Alteration Patterns in Magmatic-

Hydrothermal Systems

ML-H4 2589.14 m – Sheared and Veined

Granodiorite
Epidote shear zone 35 mm kinematic aperture with central vuggy porosity about 4 mm wide

EPIDOTE
INFILLING OF
OPEN FRACTURE
HOST ROCK
SHEAR ZONE SEALED REGION OF
EPIDOTE VEINING
AND EARLY
Stimac Geothermal Consulting SHEARING
 Alteration Take-aways
▪ Alteration is closely related to fluid chemistry and temperature and should be
viewed in that context

▪ Distribution of clay and underlying transition/propylitic zones reflects the entire

history of HT activity and is likely more extensive than the current permeable
system (gives optimistic maximum size)

▪ Not all smectite clay is hydrothermal in origin (sedimentary basins, crater lakes)
▪ Base of HT clay or even top of propylitic alteration probably will not conform to
the top of reservoir everywhere (expect some relict alteration)

▪ Vein filling minerals, especially those that are still partially open, provide the
most useful information about current and past states and of the system

▪ Determining paragenesis and fluid inclusion T and Salinity of vein fillings helps
establish what processes are responsible for changes in the system through
time and how it reached its current state

▪ Relating vein filling history to fracture orientation(s), permeability and porosity

may be possible with core, image logs, and PTS data and interpretation
Volcanic-Intrusive Geothermal
Systems Key Concepts
▪ Extensive fracture networks are formed and maintained by the interplay
of tectonic stresses with magma emplacement, and the episodic
expulsion of magmatic fluids during recharge, eruption, and
crystallization induced “2nd boiling”

▪ Hydrothermally-driven fluid flow along upflow and outflow paths alters

reservoir rocks to characteristic secondary mineral assemblages that
reflect the chemistry, temperature, and rock composition of the system

▪ A capping hydrothermal clay-rich layer commonly limits communication

of deep (>0.6 km), high-temperature (220 to 350°C) neutral-chloride
brine with near-surface groundwater circulating above this altered zone

• Epithermal vein and porphyry systems form good fossil

analogs, but precious metals are typically concentrated at
shallower levels than commercial geothermal systems
(shallow zones where hot fluids depositing illite-qtz-
adularia episodically boil), often surrounded by clay
• Porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposition is typically below or at a
similar depth to deepest upflow well
 Geologic Components of Conceptual Models
EARLY EXPLORATION
Heat Source and Depth
▪ Volcanic Vent Distribution, Composition & Age
Extent of System
▪ Extent and type of surface alteration & relationships
to thermal features and volcanic vents

LATE EXPLORATION / DEVELOPMENT

▪ Heat Source and Depth
▪ Distribution/composition of intrusion
(stocks, dikes, relationship to alteration)
▪ Alteration zones and patterns relative to
current temperature & permeability
▪ Vein paragenesis & FI properties
 System hosted by an andesitic stratovolcano showing the

Stratocone distribution of major thermal fluid types. The exploitable reservoir

is usually found in horizons ≥220°C. Depth to typical reservoir is
≤1.5 km whereas depth to intrusions varies from 2 to 10 km.

Systems Lateral dimension of reservoir and outflow may exceed 20 km.

Hatchered line is faulted basement rocks.
 Ignoring Phyllic and Advanced Argillic Assemblages, the

Stratocone distribution of alteration assemblages is closely tied to the

locations of intrusions and expelled fluids mixed with deeply
circulating meteoric water

Systems K-Potassic; hPr- high-T Propylitic; Pr- Propylitic; Tr- transitional

Ar- Argillic

Fresh if lava
Ar
AA
Tr

Pr

hPr

P
K
 Hydrothermal Alteration Minerals
APPROXIMATE TEMPERATURE STABILITY OF COMMON HYDROTHERMAL MINERALS
T° C 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Smectite-Kaolinite MLC-Chlorite Propylitic Propylitic ± Potassic
Argillic Zone Transition Zone Reservoir Zone Intrusive Contact Zone
Smectite <----------
-------- -------- ----------
- --
- - - -- -
Illite-Smectite - - - - ------------
--- -----------
- - - -- - -
▪ HT minerals & Illite/Sericite -sericite - - - ------------
-----------
-----------
------ -
Mordenite <---------
-------- -------- - - - - - - - - - - - -
assemblages Laumontite -------- -------- ------------
------------------
Wairakite ------------
------------
---------------
----------- --
are useful in Chlorite-Smectite - - - - - - - ------------
------------
-- --
constraining Chlorite - - - - - - - - - - ------------
- -----------
-----------
-----------
-----------
-----------
-----------
------->
Titanite (Sphene) ------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------->
temperature, Epidote - -------------
- - ------------
-------------
-------------
-------------
-------------
------->
Prehnite - - - - ------------------------ -- --- -
pH, and redox Adularia - - - - -------------
- - -------------
-------------
-------------
-------------
-------------
------->
state Dolomite <---------
----------
------- ---------- - - -
Anhydrite <------------
----------------------------------------
--------------
--------------
--------------
--------------
---------->
Calcite <----------
--------------- ---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
----------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
------->
Chalcedony ------- ------- --------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
Quartz ------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------->
Cristobalite -- -- ------
---------------- ------------
- - - - - -
Pyrite <----------
--------------- ---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
------->
Biotite --------------
--------------
------->
Garnet -------- --------------
--------------
------->
Actinolite -------- -------------
-------------
------->

Advanced Argillic Zone Key Minerals

Kaolinite <----------
----------
----------
---------------
-------- -
Dickite ------------
------------
------------
-----------
------------
------------
-----------
- - - - -
Open space epidote Pyrophyllite ------------
------------
----------
--------------------
----------
Illite/Sericite ------------
----------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------->
Diaspore ------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
------->
Alunite <----------
-------- -------- ---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
---------------
------->

Plagioclase Sm/Kao MLC-Chl-Cal-Z-W-(Ser) Ep-Chl-Ab-Ill-W-Cal-Preh Ep-Chl-Ab-Ill-Cal-Ser

Olivine FeOx- Py FeOx-Qtz-Cal Chl-Qtz Chl-Qtz
▪ Breakdown Pyroxene Sm/Kao- FeOx MLC-Chl-Tit Chl-Ep-Qtz-Cal-Preh Chl-Ep-Qtz-Cal
Magnetite-Ilmenite FeOx- Py Tit-FeOx-Py Py-Tit Py-Tit
products of Biotite Stable/Clays- FeOx Chl-Tit-FeOx Chl-Tit Stable
Amphibole Stable/Clays- FeOx Chl-Tit-FeOx Chl-Tit Stable (actinolite)
major igneous Quartz Stable Stable Stable Stable
Sm, smectite; Kao, kaolinite; MLC, mixed layer Ill-Sm; Ill, illite; Chl, chlorite; Cal, calcite; Z, zeolites; W, wairakite;
minerals FeOx, oxides and hydrated iron oxides; Py, pyrite; Ep, epidote;Tit, titanite; Ab, albite; Ser, sericite; Preh, prehnite.
 Common Hydrothermal Alteration
Assemblages
Argillic - low T (150-200oC)
Low to moderate pH (2-4.5)
Transition - moderate T (200-220oC)
Phyllic - high T (200-250oC)
Propylitic - high T (240-350oC)
▪ Near-neutral to neutral conditions –
▪ (pH>4.5 - 7.5)
Potassic - high T (350 to >400oC)
▪ The high-permeability reservoir is largely
coincident with the Propylitic Zone in mafic
to intermediate host rocks but the Phyllic
assemblage (illite, quartz, and adularia) is
prevalent in silicic rocks
Advanced Argillic – variable
T (150-400oC) Low pH (<4)
▪ Advance argillic alteration may be found
locally associated with ascending or
descending acidic fluids
▪ The alteration of most exploitable
geothermal systems can be divided into
the broadly defined Argillic, Transition,
and Propylitic zones
▪ Together, the Argillic and Transition
zones form a low-permeability cap by
virtue of their abundant clay species,
and confine the underlying permeable
reservoir
▪ The uppermost Argillic Zone is the least
permeable part of the caprock, and is
typically dominated by smectite and
kaolinite, with accessory zeolites,
chalcedony, amorphous silica and pyrite
 Typical distribution of alteration zones and fluid
Hydrothermal types of volcanoes, intrusion-related
geothermal systems and exhumed ore deposits

Alteration
The development of these
hydrothermal mineral assemblages
are related to:
1) the loss of magmatic volatiles from
shallow intrusion and magmatic
degassing,
2) development of an associated
magmatic-hydrothermal fluid
envelope, and
3) a related peripheral hydrothermal
system within distributed fractures
dominated by deeply circulated
meteoric water with only episodic
input of magmatic fluids

The latter is typically the most

prospective part of a geothermal
system for commercial development
Benign geothermal systems sit to the side of active volcanic conduits, usually localized
by regional and local extensional structures, and are dominated by meteoric water, not
magmatic. Some are over recently crystallized (<650C non-degassing) intrusions.
 Epidote

Biotite

Amphibole

Benign geothermal systems sit to the side of active volcanic conduits, usually localized
by regional and local extensional structures, and are dominated by meteoric water, not
magmatic. Some are over recently crystallized (<650C non-degassing) intrusions.
 Vein Paragenesis
Minerals deposited in veins reflect the chemical changes occurring in the geothermal
fluid, providing information on temperature, fluid composition, sources, and processes
(boiling, cooling, mixing) that occurred through time

Paragenesis describes the order in which

minerals are precipitated with time, and
current situation

Some veins are completely filled, indicating

no permeability at the present time

Vein fragment, open space

Vein fragment, no clear open space, multiple
episodes of mineral grow filling fracture

Others show crystal surfaces

projecting into open space
indicating some permeability
along fractures exists
 Hydrothermal Alteration and Fracture
Properties
Andesitic tuff cut by a large open
fracture (up to 1 cm aperture) forming
part of a small fault-fracture zone

Large calcite and finer epidote crystals

are clearly visible

Photomicrograph of vein (A) with red

arrows indicating direction of mineral
grown from vein walls (B)
Long dimension 4 mm
Early-formed assemblages are locally
sheared indicating cycles of fault
movement and sealing over the period
of vein mineral formation

HT minerals and contained fluid

inclusions provide a history of fluid
composition and temperature through
time for comparison to current system
 Duration of Hydrothermal Activity
◼ Requires Dating (“Events”)
◼ Large systems involve multiple events over long periods (103-104 years)
◼ Discrete fracture forming events related to volcanic and tectonic processes
⚫ Intrusion/eruption, volatile release, fault rupture, fault valve action

⚫ Edifice collapse (caldera, sector collapse) leading to pressure changes

⚫ Fractures seal with time if not continually re-opened by pressure and stress
changes

Interconnect mesh of faults and hydrothermally-

mediated brecciation and fracturing
 Vein Filling Sequence and Geohistory (P-T-phase)
from Fluid Inclusions B110 2, 4) Calcite

3a) Quartz
Bulalo, Philippines fluid ingress at high T
but limited 3b) Prehnite

Anhydrite
Average Th = 310oC
From Stimac et al. 2003
Average Salinity =
B92-3-1A
1.6 wt. % NaCl Eq.
1) Epidote
B110
Quartz

3) Anhydrite

1) Epidote
Late calcite and
2) Chalcedony chlorite important in
sealing top of Sheared calcite
reservoir, but fault
movement reopens
fractures
 Karaha-Telagabodas Boildown

T-8 968.1 m T-8 1203 m

Actinolite-->Chalcedony-->Quartz Epidote-->Chalcedony -->Quartz

Growth of high-T chalcedony directly on amphibole/epidote indicates rapid
depressurization and boiling of the system
J. Moore, 2000, 2002, 2012
 ML A PAD Vein Distribution and
Paragenesis – Shallow Cuttings
Main rock alteration is Transitional (chl-MLC-qtz-cc-py formed at
180-240°C)
Above/Top of Reservoir
Chal-anhy Veins are relatively rare, at shallow levels being mainly cc, cc-qtz-
anhy, or chal
Reservoir Interval
NO EPIDOTE VEINS OBSERVED, minor epidote in matrix
replacing plag
Calcite (cc) Open space wairakite and prehnite at 630 to 804 m MD consistent
Chalcedony with T≥240°C

Prehnite
Wairakite

At low CO2 epidote is stable at higher T

From Mussofan et al. 2018; wairakite and prehnite are favored by cooler conditions and slightly lower
Baroek et al. GRC pH (wairakite) sometimes related to mixing with descending steam
heated waters
 ML A PAD Vein Distribution and
Paragenesis – Shallow Core

Paragenesis:
Adularia± Epidote→ Anhydrite - Calcite → Bladed Epidote→ Wairakite

Wa Anhy
i Cal Anhy
Ep
Ca Ep
l

Host
Adularia Rock

From Baroek et al. GRC

Local calcite encapsulating anhydrite

 ML-A PAD – Deep Edge Core

Paragenesis: Paragenesis:
Adularia → Anhydrite - Calcite → Wairakite Adularia → Epidote → Calcite → Wairakite

HOST
ROCK
Ad Ad Wai

Wai
Ad
Ep
Ad Cc
Cal
Anhy

HOST
ROCK

1. Initial fracturing & adularia-epidote growth (Mag-HT upflow)

2. Anhydrite growth followed by shearing (Backflow SHW/SC)
3. Calcite growth (Backflow SHW/SC)
4. Bladed epidote Sealing/Mag-HT upflow
5. Wairakite filling open space Minor Cooling/mixing/sealing
 H PAD Propylitic Vein Distribution
and Paragenesis
SHALLOW PROPYLITIC
1. Calcite common shallow (<2000 m)
2. Most shallow epidote veins are infilled with
calcite and quartz resulting in poor
permeability
3. Chalcedony is locally replaced by quartz
suggesting "boildown" or massive pressure
drop and boiling at some point
▪ Boildown and/or ingress of cooler fluids has
reduced perm shallow in this interval
▪ Encapsulation of early epidote in quartz, calcite,
prehnite and wairakite reduced permeability

DEEP PROPYLITIC
1. Deeper some fresh microdiorite (plag-pyx) is
Young interpreted as dikes/sills that are younger
Intrusion
than most of the alteration
2. Vein from about 2200 m downward have
more open-space textures
▪ Abundant open veins (epidote ± adularia ±
From Mussofan et al. 2018; amphibole) are consistent with the good
Baroek et al. GRC permeability and high temperature and local
upflow conditions
 ML-H3 1518 m: Microdiorite dike with
abundant illite and calcite
replacement and veining Suggests rapid
depressurization, flashing,
and silica deposition as
chalcedony at T>250°C,
followed by
recrystallization to quartz
at high-T

Calcite
Sericite/Calcite
Replaceme Chalcedony
nt Replacement

Calcite
Green-calcite
Calcite
zone
Veining
Blue-quartz zone
From Mussofan et al. 2018;
Baroek et al. GRC
 Epidote-adularia vein material
w/open space indicating
permeable fractures – high perm
propylitic zone

Open
space

Adularia Adularia

Epidote Epidote

From Mussofan et al. 2018;

Baroek et al. GRC
 Fresh microdiorite (plag-pyx-
FeTiO) within propylitic zone
indicates intrusions that postdate
most alteration

Pyx & FeTiOs

Pyx & FeTiOs

Plagioclase
Plagioclase

From Mussofan et al. 2018;

Baroek et al. GRC
 Epidote encapsulated by later mineral
growth in low perm propylitic zone

qtz
ep

From Mussofan et al. 2018; qtz

Baroek et al. GRC

Calcite

Calcite
Epidote

Epidote
 Low-T assemblages
Calcite-Clay-Hem→Chalcedony→Anhydrite
Indicates descent of cooler fluids – out of reservoir

Anhydrite
Chalcedony

Calcite-
clay-hem
Dol?

From Mussofan et al. 2018;

Baroek et al. GRC
 High-T Propylitic (Amphibole ± ep-ad-gar)
in Diorite Amphibole, with minor quartz, feldspar, and
titanite with minor open space at vein margins
and surrounding selvage

From Baroek et al. GRC

Selvage

Amph

Selvage

Shear zone
Selvage

Amph
Open
Space

Ep
Ad Ad
or or
Ab Ab
 Potassic alteration (bt-qtz-mt ±tourm) in
porphyritic intrusive or lava

Bt Bt

forms at ≥325°C due to

expulsion of magmatic fluids
from intrusions
Bibliography