu community therefore this report was
rejected.
 Government of India Act 1935

Why important/Successes
1. This was the last major Legislation the British government passed before Independence was
granted. It was an important point in the move towards Independence which resulted in the
British Leaving India. Parliamentary systems had been set up in which the Indian people were
gaining increasing representation Independence was moving nearer.

2. Diarchy was dropped at provincial level but introduced at central government. For the first
time during the British Raj, a certain amount of provincial autonomy was to be allowed. This
provincial autonomy meant that every provincial government was free to formulate and
execute their own programs and be responsible to their own legislature. Ministers in the
provinces were to have control over all departments.

3. The 1935 act was so important because for the first time during the British rule, it gave a
large proportion of the local population to exercise their power and voice their opinions.

4. The province of Bengal, Bihor and Orissa were created.

5. Provisions for a federal government were established at the center for the first time, which
meant that the princely states could decide to participate politically in affairs which
concerned the subcontinent.

6. The property qualification, however was lowered which meant a total of 35 million people
This was five times more the amount allowed before.

Why opposed/Failures
1. The Governor General was the head of federation and he could use his discretion to
intervene for the maintenance public order. Ministers were still appointed by governors and
the governors retained the power to veto any bill they did not agree with. The Act was
opposed on all sides in India.

2. Provincial governors also had special powers in the two reserved areas to dismiss the
ministers and even the right to dismiss the whole administration and rule by proclamation
during a period of emergency.

3. Under this act to be able to vote there was a property qualification. The limited franchise
meant that only 25 % of India's population was able to vote.
 Day of Deliverance
Q. Do you agree that the celebration of day of deliverance in 1939 was justified? Give reasons for
your answer.

Justified

 Explain Band-e Mata ram (2)

 Explain Wardah scheme (2)

Not justified

 Hardening of Hindu-Muslim relations (Point 1, Failures – Congress)

- Congress was deeply offended by this and Nehru was moved on to comment on that
how congress and league would now agree on very little.

 Congress resigned from 8 provinces when Lord Linlithgow announced that India too was at
war with Germany. Congress objected to this and said that India would only take part in fight
if it was given a promise of full independence. No such promise was made. Congress also
disapproved of British programme of Facism and therefore resigned in protest.

 Brittan was at war with Germany. For this reason, it was possible to celebrate day of
deliverance because British were probably more concerned about war.
 Congress Rule

Band-e-Matarm
1. Muslim view is that Islam, being a monotheist religion establishes God as the supreme and
the only one worthy of worship. In Islam associating partners with God is considered as a sin.
Vand-e-Mata ram contained verses which are in direct conflict with beliefs of Islam. When a
Muslim sings these words he is forced to equate his country with Hindu Goddess Durga and
Lakshmi, thereby defying the land of India. This goes against the concept of oneness of God
according to which Muslims cannot supplicate to anyone except God.

2. Another reason for the Muslims reluctance to sing the Vand-e-Mataram is the fact that Novel
Ananda math by Bankim Chatterjee in which it was first published glorified the cleansing of
Muslims. It was a way to spread hatred against the Muslims and to force them to leave India.
Insulting remarks were made regarding Muslims in this song. It damaged the cultural identity
of the Muslims and was against these sentiments. The Muslims were worried and offended
by this.

Wardah scheme
1. Under this scheme teaching was to be in Hindi. This was seen as an attempt to erase Muslim
culture. Hindu considered their culture to be superior and implementation of such an
initiative meant that Muslim children will be deprived of the learning of their national
language and loose the sense of their nationality and ethnicity. Spinning cotton by hand was
also introduced under this scheme. Such an initiative was considered a measure of
inculcating Hindu culture in the educational system. This was resented by the Muslims who
considered that their children will be brought up in a “Hindu lifestyle and culture”.

2. According to Wardah scheme, there was to be no religious education. All students were also
expected to bow down infornt of Gandhi’s portrait. Such measures were seen as attempts to
subvert the love of Islam. Religious education forms an important part in grooming of children
and allowing them to understand their purpose and distinct identity. According to Muslim
belief, Muslims are to bow down infornt of God only, such acts therefore went against Islamic
beliefs and values for Muslims and were therefore resented by the Muslims.

Congress Tyranny
1. Muslims were forbidden to eat meat and received harsh punishments if they slaughtered
cows.

2. Azan was banned and attacks were carried out on mosques. Noisy processions were
arranged near mosques during prayer time and pigs were pushed into mosques.

3. Sometimes there were anti-Muslim riots in which Muslims were attacked and their houses
and property set on fire.
 1937 elections

Congress
Successes
1. Congress won absolute majority in five provinces and was the largest single party in four
others. It was invited to form government in united provinces, central provinces, Bihar
Orrisa, Madras, Bombay and later Assam and the three remaining provinces. It emerged in
power in all provinces except for 3 provinces only. It won clear majorities in overwhelmingly
Muslim province of NWFP.

2. Congress was established as the largest single party representing the Indians and had the
mandate to introduce measures. There was an immense increase in the prestige of the
congress that would look after the interest of the masses, especially the peasants. At the
same time Congress had an opportunity to demonstrate that it could not only lead people in
mass struggles but also use state power for their benefit.

3. Congress was able to form cabinets in 8 out of 11 provinces. They had also received the
guarantee that governors would not use their special powers to interfere in provincial
government. This assurance further strengthened its role and it could now use its power to
exercise its anti-Muslim wishes.

Failures
1. Congress alienated Muslim league after the elections. In Muslim majority provinces the
congress agreed to Muslims forming the government, as long as they were not in the Muslim
league to help refute the claim that the league was representative of all Muslims. The congress
became even more arrogant in its dealings where the Muslim league was the largest single
party, congress refused to cooperate. This exclusion caused difficulty in future negotiations.

2. Attitude of Congress and Nehru hardened Muslim views towards a separate nation. Nehru
stated that there were only two parties in India, congress and the British. This angered Jinnah.
Congress soon introduced measures which threatened Muslim culture and identity. This made
the Muslim stance towards separate nation stronger and was a threat to congress belief of
“Un-divided India.”

Muslims
Successes

1. It learnt that its support lay more in areas where the Muslims were in minority rather than
majority. In provinces where there was a Muslim majority, there was no need at that time to
fear Hindu domination when provincial autonomy was guaranteed under 1935 act.

2. The Muslim league was a poorly organized party and needed to improve its organizational
structure and planning. The elections helped to unify the party. Jinnah reminded that the
British had done nothing to safeguard the rights of minorities. The masses were mobilized to
support Muslim league. The need for unity, organization and discipline was stressed. The
 league gained great support. The ministers of Punjab, Assam and Bengal formally joined the
Muslim league.

3. The Muslim league recognized that it had an image problem. Majority of Muslim league
leaders tended to be seen as aristocrats, princes who had little in common with the majority
of the Muslims who were poor and illiterate. The perception could have done little to win
votes for the Muslim league. These lessons were soon learnt by the Muslims and rectified.

Failures
1. The Muslim league did not farewell. It won only 109 of the 4829seats while on the other hand
congress won a huge number of votes. Congress formed the government in all provinces
except three whereas Muslim league was not able to form government in any of the province.
In Sindh the Muslims were not able to secure any of the seats. Congress one 133 seats in the
united provinces and formed a clear majority whereas the Muslim league only won 27 out of
the 64 seats reserved for Muslims.

2. The most crucial for Muslims were the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. In Punjab it was the
unionist party under Iskandar Hayat which won 96 seats out of the 175 and formed the
government. Muslim league won only 1 out of the 86 seats. Even in Bengal Dr. Khan Sahib an
ally of the congress was successful under the banner of red-shirts.

3. Muslims felt betrayed by the British who were seen as too concerned with getting the new
provincial governments running rather than being concerned about Muslims rights. This
British were seen as more concerned about the political process rather than the Muslim rights.
This worsened the relations.

4. The victory of congress in the elections meant a threat to cultural identity of the Muslims.
Jinnah during the election campaign had warned of the dangers of congress rule and this
meant that congress used it ‘s new powers to further upset the Muslims during congress rule.
Radical measures such as those of Wardah scheme, vidya mandir scheme and Band-e-Matarm
were introduced as a result of congress rule.