Final

Examination
in General
Biology 2
Submitted by:
John Lloyd M. Balla

Submitted to:
Annabelle b. Esquilona
General
Biology 2
 Chapter 4
Life’s Response and Coordinating System

Lesson 4.1 | The Need to Control and Respond Changes

in the Environment.

Lesson 4.2 | The Need to Have a Central Control System.

Lesson 4.3 | The Need to Regulate and Maintain Internal
Body Processes.
Lesson 4.4 |Plant Responding to Environmental Change.
Lesson 4.1|The Need to Control and Respond to
Changes in the Environment
To keep the body within homeostasis condition, several system must work together and
communicate with one another. Messages must be generated, delivered, and interpreted and
acted upon by the assigned organ system. The two main organ systems responsible for the body’s
communication network are the endocrine and nervous system which allow you to respond to the
environmental stimuli all throughout your lives.

Nervous System
It is composed of physically connected networks of nerve cells, tissues, and organs that
control your thoughts, senses, and movement, as well as many of your life’s bodily functions
such as breathing.

Endocrine System
It is a collection of physically disconnected glands that also help in various body
processes such as growth, development, and conjuring responses to the environment.

Stimulus/Stimuli
Is something that can cause or elicit response from the organism. In living systems a
stimulus usually triggers a change in an individual, which may be in the form of chemical,
cellular, or behavioral responses.
Although both nervous and endocrine systems work together as a communication network within
the body, they differ in their methods and rates of communication.

Lesson 4.2|The Need to Have a Central Control

System

As you are reading this sentence, you are witnessing the power of your nervous system
as it performs its several functions at the same time. It’s visual system through the eyes’
receptors processes the letters on this page, the motor system in the eye is controlling it’s
movement, while the brain’s cerebral cortex helps you to keep your attention to what you are
reading.

In the animal kingdom, the nervous system also differs in terms of complexity and adaptive
structures because animals differ in size and abilities to move. Simple nervous systems are found
in simple and immobile animals.

Nerve net
A system of separate but connected nerve cells, are capable of supporting some of their
complex behaviors.

The nervous system is made up of specialized cells, called Neurons that can transmit and
receive electrical signals, and Glial cells that provide support and function to the other neurons.
Dendrites
Is a tiny branching threadlike structure that receives messages from neighboring cells and
carry these Information toward the cell body.

Axon
Is a single, long, tail like fiber that extends from the cell body that carries messages away
from the cell body and passes them to other cells.

Axon Terminals
Is the Axons splits into many feather-like fibers at the far end that pass on messages to the
dendrites of other neurons. Usually found in some distance from the cell body.
Types of Neurons
• Neurons that detect stimuli and transmit signal to the brain is called Sensory neurons
• Neurons that receive signals from the sensory neuron and passes them within the brain and
spinal cord where it will be processed is called Interneurons
• Neurons that relays the processed message to tissues in the body, such as the muscles, for
action is called Motor neurons

Nerve impulse
Is a wave of chemical and electrical change that is conducted along the membrane of a
neuron, which is basically from sensory neuron to interneuron to motor neuron.

Resting potential
Is the Difference in the Charge across the membrane, which contains the potential
energy required to transmit electrical energy as needed.
Action Potential
Is when the sensory receptors are triggered, causing a change in the charge distribution an
eliciting an electrical impulse.

When a nerve impulse is transmitted, gated channels for sodium ions open quickly so that the
sodium ions could rush into the cell, causing ion channels to also snap shut and the membrane
becomes positive.

Neurons do not touch each other, and neither do they touch effector organs. Instead, there is tiny
gap called Synapse, between two adjacent neurons, and between neurons and effectors.

Neurotransmitter
Is a Chemical messengers that sends information across the synapse,
Contact with heat from the candle or stove triggers a series of fast events that evoke the body to
respond. Skin receptors end electrical signals to the spinal cord via sensory neurons. In the spinal
cord, impulses are processed and responses are transmitted to motor neurons by the interneurons.
This path is knows as Reflex arc, which does not reach the brain soon enough to have a quicker
response.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Is the command center for the entire body. As the main control center, it processes
information and sends instructions to other parts of the body. It receives and interprets the
message form the nerves, and stores part of it for future use and send signals to the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). The CNS is composed of Brain and the spinal cord, which is located in
the midline of the body.

Brain
 Is the main control center of the Central Nervous System (CNS), It transmits and receives
messages through the spinal cord.

The brain is covered by three protective layers called meninges. The outermost thick layer is
called, dura mater, which protects the brain and the spinal cord; the middle layer is called
arachnoid mater; and the last layer is known as pia mater, which directly covers the brain and
the spinal cord like a plastic wrap.

Cerebrospinal fluid
It fills the space between the pia mater and the arachnoid mater, which functions as a
cushion and shock absorber for the brain and helps in circulating substances throughout the brain
and the spinal cord.

Cerebrum
It is the largest region and the most noticeable part of the human brain which makes up 85
percent of the human brain. It Is also what most people more often refer when they see a picture
of the brain.

The cerebral cortex forms the thickest part of the cerebrum, consisting of folds that look like
hills called gyri (singular: gyrus) and valleys called sulci (singular: sulcus). The cortex is divided
into the left and right hemispheres connected by a thick fiber bundle known as corpus callosum,
allowing information to cross the hemispheres. The cortical hemispheres are also divided into
lobes that are involved in various functions.
Frontal Lobe
Is the primary motor area located at the front of the brain over the eyes, which governs the
voluntary commands, it is also the seat of reasoning, planning, speech, movement, emotions,
decision making, and problem solving.

Parietal Lobe
Is the primary sensory area located at the top of the brain that receives information from
the skin, skeletal muscles, and the joints, it is also involved in speech understanding.

Occipital Lobe
Is located at the back of the brain and is responsible for vision, specifically in the seeing
and understanding visual stimuli.

Temporal Lobe
Is located at the base of the brains and is primarily involved in processing and interpreting
sounds of auditory stimuli.
Diencephalon
Is located beneath the cerebrum and divided into the hypothalamus and thalamus.

The thalamus acts as a gateway as it receives feedback from the cortex. Signals from the eyes,
ears, and skin are receive be thalamus via the cranial nerves and from the spinal cord. The
Thalamus integrates them and bring these signals to the right regions of the cortex.

The hypothalamus is found below the thalamus, which controls the endocrine system by sending
signals to the pituitary gland, It is an integration center which is also the body’s thermostat,
making sure that the thirst level, food and water intake, energy expenditure, and sleep cycles are
within appropriate levels.

Cerebellum
Is the second largest part of the brain, located just behind the brain system, Its role focuses
on the coordination of the muscle action and maintaining balance.

Brain Stem
Is what connects the brain to the spinal cord, it consist of three distinct regions: the pons,
medulla oblongata, and midbrain.

The medulla oblongata controls involuntary actions, such as heartbeat, breathing, nlood
pressure, and various internal organs. The midbrain contains reflex centers for visual and
auditory responses whereas the pons is vital for breathing control.

Limbic System
Is a set of connected structures that include the diencephalon and areas of the cerebrum that
regulate emotions that are related to fear and motivation.

Spinal Cord
It provides the link between the brain and the rest of the body. It is connected via the
brainstem and extends down the body and protected by the spinal column. Long, myelinated
fibers of interneurons are bundled together into thick nerve tissues to form tracts.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Is a collection of nerves connecting the CNS to all organ system. The PNS makes use of
sensory neurons to detect stimuli inside and outside of the body. But it also needs motor neurons
to carry signals from the CNS to body organs.
The humans Contains 12 cranial nerves that are attached to the brain. Cranial nerves are found
in the head, neck, and facial regions. The vagus nerve is a cranial nerve that branches out not
only beyond the head area in the larynx and pharynx, but also in the most internal organs.
Humans also have 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

The nerves of autonomic nervous system can be further divided into two groups that have
opposite effects on the organs they control. These divisions are the parasympathetic and the
sympathetic.

Parasympathetic Division
It is actually most active under normal condition and also known as the housekeeper
division. It keeps your body functioning even when you are not active, such as when you
continue to breathe while you are sleeping. It uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.

Sympathetic Division
It is a dominator in terms of physical or emotional stress, emergency situations, or
whenever the body requires some action. It controls the “fight-or-flight” response that you
experience during a stressful situation, like the nervousness you experience when talking in front
of an audience or taking a surprise quiz.
The PNS stimulates skeletal muscles under conscious control of the body movements via the
somatic nervous system. Some activities in the somatic Nervous System, such as Spinal reflexes,
are involuntary, spinal reflexes are extremely rapid such that they involve the spinal cord and the
PNS, but not the brain. There is one part of PNS that is not under the direct control of your
conscious mind.

Receptors
It is the specialized Neurons that helps us to be aware of what is happening inside our body
and outside the world.
Sense organs
Are structures that carry messages about your surroundings to the CNS. Senses are divided
into categories: General and special.

General senses are further divided into two groups: somatic and visceral. Somatic senses gather
information about the body and the environment whereas visceral senses provide information
about the internal organs. These are sense organs that respond to heat, pressure, and pain. They
also detect changes in the position of your body. Those receptors that are localized in an area
belong to special senses that respond to light, smell, or chemicals

Vestibular stimulation
It refers to the detection of movement and balance. Sound waves, which are mechanical
pressure waves in nature, move through air or water.

Sound waves are collected by the external ear to the middle ear where they are transferred to the
site of transduction called the organ of Corti.
Both the sense of smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation) are interconnected senses that do not
respond to physical stimuli as light and sound Vibration do, but through chemicals that are
carried in liquids in your mouth in the form of foods mixed with saliva or the air.

Chemoreceptors
Is the taste Receptors, that is located in the taste buds in the tongue. These work in
similar way as the chemoreceptors in your nose. With both senses working together, taste and
odors produce flavors. Thus your senses of smell must work with your sense of taste for you to
detect the flavors of food.

Papillae
Is the little bumps on your tongue but sometimes it is a common misconception that papillae
is the Taste buds.

Vision is the ability to detect light patterns from the environment and interpret them into image
using brain.
The retina is the eye’s innermost layer of tissue that contains more than 130 million light-
sensitive photoreceptors cells called rods and cones. It is here where the transduction of light to
nerve impulses occurs.

One pathway leads to the thalamus for all the incoming sensory impulses, except smell, then
travels to the primary visual cortex. From the visual Cortex, it goes into two directions- parietal
lobes which carries magnocellular information, and the second goes to temporal lobe, which
carries both magnocellular (where) and parvocellular (what) information.

Somatosentation
Is also known as tactile senses, is a combination of various sense receptors that receive
signals from the skin, mucus membrane, limbs, and joints. The skin has many types of sensory
receptors, which respond to touch, pain, temperature, and pressure.

Touch receptors (tactile receptors)

It allows you to feel the textures of objects just by lightly touching them with your
fingertips. You also experience touch receptors working for you when you feel the small
movement of an ant on your arm.

Pressure receptors (proprioreceptors )

Is a receptor that triggers when you press your finger hard toward an object, for

example clicking the mouse, pushing a door, or even switching the light on and off.

Heat and cold receptors (thermoreceptors)

 Are receptors scattered directly below the surface of the skin. If a metal rod is passed
over your skin, you will feel only heat pressure in some areas and detect the coldness of the
metal in other areas. Other receptors respond to heat, cold, and pain.

Pain receptors (nociceptive receptors)

Are receptors found all over the Skin. Although pain receptors make you
uncomfortable due to the pain they cause, you should thank them for they alert your body to
some types of danger.

Baroreceptors
Are those found in the internal organs that detect pressure changes in them such as in
walls of the artery or the aorta monitoring blood pressure. In the brain, the somatosensory cortex
and secondary cortical areas are responsible for processing these stimuli to form the complex
interpretation from the interplay of these mechanoreceptors.

Lesson 4.3|The Need to Regulate and Maintain

Internal Body Processes

As you have learned earlier, the human body uses the nervous and endocrine
systems to help regulate internal activities. Regulatory molecules are secreted by these systems.
The nervous system works by regulating most activities by sending nerve impulses throughout
the body.
Norepinephrine functions both as a neurotransmitter and a hormone. It is released as a
neurotransmitter in nerve endings and by the adrenal gland as a hormone during stressful
conditions.

Some chemical regulators are released and act within the cells of certain organ to regulate one
another. This regulation is called Paracrine, as the molecules work together being Transported
into the blood but similar in the way hormones work by regulating target cells.

Endocrine glands (endo means "within")

Are ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into either the bloodstream or the
fluid around the cells (extracellular fluid). In addition to the endocrine glands, several other
organs contain cells or tissues that secrete hormones.

Steroid Hormones
Are lipids in nature, can easily pass through cell membrane of the target cell. Inside,
they bind to receptor proteins in the cytoplasm of the target cell, travelling into the nucleus. Then
it binds to the DNA and gene expression follows.

Peptide Hormones
Are cannot diffuse into the plasma membrane of the target cell, must be first bind to a
receptor protein in the plasma membrane as an initial messenger. As a result of binding, the
receptor undergoes a structural change to initiate series of metabolic processes in the cytoplasm.

A baby nursing on a mother's breast stimulates the release of the hormone oxytocin, which in
turn stimulates the release of more milk from the mother's mammary gland.
Positive feedback
If high levels of a hormone stimulate the output of even more hormone.

There are limited and rare situations when a positive feedback loop that pushes the organism out
of homeostasis is necessary for survival. For example, positive feedback is observed in women
giving birth. To release the baby, more hormones are secreted to stimulate contraction of the
uterus.

Lesson 4.4|Plant Responding to Environmental

Change

Unlike animals that can move from one place to the next, plants are fairly rooted to the
ground. Despite being sessile, plants also exhibit response to the environmental changes, such as
changing their direction of growth or moving individual parts.

Light is the most important stimulus for plants as it could spell their survival or demise. the
plant's response to light mediated by photoreceptors that is composed of a protein bound to a
light-absorbing pigments, which together forms a chromoprotein.
Tropism
Is a process of growth in a certain direction in response to a stimulus, Positive tropism is
the growth toward the stimulus, whereas negative tropism is growth away from a stimulus.

Phototropism
Is when aquatic plants and algae requires the detection fg blue-light for their growth,
when plants respond to a light source, such as leaning toward the window to trap more sunlight.

Skototropism
The bending of plants toward a light source is actually a response to blue wavelengths of
light. Negative prototropism, or the tendency of plants to grow away from light.

Heliotropism
Is a kind of tropism that is in response to the tracking of sun's direction.

Cryptochromes
Is responsible for circadian (24-hour activity cycle) rhythm of plants.

Plants also respond to gravity, as noticed in plants that germinate with or without the presence of
light. Their roots grow downward while their shoots grow upward.

Gravitropism or Geotropism
Is when the root tips grow downward (positive gravitropism), whereas plant shoots grow
upward (negative Gravitropism). It is also responsible for plant's roots growing deeper into the
soil where they can get more water and nutrients.

Amyloplast
It contain starch granule that settle downward in response to gravity. These plastids are
distributed heavily in shoots and specialized caps of the roots.

Thigmotropism
The response of plants to touch , wind, or any contact stimuli. As exhibited by the
makahiya plants when it closes it's leaves, or the pea plant winding around in trellis, or trees
growing in the direction of the wind.

Nastic movements
Is the coiling of the tendrils of vines is also an example of thigmotropism, slight
movements in response to any stimulus.
Thigmomorphogenesis
Is observed as a slow developmental change that can occur in the plant due to continous
mechanical stress, such as when trees Bend in the wind.

Photoperiodism
Is the stimulus plants use to detect the tims of the year for their flowering, seed
gemination, and the beggining and the ending of tueir dormancy activities.

Hormones
Is the messengers that is responsible with the plants responding to the changes in their
environment through a special group of chemical messengers.

Abscisic acid
Is produced by plants in response to environmental conditions such as cold temperature,
shorter day length or dehydration. It inhibits cell elongation and induces dormancy of lateral
buds thus retarding growth

Oligosaccharins play an important in role protecting the plant against fungal and bacterial
infections on the site of injury. Jasmonates participate in defense activities during which the
plant is exposed to herbivory. They are release in high amounts when the plants is wounded by
the herbivore producing high toxic metabolites attracting enemies of the predator.

Chapter 5
Life’s Support and Protective System
Lesson 5.1 | The Need for Extra Protection and Support

Lesson 5.2 | The Need to Provide Bodily Shape and

Support for Internal Organs.
Lesson 5.3 | The Need to Move for Various Life
Activities

Lesson 5.1|The Need for Extra Protection and Support

An animal’s body is protected by an outer covering called the Integument. Integument
means cover and that is its main function-to cover and protect organism. The protective
waterproof wrapping, which includes skin and it’s surface glands and other structures derived
from or associated with it compose the integumentary system.

Skin structures differ among animal groups, reptiles have scales, whereas birds have feathers.
And Mammals are covered with hair.

Keratin
Is a protein that makes the skin. On reaching the surface of the skin, keratinocytes become
flat and dry. Eventually, they are shed as thin flakes.

Melanin
Is a substance that gives the skin its color, Melanin absorbs UV radiation, protecting the skin
form its harmful effects.

The skin
Is the largest organ in the Human body, It protects by giving a waterproof wrapping
around the body against the outside world.

The human skin, which makes up about 15 percent of your total body weight and has a surface
area of 1.4 to 1.9 square meters, is the largest organ of the body. An average person’s skin
weighs about 3kg more than twice as much as the brain.

The skin has three layers of tissue: epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous.
Epidermis
Is the outermost layer, is about as thick as a sheet of paper over most parts of the body, It
is made up of several layers of epithelial cells.

Dermis
Is the middle layer, is between 15 and 40 times thick as the epidermis, The dermis is the
functional layer of the skin that lies just beneath the epidermis, it is also known as the true skin.

Subcutaneous Tissue
The innermost layer, varies greatly in thickness among individuals. But in all people, the
subcutaneous tissue is much thicker than the epidermis and dermis.

The dermis also contains tiny muscles, called arrector pili, hat are attached to the hair follicles
on your skin. When you feel cold or frightened, these muscles contract and pull the hair shafts
upright.
Thermoregulation
Is when a network of blood vessels in the dermis also nourishes the living cells of the skin.
These blood vessels also help regulate body temperature by either radiating heat into the air or,
conserving heat.

The shape of our follicles matter in giving us the texture of our hair, Round-shaped follicles give
rise
to
the

straight, coarse, and long hair of most Asians and native Americans, the hair of European, Hindu,
and Semitic people are wavy and intermediate in appearance or between the straight and curly
types. In cross-section, the follicle is oval; hair grows from straight follicle but has a slight
tendency to curl, giving it a wavy appearance.
A nail has three parts: matrix, plate, and bed.

The matrix
lies under the surface of the skin at the base of the nail. Most of the matrix is covered by
skin. Near the root of the nail, where growth begins, part of the matrix forms a whitish half-moon
called lunula.

The Plate
Is the hard outer part of the nail. It consists of many layers of flat, dead cells that contain
keratin.

The Bed
Lies under the plate, The cells of the bed and plate are formed in the matrix, Newly formed
cells push the older ones toward the tip of the nail. This pushing process results in the growth of
the nail.
The skin has two kinds of glands, the sebaceous and sweat glands.

Most hair follicles contains an Oil glands called the sebaceous gland. This gland secretes an oil,
called sebum into the follicle. The oil flows over the hair. It lubricates and keeps the hair soft.

Sweat Glands
It maintain the normal temperature of the body through a cooling process (perspiration)
when you become too hot, the blood vessels in the skin expand to let extra heat radiate away and
also to help your perspiration evaporate.

Perspiration
Is like a shower, it is the body’s own way of cooling down quickly. When a liquid
evaporates, it takes heat from whenever it is located.

There are two types of sweat glands: eccrine and apocrine:

Eccrine Glands
It produced the sweat that cools the body. They are located throughout the surface of the
skin but are particularly numerous on the forehead, palms, and soles.

Apocrine Glands
It produced the sweat that has no important function. Most of these glands are in armpits
and around the genitals (External organs). They release their secretion into hair follicles.

Cuticle
It waterproofs the plant and prevents too much water from evaporating.
The word epidermis comes from the greek words epi meaning “Upon,” and derma meaning
“skin.”

Cork Cells
It contains a waterproof chemical and are not covered by a waxy cuticle. Several layers of
cork protect the trees.

Lesson 5.2|The Need to Provide Bodily Shape and

Support for Internal Organs.

Just like misaligned teeth needing braces for support, most animals have firm framework,
called skeleton, that gives physical support and protection for the body and often provides
surfaces for the attachment muscles.

There are three types of skeleton in the animal kingdom:

Endoskeleton
 Higher forms of animals, particularly vertebrates, like fishes, frogs, chickens, as well as
humans, are supported by a hard framework inside their bodies, this internal framework.

Exoskeleton
This type of skeleton is rigid in corals but variously joined and movable in insects.
Exoskeletons also serve as a defensive armor for certain animals such as turtles, snails, and
crabs.

Hydrostatic skeleton
Some animals such as the earthworm, are supported by liquid in their bodies.

Largest animal
The largest animal on earth is the Blue Whale with a length of 110 feet long, 209 tons.

Largest land animal

The Largest land animal on earth is the African bush elephant with a height of 13 feet high,
8 tons.

Tallest animal
The Tallest animal on earth is the Giraffe with a height of 19 feet long

Largest reptile
The Largest reptile on earth is the Saltwater crocodile with a length of 16 feet long,
1150pounds.

Largest snake
The Heaviest snake is the anaconda with a length of 27 feet, 9 inches long, 500 pounds
and the longest snake is the reticulated python with an estimated length of 26-32 feet.

Largest marine animal

The largest marine animal on earth is the Whale shark with a size of 41 ½ feet long.

Largest Bird
The largest bird on earth is An Ostrich with a length of 9 feet long, 345 pounds.

Largest Insect
 The largest insect on earth is the Walking stick with a length of 15 inches long.

The human skeletal system has two divisions: axial and appendicular

Axial skeleton
About the 80 bones forms the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, ribs, breastbone,
and vertebral column (backbone). The most complex part of the axial skeleton is the skull. Of the
29 bones of the skull, eight bones form the cranium, which encase the brain. the skull also
contains 14 facial bones, six middle-ear bones, and a single bone that supports the base of the
tongue.

Appendicular Skeleton
The other 126 bones compose the appendicular skeleton, which is made up of all the
bones attached to the axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton forms the appendages or limbs-the
shoulders and hips, respectively.

Pectoral girdle
It contains two, large, flat shoulder blades or scapulas and two slender, curved collarbones
or clavicles.
Pelvic girdle
It contains two large pelvic bones. The pelvic bones distribute the weight of the body
evenly down the legs.

There are 4 types of bones classified by shape.

Long bones
Are those bones found in the legs and arms, they are hollow, yet strong and lightweight.
Flat bones
Are found in ribs, breastbone, pelvis, bones of the skull , and shoulder bones (scapula).

Short bones
Are like those in the hands and feet, support weight and allow many small movements.

Sesamoid bones
Are small and rounded in appearance. They assist in the proper functioning of the muscles.

Your skeleton is made up of two tissues called Bone and cartilage.

Bones
Are made up of protein and calcium, which make them strong.

Cartilage
 Is found in between your bones, acting as shock absorber and cushion when you move.

Compact bones
Is a dense connective tissue that provides support, it contains bone cells, blood vessels, and a
flexible protein base.

Spongy bone
Is a loosely structured network of separated connective tissues, which looks like a
honeycomb.

Bones do not simply work on their Own. Almost all of the 206 bones of the human body are
connected to one another. These connections are called joints. Bones are also held together by
strong, stretchy bands called ligament, bones are connected to the muscles by a dense connective
tissue called tendons.

The
skeletal system contains three main types of joints that enable varying degrees of movement:
immovable joints, slightly movable joints, and freely movable joints.

Fixed or immovable joints

Is occur when bones are fused together by a protein called collagen. Thus little or no
movement is allowed.

Slightly movable joints

It permits the bones to have a limited movement. The vertebrae of the spine are joined by
cartilaginous joints. Which are a kind of slightly movable joint, they help you absorb vertebral
shock like you fall out of a tree and land on your feet.
Freely movable joints
These are the ball-and-socket, hinge, pivot, gliding, and saddle joints. Ligaments, which
Are connective tissues that are able to stretch.

Three leg bones and the kneecap come together in a movable joint at the knee. Several
Ligaments hold the joint together. The cartilage cushions and reduces friction at the ends of the
bones in movable joints, so they can move against each other more freely.

Types of Freely Movable Joints

Joints Type of movement Examples

Ball-and-socket joint Allows all types of movement Shoulder and hip joints

Allows the turning of body part from

Pivot joint side to side or the movement of a part of Top of spine and lower arm
your body up and down.

Bending and straightening (allows Elbows, knuckles of fingers

Hinge joint movement in one plane only. and toes, and knees

Sliding motion (allows a back-and-forth

Gliding joint motion) Wrist and ankles

Saddle joint Rotation, bending, and, straightening Base of thumbs

Lesson 5.3|The Need to Move for Various Life

Activities
 The muscles of small animals allow them to move. Animals, such as jellyfish, lack true
muscle but can still move due to their two layers of contractile fibers. You may often take for
granted that you are able to stand up and walk by yourselves. The skeletal system provides
support so you can stand, but without muscles, you would not be able to move and your body

will end up like piled of stick. Muscles move body parts because they are attached to bones.

Muscle fibers
Is a thousand of cells and fibers that shortens when a muscle contracts. Each muscle fiber
consist of threadlike, small cylindrical structures called myofibrils.

The thin filaments are called actin whereas the thick filaments are myosin.

Muscles….

help maintain normal temperature

muscles generate heat during muscle contraction to maintain body temperature. During
cold situations, the body shivers to generate heat.

allow you to digest

Contraction of muscles in the esophagus, stomach, and intestine allows food to move
downward to be digested.

allow you to move

The muscles allows us to do gross motor activities like running or walking, as well as fine
movements like blinking facial expressions or dilation of the pupil.
hold your skeleton Together
Tendons and ligaments found at the end of the muscles hold the joints and both system
together.

affect the rate of blood flow

Muscles found in blood vessels allow them to dilate to allow the blood to flow faster or
constrict to slow down the blood flow.

There are three main muscle types: cardiac (Heart), skeletal, and smooth

Muscle Function Voluntary Muscle Involuntary Muscle

Muscle type Skeletal Smooth Cardiac

Appearance Striped Smooth Striped

location Attached to the bones Internal organs Heart only

Example Leg muscles Small intestines Heart muscle

The muscle that causes something to extend and straighten is called an extensor muscle.
Moreover, the muscle that causes something to bend or flex is a flexor muscle. The same action
happened in your legs when you walk, run, and move your fingers and toes.
Plant Growth and Support

Meristems
Are located at the tips of stems and branches, root tips, and joints where leaves attach to the
stem, The type of tissue found in meristems are called meristematic tissue.

There are two types of meristems: the apical and lateral

The elongation of stems and roots, called primary growth, happens in apical meristems, whereas
the thickening of the stem, called secondary growth, occurs in lateral meristems.

Apical Meristems: Increase in Length

All plants exhibit primary growth. It starts as soon as seed germinate from the ground.
Primary growth makes plants grow taller toward the light and their roots to push and grow
deeper into the soil ward water. A plant’s increase in length is because of apical meristems,
which are perpetual ones at the tips of roots and stems, Cell divide and elongate in these regions.
Most herbaceous plants with green and flexible stems have only primary growth.

Lateral Meristems: Increase in diameter

Many plants also become wider as they become taller. The increase in the width of stems
and roots happens during the secondary growth. Secondary growth helps plants survive and
withstand pressure outside their environment. It does not only make plants grow wider; it also
helps them become stronger. Therefore plant are able to rise up, increasing their chances of
getting sunlight and reproducing successfully.