7

Extrusion machine and line

FEATURES OF EXTRUDER AND PRODUCTION LINE

Overview
The single-screw and multi-screw types have their differences (Fig. 2.1,
Table 2.1). Each has its benefits, depending on the plastic being processed
and the products to be fabricated. At times their benefits can overlap, so
that either type could be used. In this case, the type to be used would
depend on cost factors, such as cost to produce a quality product, cost of
equipment, and cost of maintenance.
Similar extruders from different manufacturers, and even those from
the same manufacturer processing the same TP, will often require differ-
ent operating settings to produce similar products. This is true even when
screw designs are 'identical.' The reasons for the differences include
factors such as variability of plastic (most important), barrel nonuniform
internal dimensions, control sensor locations, variable or limited available
heater wattage, coolant flow rates, etc. To obtain a consistent performance
for the same material from one extruder to another, one has to know the
variables that exist in setting up the machine controls on both machines.
Good quality extrusions require: (1) up-stream equipment delivering
properly controlled TP to the hopper; (2) homogeneity by the extruder in
terms of the melt heat profile and mix, with accurate and sustained flow
rates; (3) a good die design; and (4)accurately controlled down-stream
equipment for cooling and handling the product [158,187,235,279,303,
3701.
It is interesting to review patents and literature from the mid-1980s
because actions and designs being taken, thereafter, basically expanded
many of those initiated by the original pioneers in the extrusion business;
see the historical review in Chapter 1. Since this period, plasticators have
had conical smear heads, kneading section of the screw where a tapered
 Features of extruder and production line 55

Single screw Sinqle screw

t
OUtDUt Twin screw
t
Head
pressure

(Metered feed)

Screw speed __C Screw speed ----+

t
Melt
Temperature

Twin screw

Screw speed- Head pressure-

Figure 2.1 Effect of single- and twin-screw machine variables.

Table 2.1 Comparison of single- and twin-screw extruders

Single-screw Twin-screw

Flow type Drag Near positive

Residence time and Medium/wide Low/narrow (useful for
distribution reaction)
Effect of back pressure Reduces output Slight/moderate effect on
on output output
Shear in channel High (useful for stable Low (useful for PVC)
polymers)
Overall mixing Poor /medium Good (useful for
compounding)
Power absorption and High (may be adiabatic Low (mainly conductive
heat generation heating)
Maximum screw speed High (output limited by Medium (limits output)
melting, stability, etc.)
Thrust capacity High Low (limits pressure)
Mechanical construction Robust, simple Complicated
First cost Moderate High

cone formed with the barrel wall using annular slots with grooves and
channels, controlled feeding rates, and even adiabatically operating ex-
truders. An adiabatic extruder is a machine that theoretically operates 'on
its own heat' after the extruder has been heated sufficiently by conven-
56 Extrusion machine and line
tional means to melt the plastic. This type of machine is also called an
autothermal or autogeneous extruder.

Single-Screw Extruder
Features of this machine are shown in Fig. 2.2. This schematic from Welex
shows: (1) drive motor (from 20-2000 hp infinitely variable speed drives
directly coupled to reducer for maximum efficiency all deigned to save
floor space); (2) high efficiencygears to process all plastics (heavy duty,
heat treated helical or herringbone gears equipped with shaft-driven oil
pumps and oil cooler); (3)long-lasting thrust bearing (with life expectancy
well in excess of 30 years’ continuous operation); (4) large rectangular
standard feed opening [round with lining, optional, for use with crammer
feeders (Fig. 1.1111; (5) cast-in heater/cooler elements (heat quickly,
quickly, and last a long time); (6) cast-in stainless steel cooling tubes run
parallel with heating elements (closed-loop, non-ferrous distilled water is
automatically adjusted via microprocessor-based temperature controllers
providing uniform, efficient cooling); (7) high-performance screws with
bimetallic lined cylinder designed for the plastic requirement (long life at
all temperatures and cored for cooling);(8)prepiped and prewired (ready
for single power drop installation); (9) gmrds fully insulated (one-piece,
hinged, no loose parts, no disassembly needed for access); (10) heavy
fabricated steel single-unit base (preassembled so all parts are in place
ready to be used); (11) when required, patented two-stage venting which
eliminate predrying for most plastics (vents can be plugged in minutes);
(12) screen changer (optional) for continuous operation without shut
down (hinged swing-bolt gate standard); (13) gear pump (optional) to
ensure absolute volumetric output stability; (14) static mixer (optional)
to provide thermal and viscosity homogeneity; and (15) die (optional)
(designed to produce single or multi-layer sheet without modification;
also strand dies, etc.).
The essential parameter in the extruder’s pumping process is the inter-
action between the rotating flights of the screw and the stationary barrel
wall. For the plastic materia! to be conveyed, its friction must be low at the
screw surface but high at :he barrel wall. If this basic criterion is not met,
the plastic will probably rotate with the screw and not move in the axial/
output direction.
In the output zone, both screw and barrel surfaces are usually covered
with the melt, and external forces between the melt and the screw channel
walls has no influence except when processing extremely high viscosity
materials such as rigid PVC and UHMWPE. The flow of the melt in the
output section is affected by the coefficient of internal friction (viscosity)
particularly when the die offers a high resistance to the flow of the melt
1237, 238, 391, 3941.
Features of extruder and production line 57
m nm,
c
t;
.*
Y
m
8
sm
-5
8
c Y
2
X
al
3
G
5”m
CCI
0
al
3
a
9
X
W
z
58 Extrusion machine and line
Control of temperature is a very important processing factor in all
extruders, but more important with the larger machines because more
metal exists. It can be especially critical in the case of reactive extrusion
where the extent of reaction and side reactions will be extremely tempera-
ture sensitive.
Understanding the heat transfer basic key elements in extruders has
been extensively reviewed in the literature [2, 237, 348, 397, 4481. As an
example, in order to estimate the plastic overall heat transfer capability,
equations can be used based on an extruder size 11621. The overall heat
transfer coefficient (y) based on the barrel's internal diameter (ID) is an
indication of the ability to move heat into and out of the process. Its
optimizationis less critical when the requirement is to add heat to the
process as the driving force. It can usually be easily increased by boosting
the temperature of the electrical or oil heating source. In the case of
electrical heaters, there should be high-temperature cut-outs in place to
prevent burnout or meltdown especially when using cast aluminum
heaters. In the case of oil heat, prevent the heat transfer fluid from degrad-
ing. This can be done by choosing a construction material that maximizes
thermal conductivity, the plastic film coefficient,and the jacket side heat
transfer coefficient. In the case of lower conductivity materials, minimiz-
ing the barrel thickness will help.
This summary shows that: (1)for a low interior heat transfer coefficient,
heat transfer is limited on the plastic side of the process; (2) for higher
coefficients, heat transport limitations through the barrel become more
significant and the negative influence on overall heat transport of using
more corrosion resistance materials of construction occurs; and ( 3 ) even
for the maximum coefficient, the plastic film (h,) presents a significant
barrier. This shows the importance of estimating k , on evaluating the
ability of the extrusion to control temperature through external heating/
cooling means. The experimental measurements have shown h, to be
typical in the range of 40-90 BTU/ft2hr OF. Factors that affect h, are, aside
from the plastic thermal conductivity, screw outside diameter (OD) to
barrel ID clearance, and rpm. As the barrel-screw clearance decreases, the
h, increases and thereby improving U,. The effect of rpm is to increase k,
due to the effect of more frequent renewal of the plastic film on the barrel.
Two opposing factors control the pumping capability of the machine.
The screw, if the feed zone operates correctly, builds up a pressure gradi-
ent in the material filling the screw channel. A pressure gradient is gener-
ated by the feed section as well as the transition (compression), and
metering (output) sections. This gradient, particularly its point of maxi-
mum pressure, depends on factors, such as screw rotation speed, barrel
temperature profile, type of material, screw dimensions/design, and
flow resistance due to the die. With screw deeply cut feed zone and a die
with very little resistance, the maximum pressure usually occurs in the
 Features of extruder and production line 59
last third of the screw length. This action is called free discharge or
unthrottled flow. The output zone is over-run by the previous zones.
When the output zone is made deeper, the pumping of the earlier zones is
less throttled and the maximum pressure shifts towards the exit end of the
screw [3701.
With the pressure being zero at both the screw entrance and die exit, the
pressure in the melt always acts in two opposing directions. The melt flow
through the die under pressure transmits the throttling effect of the die to
the movement of the melt in the screw threads. These effects are compli-
cated, but the reduction in output caused by the counter-pressure can be
calculated with some degree of accuracy. The amount of plastic conveyed
by the screw in free discharge is about half the channel volume per
revolution, because the melt adheres to both the screw and barrel walls,
causing its average speed to be midway between speeds of the two sur-
faces. The quantity, which is called the drag flow, depends only on the
dimensions of the screw and its rotational speed [397].
With the melt extruded under pressure through the die, the output is
reduced by an amount which is called pressure flow or back flow. Quan-
titatively the output loss can be calculated as if the melt were flowing
backwards through the screw channel under the influence of the pressure
at the screw tip. This pressure action on flow depends only on the dimen-
sions of the channel and on the pressure and viscosity of the melt; it does
not depend on the screw speed, although indirectly the speed does affect
the pressure flow by altering the viscosity and in turn the pressure.
Another pressure loss is the leakage flow where melt flows over the
screw flights from one thread to the next in the direction of the pressure
gradient. This flow loss is usually disregarded when the clearance
between screw flight and barrel wall is small. With worn screws, highly
fluid melts and dies of high resistance, the leakage flow becomes
significant.
Good pumping consistency on extruders is necessary in most applica-
tions to allow good product consistency. As reviewed, numerous other
factors influence the ability of the extruder to deliver the melt at good
pumping stability. They include: (1)feed material bulk density; (2) friction
characteristics of the feed (lubricated, etc.); (3) feed material temperature
(long-term effect); (4) feed section opening and hopper design; (5) screw
feed area design; (6) screw transition/meter section design or barrier/
meter section designs (Chapter 4); (7) screw tip pressure level; (8) operat-
ing screw speed range; (9) barrel temperature profile; (10) motor rpm
stability; (11) screw/barrel/feed section wear; and (12) others. All these
factors and others reviewed in this book should be investigated when
instability, such as surging and material variation, occurs.
Since down-stream from the die other factors are also candidates for
product variation, the extruder should first be singled out as the problem
60 Extvusion machine and line
through pressure variation checks near the screw tip in the die adapter. If
more than 3% total pressure variation is occurring, some attention to the
extruder is warranted [187, E. Steward].

Twin-screw extruder
With the development of extrusion techniques for newer TP materials, it
was found that some plastics with or without additives required higher
pressures and needed higher temperatures than were required with
rubber. There was also the tendency for the material to rotate with the
screw. The result was degraded plastics. The peculiar consistency of some
plastics interfered with the feeding and pumping process. The problem
magnified with bulky materials, also certain types of emulsion PVC and
HDPE, as well as loosely chopped PE film or sticky pastes such as PVC
plastisols.
During the early 1930s, the twin and multi-screw extruders were devel-
oped to correct the problems with the single-screw extruder. The convey-
ance and flow processes of multi-screw extruders are very different from
those in the single-screw extruder. The main characteristic of multi-screw
extruders include: (1) their high conveying capacity at low speed; (2)
positive and controlled pumping rate over a wide range of temperatures
and coefficients of frictions; (3) low frictional (if any) heat generation
which permits low heat operation; (4) low contact time in the extruder; (5)
relatively low motor-power requirements self-cleaning action with high
degree of mixing; and (6) very important, positive pumping ability which
is independent of the friction of the plastic against the screw and barrel
which is not reduced by back flow. Even though the back flow does not
exist, their flow phenomena are more complicated and therefore far more
difficult to treat theoretically than single-screw flow. Result has been that
the machine designer has to rely mainly on experience [107,146,151,187,
204, 234, 242, 256,276, 281, 297, 312, 323, 379, 395, 4111.
Similar to the single-screw extruder, the multi-screw extruder, includ-
ing the more commonly used twin-screw, has advantages and disadvan-
tages. Figure 2.3 shows the different designs used with the twin-screw
extruders. The market for counter-rotating twin-screws (TSs) is domi-
nated by the cylindrical screws (parallel TS) and the extruder fitted with
conical screws (Fig. 1.7). The type of design to be used will depend on
performance requirements for a specific material to produce a specific
product (however single-screw types dominate the industry). With the
multi-screws, very exact metered feeding is necessary for certain materials
otherwise output performance will vary. With overfeeding, there is a
possibility of overloading the drive or bearings of the machine, particu-
larly with counter-rotating screw designs. For mixing and homogenizing
plastics, the absence of pressure flow is usually a disadvantage. Disadvan-
tages also include their increased initial cost due to their more compli-
 Features of extvudev and pvoduction line 61
SCREW
ENGAGEMEN1 COUNTER-ROTATING pq qp CO-ROTATING pp

si LENGTHWISEOPEN
AND THEORETICALLY

0
d5 w
CROSSWISE CLOSED
NOT POSSIBLE

z
cn
I
Y
cc
c
w THEORETICALLY
NOT POSSIBLE
E

0 0
zI zI
c2 LENGTHWISEAND
gz p CROSSWISE OPEN
I-
W c
w
% 5

Figure 2.3 Example of different twin-screw mechanisms.

cated construction as well as their maintenance and potential difficulty in

heating. However, there are many applications where these disadvan-
tages are outweighed by the performance required, such as in compound-
ing (Chapter 17).
Twin-screws with intermeshing counter-rotating screws are principally
used for compounding, including situations where volatile must be
removed during extrusion. Twin-screws have found a substantial market
in difficult compounding and devolatilization processes. To provide spe-
cialized compounding and mixing, particularly in the laboratory, differ-
ent mixing techniques are required, such as using interchangeable screw
sections on a splined shaft (Fig. 2.4).
Certain plastics require very gradual heating using external heaters and
sometimes require specific mixing effects not available with single-
screws. With these machines, the terms external and internal are not
preferred. They are replaced by the terms extensive and intensive to avoid
confusion with internal mixers. The multi-screw extensive mixing action
is characterized by the fact that the plastic constantly changes in flow
direction. Each particle moves sometimes on the surface and other times
in the body of the mass of plastic. The surface of the mass is constantly
renewed and after a certain time a more or less statistical distribution of all
components is achieved. Typical of these extensive mixers are agitators
and most of the kneading machines.
62 Extrusion machine and h e
. 1

Figure 2.4 A Werner & Pfleider screw assembly offers specialized processing
combinations.

The intermeshing twin-screw extruders known as kneading pumps

made possible continuous and enforced pumping, due to the effect of the
intermeshing screws. The gear pump is a special case of the twin-screw
extruder. Original machine designs encountered different operational
problems when high pressures and temperatures were required for
processing certain TPs. Severe construction problems occurred due to
overloading the screws and mechanical stresses on both the barrel and
screw; bending occurred due to the separating forces, wear was caused
due to different stresses on the thrust bearings, etc. These early problems
were resolved by the 1960s; in contrast, early problems with single-screw
extruders were overlooked.
The intensive mixing action of multi-screw extruders is highlighted by
the fact that adjacent layers of plastic have different speeds, i.e. velocity
gradients or shear rates. In addition to the actual mixing effect, due to
displacement of layers with respect to each other, pigment particles or
ungelled particles of the plastic (fish eyes) are broken down by its limited
friction action, especially in highly viscous plastics.
There are extruder types that combine the intensive and extensive
 Features of extruder and production line 63
mixing effects in one machine such as in the single-screw extruder and a
Banbury mixer. The shearing of the plastic in the shallow screw channels
produces intensive mixing and the transverse with pressure flows pro-
vide extensive mixing. With multi-screw extruders, this extensive mixing
effect is missing. As reported decades ago, the mixing action can be seen
using a small amount of color pigment that enters the hopper with the
plastic. This color shot is reproduced in the extrudate of the multi-
screw extruder as a slightly extended and relatively sharply defined
region. The intensive mixing effect of the multi-screw machine is usually
more pronounced than that of the single-screw machine. The shear
rate between the flights of the intermeshing screws varies inversely with
the separation of the flights and increases with the screw speed. This
mixing action has an important effect on the conversion of drive power
into heat and the design of the drive unit with respect to power and
required speed.
In the past, multi-screw extruders had a virtual monopoly when certain
plastics could not be processed through a single-screw extruder. The type
plastics included very low bulk densities (below 0.3g/cm’), finely granu-
lated emulsion-polymerized PVC, liquid or paste materials such as PVC
plastisols, powdered LDPE, PE scrap reduced to flakes, and those with
extremely low granular friction (0.2-0.3 mm) such as crystalline PS. With
design changes, particularly in feeding systems and screws, many of these
materials became processable in single-screw extruders. They produced
pipes and profiles after developments occurred with materials such as
powdered dry-blends of suspension polymerized PVCs as well as certain
emulsion PVCs after preblending in a heated high-speed mixer. Other
methods of handling certain plastics involved combinations of single-
with twin-screw extruders. They included a short tapered auxiliary screw
fitted either beside or above the main screw with flights of both screws
intermeshing.
An interesting feature of nonintermeshing twins is the possibility of
running the two screws at different speeds, thus creating frictional rela-
tionships between them, which in some cases can be exploited for the
rapid melting of powders. In some twins, one screw is significantly
shorter than the other. This design is used for plastics that may be ad-
equately conveyed by a single screw, once in the form of a melt; they are
difficult to feed into screw flights because of low bulk density or very low
coefficient of friction of the solid against the surrounding walls. Thus,
after melting by the twins, the melt moves through the single screw [107,
152, 146,204, 289, 332, 335,411, 4491.
When twin-screw extruders are being studied for the difficult process of
removing solvents, monomers, water, etc., from a reactor product, pilot
scale testing is definitely in order. These tests are necessary to determine
the screw design and barrel arrangement required. Special care must be
64 Extrusion machine and line
exercised in the extrapolation process. Pilot scale problems can be much
greater in the productions size equipment and should not be ignored
when designing the screws and barrels.
With rigid PVC, when using powder plastics, the twin-screw has ad-
vantages particularly with changing materials or mixtures. Most of the
commercial machines on the market and in use today are twin screw
extruders and are widely used in the manufacture of rigid PVC products
that include pipe, window profiles, and siding directly (Fig. 1.6) [187, L. F.
Sansonel.
With twin-screw types, the area of condensed phase plastic reaction
engineering continues to expand as a preferred approach for obtaining
desired product properties and for eliminating the source of solvent emis-
sions. The roles of distributive and dispersive mixing in these machines
are very useful. Different factors affect mixing based on screw configura-
tions and extruder designs. The nature of distributive mixing for partially
filled channels in the counter-rotating, non-intermeshing (NITSE) and
co-rotating, fully-intermeshing (COTSE) twin-screw extruders have pro-
vided useful information.
Distributive mixing is the commingling of two ’fluids’ so that the scale
of fluid separation reduces to scale where another process (diffusion or a
chemical reaction) can occur. The mixing is in a laminar flow regime
which is characteristic of neat plastics. It is distinguished by the deforma-
tion of the fluid interfaces as a result of the applied shear strain. Distribu-
tive mixing relates the amount of interfacial area growth to the fluid strain
rate, as distinguished from dispersive mixing, which is a function of the
magnitude of the stress. The latter accomplishes droplet and agglomerate
breakup; the former is the distribution of those components.
When reviewing specifically dewatering of plastics, an industry
method for removing liquids from solids in a twin-screw extruder was
patented by Werner & Pfleiderer Corp. in 1992-3. The use of mechanical
dewatering in the polymerization process by substituting a twin-screw for
a thermal dryer results in meeting requirements and a reduction in long
term energy costs. The system’s use includes chopped and washed PE
film, engineering plastics, chopped and washed EPS (expandable PSI food
packaging, and coagulated styrenic latex.
In principle, the dewatering in twin-screw extruders is based on coun-
teraction of three forces which together form a pinch point where the
material is compacted and the water is extracted. Wet plastic is conveyed
downstream toward a restrictive element, which exerts a force in the
opposite direction, causing plastic compression and water extraction. The
third force, exerted by the screws of the drainage port, is acting transverse
to the axis of opposing, preventing the compressed material with its high
viscosity from moving out of the pitch zone. However, the extracted water
is permitted to leave the zone through the drainage port.
 Extruder components Next Page 65
An example of this capability is in the dewatering chopped EPS packag-
ing food scrap. Output rates achieved in several industrial lines were
3500pph of wet material that contained up to 60% water, with a dry
plastic discharge rate of 1700pph. Hot water is discharged from the first
drainage port. The remaining water is taken out through atmospheric and
vacuum vents. Foreign matter in the form of paper and foil requires a
screen pack changer which creates 3.54.1MPa (500-6OOpsi) back pres-
sure. The melt is then stranded and pelletized [423].
Now available are higher output twin screw compounders using over-
sized motors providing screw speeds of 1000-1200 rpm. These increased
torque motors permit taking plastic into the screw flights resulting in
further raising their output rates. With barrels using the standard L/D
(length/diameter) of 2840, they practically double output rates than
machines of similar size. As an example with a conventional twin screw
operating at 400rpm its output is 454kg/h (10001b/h). With just a
30% higher torque and operating at the same rpm, it extrudes 590kg/h
(1300 lb/h) or provides a 30% increase. At a screw speed of 460rpm
output is raised another 15% or to 680kg/h (15001b/h). This is a 50%
increase over the conventional unit at 400 rpm.
Other gains include shorter plastic residence time (Chapter 3) and the
fact that the processing window is narrower. Compounding extruders are
typically starve-fed (to be reviewed latter in this chapter) but with these
high torque units more material can be fed into the screws. This action
helps to keep the melt temperature down at the higher speeds. Note that
machines specifically optimized for high speed (just like any other
machine designed for a specific operation) may not perform well at slower
speeds or may require different screw designs, and some materials do not
lend themselves to their mixing/shearing action. They have found to be
useful in processing materials, such as preparing engineering plastics,
alloying/blending, and compounds that are filled and reinforced such as
chopped glass fibers used extensively in injection molding (Chapter 18)
[2], compression molding [431, etc.

EXTRUDER COMPONENTS
A schematic diagram and view of a single-screw extruder are shown in
Figs. 2.2 and 2.5. This section reviews extruder components. Information
on screws as well as vented barrels and dies are reviewed in Chapters 4
and 5. Extruder manufacturers provide machines with options since
not all processors require or use certain components such as automatic
screen changers, static mixers, melt pumps, and control cabinets such as
free standing or base mounted, with either discrete or microprocessor
control.
Figure 2.6 shows that extruders can be built to provide different output