Professional Documents
Culture Documents
GH
E
•RES
and Waste (GWW) is to create technological stepping stones towards
TS• VISION
a zero emission society using our internationally recognised
competence. 4
for Water and Waste
OGY
Central technologies in GWW are energy efficient water purification
OL
and reuse, recovery of valuable compounds from waste and side
S
N
•S
CIE H
streams and new waste recycling processes. Focus is on developing NCE•TEC
membrane technologies, recovery of critical minerals and new waste
derived products. Sustainability and efficiency are ensured with new
monitoring and data management tools.
Research highlights in
1
ISBN 978-951-38-7964-8 (Soft back ed.)
ISBN 978-951-38-7965-5 (URL: http://www.vtt.fi/publications/index.jsp)
ISSN-L 2242-1173
ISSN 2242-1173 (Print)
ISSN 2242-1181 (Online)
PUBLISHER
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
P.O. Box 1000 (Tekniikantie 4 A, Espoo)
FI-02044 VTT, Finland
Tel. +358 20 722 111, fax +358 20 722 7001
2
Green Solutions for Water and Waste
spearhead programme – insights to early
activities
The Green Solutions for Water and Waste Generally, awareness around protecting
(GWW) spearhead programme was launched and improving the quality of our environment is
at the beginning of 2011. The vision of the rapidly increasing. The principles of ecological
GWW programme is a zero emission society. efficiency and sustainability are strong drivers
For that, our goal is to create technological for both society and industry. Cleantech mar-
stepping stones towards sustainable water kets and business opportunities are steadily
use, efficient material resource management growing and support the progress towards
using our internationally recognised, trans- zero emission processes.
disciplinary competence. For the research community, sustainable
development is a very inspiring challenge. To
Sustainable technologies for water find the best innovations and solutions, wide
and waste know-how and integration of various disci-
Industries and the society are facing new plines are needed. As a multi-technological
challenges relating to securing increasingly research organisation with comprehensive
critical resources due to a growing population, networks, VTT is in a good position to meet
urbanisation, and globally increasing middle- these challenges.
class with higher consumer purchasing power
and changing spending habits. Increas- How will future societies manage
ing resource efficiency is of key importance their water?
in securing the economy and employment Fresh water is emerging as the most critical
and it is now seen as the future for societies resource issue facing humanity. As the World
and economies to evolve and prosper in the Bank has warned, lack of water is likely to be
coming era of scarcity of natural resources. the major factor limiting economic develop-
Materials shall be saved, recycled and reused ment in the decades to come. On the other
across all industries. hand, scarcity and increased cost of water is
In order to meet the future demand for also enabling the development of new innova-
mineral and water resources, we need to tions such as mobile decentralised purification
develop new ways to reduce the withdrawal systems, recycling water in closed systems,
of natural resources to water and mineral water harvesting and smart monitoring solu-
intense industries. This means optimised tions. Climate change will have a significant
production processes for minimised waste impact on the sustainability of water supplies
production and reduced water use and in a in the coming decades. Extreme events call for
larger context developing industrial symbio- new solutions in water management. Excep-
sis concepts for sustainable management of tional droughts motivate to develop smart
resource stocks. networks that monitor their own condition
3
and leaks, assess water availability and pre- Programme, in collaboration with the Finnish
dict demand. Higher risk for flooding requires National Funding Agency Tekes, arranged
better forecasting tools and innovative urban in 2011 an international seminar on future
infrastructures to mitigate flooding impacts. water technologies with an emphasis on
Water, both as a topic and as a resource, membrane technologies. VTT itself is build-
spans across multiple industries and busi- ing its membrane competence in close
nesses. Depending on the industrial sector, collaboration with NTU Singapore, one of
the cost of water may already represent sev- the most prominent research centers in
eral per cent of production costs. The pulp drinking water technologies.
and paper and the steel and mining industries, Among water-intensive industries the min-
energy production, and the chemical sector ing industry has emerged as a new, important
are among the industrial sectors that the Euro- stakeholder group with and for which VTT is
pean Water Technology Platform (WSSTP) has developing water treatment solutions relating
identified as high water consumers and poten- to the removal of organic pollutants and heavy
tial polluters facing significant challenges for metals. Green mining issues touched also the
diminishing consumption and the emissions to topic of 2012 international seminar “From sus-
the environment. tainable mining to ecodesign”. The topic was
It has been predicted that the impact resource efficiency combining recycling and
of water scarcity and declining water quality ecodesign.
on business will be far-reaching. Many com-
panies worldwide are already seeing more Seeing waste as a resource –
stringent regulations for effluent treatment, reuse, recycling, and recovery
higher costs for water and growing commu- The inevitable lack of abundant raw mate-
nity opposition against industrial allotments. rial supplies in the future is a great challenge
Fresh water – as sources for drinking and for society as a whole. As more and more
irrigation water – is also becoming a political people are entering the middle-class around
matter. Energy and cost efficiency in drinking the globe, their consumption habits indicate
water production is an increasingly important the increasing need for mineral resources.
issue. At the same time, tightening legislation The other major factor contributing to the
concerning pollution limits calls for enhanced growing demand of raw materials is the
and improved wastewater treatment together increasing world population.
with new monitoring needs. From a European industrial point of view,
GWW’s foci in water research con- securing reliable and undistorted access to
cern developing new sensors for assessing raw materials is crucial for the sound func-
water quality, solutions for monitoring and tioning of the EU’s economy. While 70% of
diminishing fouling in membrane processes, the EU’s manufacturing is based on minerals
biomimetic approaches for removing micro- and Europe is increasingly importing natural
pollutants from effluent water, and enhanced resources from other world regions, the sus-
energy efficiency in sludge treatment. tainable use of raw materials and developing
The collaboration with Kemira in the innovative sources for industrial raw materi-
SWEET Center of Water Efficiency Excellence als are high on the agenda.
cuts across a wide range of aspects of water VTT aims to be a strong player and
chemistry. The partnership has resulted in new partner for a resource-efficient society and
inventions and common publications, pre- industries that avoid waste and use the
sented at the world’s largest water event – the remaining waste as a resource. The empha-
Singapore International Water Week. sis is moving from single waste treatment
On the national arena, VTT’s Green Solu- solutions towards industrial ecology, or even
tions for Water and Waste Spearhead more, designing for the environment, which
4
is a strategic approach that involves prevent- efficient solutions based on a multi-tech-
ing and minimising environmental impacts nological approach and deep know-how in
over the entire product life cycle, from raw various disciplines forms the basis for VTT’s
material extraction to disposal (including competitive edge in environmental technolo-
possible rounds of recycling and reuse). gies.
The GWW programme has staged large
scale activities in developing processes for
extracting and recovering minerals from
waste matrices. In addition to the recov-
ery of metals, VTT is developing innovative
phosphorous recycling technologies that
utilise waste and wastewater and low
grade resources in a cost efficient way. For
instance, modelling engineered biochemical
reactions taking place on the surface of min-
eral materials can give useful insight when
developing chemical and biological extrac-
tion processes.
Collaboration with Europe’s major
research organisations in AERTO (Associated
European Research and Technology Organi-
sations) has been strengthened through the
launch of a common project on the recov-
ery of high-tech metals from waste flows.
The project derives from the organisation’s
strategic research on value from waste. VTT
contributes with inventories, systems analy-
sis and dynamics of scarce metals in waste
and extraction methods for low concentra-
tions of scarce metals, among other things.
The sustainable cultivation of algal bio-
mass using waste flows builds on VTT’s
competence in biotechnology and renew-
able fuel production. In addition to providing
a solution for certain wastewaters, the algal
biomass can be utilised in several ways, as
raw material for diesel, biogas and carbon
dioxide sequestration. Moreover, the resid-
ual contains potentially valuable polymers.
Such integrated concepts have varied ben-
eficiaries and function as a showcase on our
route to combining individual environmental
technologies to cross-technological inte- Contact at VTT:
grated concepts.
VTT’s Green Solutions for Water and MONA ARNOLD
Waste Spearhead Programme builds on a Programme Manager
long tradition in the development of sus- mona.arnold@vtt.fi
tainable technologies. The ability to create +358 40 568 1222
5
Contents
Green Solutions for Water and Waste spearhead programme – insights to early activities ...... 3
Faster and more economic monitoring tools for water quality assessment ............................. 25
6
VTT takes the challenges in water
treatment technology development
Contributing authors:
Anu Kapanen, Leena Carpen, Mari Raulio,
Mikko Vepsäläinen, Minna Vikman
Figure 1. Improved water treatment technologies target the removal of nutrients and pol-
lutants from water streams together with management of biological processes, such as
biofouling, occurring during water treatment. Sustainability and safety of developed pro-
cesses are key elements in all of VTT’s water-related research.
7
pass through the treatment process and end ing micropollutants may require combinations
up in the sea and other waterways. The con- of treatment methods, either by combining
centration of these pollutants present in the physico-chemical and biological treatments
effluent streams is generally very low, from or, when necessary, by dividing the biological
nanograms to picograms per liter. However, treatment into multiple phases.
they can be transported via natural food chains At VTT, technologies and their combina-
and bioaccumulate in living organisms. Pollut- tions are studied and developed to achieve
ants released into the water ecosystems can more efficient removal of micropollutants.
therefore cause severe damage to humans Applied methods include chemical, physical
and the environment. More efficient treatment and biotechnological treatment technologies.
technologies are needed to remove not only Examples of physical methods that have been
readily biodegradable, organic matter and combined with chemical treatment are ultra-
pathogens, but also persistent organic and sonic and hydrodynamic cavitation; that is, the
inorganic pollutants. momentary creation of tiny vacuums within
In the areas of environmental engineering the treated liquid, at different frequencies to
and biotechnology VTT offers an interdiscipli- achieve the tailored removal of micropollut-
nary research approach to the development ants from wastewater. In addition, the efficacy
of new solutions for different water treatment of two different types of biofilm processes,
applications. This chapter describes how VTT that is, moving bed bioreactors (MBBR) and
aims at improved chemical, physical and bio- packed bed bioreactors, in removing micropo-
logical water treatment concepts for nutrient llutants from both wastewater and grey water
and pollutant removal. Factors that need to be has been studied. In these biofilm processes,
taken into account when developing solutions monitoring the biofilm structure and function
for water treatment are depicted in Figure 1. of microbial communities in biofilms enhances
the possibilities of process management. In
Problematic micropollutants in addition, the impact of the carrier material
wastewater in biofilm processes on biofilm structure and
The overall goals of wastewater treatment are micropollutant removal efficacy has been ana-
to prevent pollution of the environment and to lysed.
protect human health. Over the last few years
the removal of organic and inorganic micropol- Enzyme technologies
lutants from wastewater has become an even To overcome some of the deficiencies related
more important issue. Effluent constraints to traditional chemical and biological water
have become progressively more stringent and treatment processes, it is possible to use
thus in many cases, current wastewater treat- enzymes to catalyse the transformation of
ment processes have difficulties meeting the the target pollutant. Among the oxidative
new requirements. There are several reasons enzymes, polyphenol oxidases (e.g. tyrosi-
for the poor removal of organic micropollut- nase, laccases) and oxidoreductases (e.g.
ants in currently applied municipal wastewater peroxidases from horseradish, soybeans) have
treatment processes. For example, the micro- shown a potential for wastewater treatment
organisms used to degrade the organic load applications. Laccases are known to have
in waste water first utilise the easily biode- the ability to degrade e.g. estrogens and nap-
gradable compounds, because they give a roxen whereas peroxidases have been used
high energy yield, while pollutants that are not for antibiotics removal. In the “Green Solutions
‘readily biodegradable’ and/or present at low for Water and Waste” spearhead programme,
concentrations pass through untouched. In VTT invests in development of novel enzyme
fact, the removal of complex mixtures contain- technologies to improve water quality.
8
VTT takes the challenges in water treatment technology development
1
Frost and Sullivan 2011. Strategic Analysis of Water and Wastewater Management in the Power Industry.
9
Figure 2. Confocal microscopy image of activated sludge stained with a fluorochrome
staining nucleic acids of microbial cells green and fluoroconjugated lectins staining poly-
saccharides red. Lectin from Aleuria aurantia (Panels A and B) – or Helix pomatia (Panels
C and D) was used. The enlargements of the framed areas Panels A and C show that
A. aurantia -lectin stained matrix of the flock whereas H. pomatia -lectin stained tightly
bound EPS of certain bacteria.
of power plants and other industrial plants use In addition, microbiological growth can cause
large amounts of water. occupational hazards (such as legionellosis).
Due to a shortage of high quality water in Chemicals, such as antiscalants, biocides
many locations, companies have initiated vari- and corrosion inhibitors, are normally used to
ous steps to reduce their water usage and the reduce corrosion, scaling and fouling. How-
overall water footprint. These systems have to ever, these currently used chemicals may have
operate with a high water reuse and circulation functional limits, such as toxicity, increased
rate. High circulation rate increases corrosion, operating costs and potential to cause
scaling and fouling problems. Microbiological eutrophication and increased vegetation in
growth and inorganic scaling reduces heat- surrounding water areas. Therefore, there is a
transfer of the equipment and accelerates demand for the development of new types of
further corrosion rates. Corrosion reduces solutions for power plants, the petrochemical
the lifespan of equipment and furthermore and chemical industry, the food industry and
increases scaling and fouling of the system. pulp and paper mills.
10
VTT takes the challenges in water treatment technology development
Figure 3. Schematic layout of the bench-scale cooling water system. Water circulation
system contains similar components as real cooling water systems, e.g. cooling tower
and heated tubes simulating a heat-exchanger. Online water chemistry sensors are used
to monitor water quality in the system during the studies. Several heated and non-heated
construction material samples can be exposed to the cooling water environment. The
bench-scale system can be used in corrosion, scaling and fouling studies.
11
Enabling water reuse – membrane
technologies
Contributing authors:
Juha Sarlin, Juha Nikkola
12
Enabling water reuse – membrane technologies
nomena and enable a combination of filtration the physical -chemical and techno-economic
with a breakdown of pollutants and other modelling of related phenomena.
unwanted substances.
In addition to lower energy consump- Forward osmosis as a way of
tion of the treatment process and decreased improving energy efficiency
fouling tendency, forward osmosis (FO) tech- Forward osmosis (FO) is a novel membrane
nology offers essential improvements in separation technique, which has several
membrane technology, such as high sepa- advantages over the widely-applied reverse
ration performance, but improvements are osmosis (RO), such as lower energy con-
needed to realise these advantages in large- sumption and decreased fouling. These
scale operations. VTT is among the first to advantages of FO are obtained because the
develop an FO technology-based water recy- pressure needed in the process is low.
cling solution for water-intensive industries In FO, the solvent will move across the
such as the mineral and biorefinery industry. membrane from lower–solute-concentration
Another emerging technology developed at side to the higher concentration-solute side
VTT is based on photocatalytic reactions to and only the liquid circulation causes the
decompose organic harmful and toxic com- hydraulic pressure. In traditional RO, the water
pounds in water. Essentially the VTT water in concentrated feed solution is “pushed”
treatment platform also includes membrane through a semi-permeable membrane by
surface modification technologies as well as applying an external pressure. The energy
13
consumption depends on the applied pres- potential in the near future, since the desired
sure, which also influences the fouling of the chemical and physical degrading effects can
membrane. Due to this difference the FO be obtained without the addition of harmful
method is also suitable for, for example, fluids and toxic chemicals in the treatment process.
which do not tolerate high pressures or tem- The technology relies on photocatalytic
peratures and hence of interest to food and reactions breaking down the contaminant
pharmaceutical processes, for example. The molecules, leaving no residue of the original
principle of the FO method is depicted in Fig- material. Therefore, less sludge requiring dis-
ure 1. posal or further treatment is produced. The
However, the greatest challenges in FO catalyst itself is unchanged during the process
relate to the membranes and the draw solu- and no consumable chemicals are required.
tions. The FO membranes should possess In water treatment the method has the
both high flow rates and high salt rejection. potential to solve problems caused by the
Furthermore, draw solutes with high osmolal- wide range of organic contaminants, such as
ity and easy separation from water would be pesticides and residuals from, for example, the
needed. Replenishment and regeneration of cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry. Whilst
the draw solution can then become the most the worldwide consumption of these chemi-
expensive part of FO. cals is increasing - a typical effect of increasing
Crucial to the economic viability of FO living standard - these chemicals occur more
processes is to be able to use the diluted draw commonly in wastewater and nowadays also
solution without reconcentration. When con- in ground water. A further advantage of the
centrate solution needs dilution before use, photocatalytic technology is that it can utilise
it the needed water can be taken from solu- solar light as an energy source, and this fact
tion that requires concentration. For example, supports applications in areas without modern
concentrated fertiliser solution can be used as infrastructure.
draw solution until it is diluted to a level appro-
priate for use as irrigation water or glucose in Modifying membrane surface to
the food processes. reduce fouling
The FO research work at VTT focuses on Membrane surface modification research aims
the instrumentation, applications and devel- to develop new surface treatments, which
opment of novel potential draw solutions and provide anti-fouling performance for com-
new membrane structures. The technique has mercial RO and NF thin-film-composite (TFC)
been tested widely in desalination tasks, but polyamide (PA) membranes. Furthermore,
only very few applications in industrial environ- the aim is to investigate the potentiality of the
ments exist so far. In fact, in VTT’s activities a existing thin film technologies (e.g. sol-gel,
special focus is given to industrial processes ALD and plasma) to develop new possible
where the process could be applied. Potential coating materials to be used in membranes.
and novel applications for FO include (but are Due to the non-porous or semi-permeable
not limited to) concentration and purification of surface structure of RO and NF membranes,
waters in the mining, chemical, and pulp and the fouling phenomenon is especially harmful,
paper industries. since even a thin additional layer on top of the
membrane reduces its actual performance,
Photocatalytic technology allows e.g. flux.
breakdown of pollutants within In the prevention of biofouling, the
wastewater membrane surface properties, including
Photocatalytic water treatment is generally hydrophilicity, low surface roughness and
regarded as a technology with remarkable neutral surface charge, are the key factors.
14
Enabling water reuse – membrane technologies
15
Figure 3. Equipment and a module for reverse osmosis research for e.g. desalination
solutions.
16
Enabling water reuse – membrane technologies
The structure and composition of the outermost layer of the cells differ greatly
between bacteria. On the outer envelope, cells may have polysaccharide capsules
or protein, which protect bacteria in unfavourable conditions and affect their adhe-
sion. Some bacteria have additional structures, such as short thin appendages in
their outermost cell layer. It is suggested that these structures, in association with
other components outside the cell, create a coating that affects biofilm formation
and cell-to-cell attachment.
17
Cost efficient management of sludge and
concentrates
Contributing authors:
Pentti Pirkonen, Mona Arnold, Elina Merta
18
Cost efficient management of sludge and concentrates
Figure 1. Possible means for reduction and further utilisation of activated sludge from a
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP).
remove the organic matter from the waste- Applying dewatering techniques to
water by either consuming it for energy and algae suspensions
hence reproduction or by oxidising it to Techniques developed and studied at VTT
CO2. A portion of the microbial biomass is for enhanced dewatering include several
recirculated in the process (return sludge) pre-treatment methods such as coagula-
but a part of it must be removed from the tion, flocculation, mechanical disintegration,
water stream as excess sludge and directed enzymes, and bio-based filter aids. Depend-
to hygienisation as indicated in the process ing on the research question, mechanical
shown in Figure 1. dewatering is performed using different pilot
The amount of excess sludge from a and laboratory scale pressers and filters, cen-
traditional WWTP is voluminous, and has trifuges, dryers and evaporators.
significant disposal costs. However, through VTT know-how on sludge dewater-
internal process modifications in the waste- ing techniques has recently been harnessed
water treatment plant, sludge reduction can for the processing of a new topical water
be obtained through two routes. One route containing material: algae suspension from
is to disintegrate part of the microbes in the microalgae cultivation. Algae biomass – an
return sludge and to further use that part as example of a dilute voluminous biomass – is
easily available nutrients for the microbes in one of the sources for third-generation biofu-
the aeration basin (route 1 in Figure 1). This els (advanced biofuels or green hydrocarbons)
results in enhanced organic removal process which are globally under broad development
and a higher proportion of sludge recycled work.
back into the process. The second route The algae biomass is produced by culti-
is to increase the dry matter content in the vating microalgae suspension in a cultivation
excess sludge which is taken out of WWTP pond. The concentration of the dilute micro-
by efficient dewatering (route 2 in Figure 1). algae suspension is the first and relatively
energy-consuming step in the biodiesel pro-
19
Membrane bioreactor MBR
20
Cost efficient management of sludge and concentrates
cost efficiency necessitate a systemic over- to the range of thermophilic digestion was
view of all costs and emissions occurring in studied.
the overall sludge treatment process and
increase the pressure to optimise the system Energy and GHG balances from biogas
for producing energy. originating from sludge stabilisation
VTT calculated the energy balances, In options where all biogas is fed to a gas
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and costs engine with spill heat recovery, the lowest
of using anaerobic digestion (AD) and incin- GHG emissions and the optimal production
eration as wastewater sludge treatment and use of energy was achieved. Placing an
methods. Process and cost data from an emphasis on heat production does not give
existing medium-scale Finnish municipal added value since it is difficult for the waste-
wastewater treatment plant (100,000 person water treatment plant to find a use for this
equivalents, 1120 t sludge/day) were used. excess heat. In the options where all biogas is
The study included several options for the upgraded and used as vehicle fuel, the internal
utilisation of produced biogas; in a boiler energy demand must be covered by external
for heat, in a gas engine for electricity, and energy.
upgradation to vehicle fuel. In addition, the When studying the use of anaerobic diges-
possibility of enhancing biogas production by tion as a sludge stabilising method, biogas to
increasing the temperature in the AD digester electricity was the most feasible option in light
21
Figure 3. Greenhouse gas emission balances related to studied sludge treatment pro-
cesses (anaerobic digestion, incineration) and the utilisation of the produced energy.
Figure 4. Overall cost of the studied sludge treatment processes. Analysis included all
costs from wastewater aeration and chemical usage, through sludge processing to final
disposal.
22
Cost efficient management of sludge and concentrates
23
commercial chemical based fertilisers. Based
on literature, it is still unclear, which propor-
tion of the sludge nutrients could be utilised
by plants in fertiliser use. Furthermore, a pro-
portion of sludge carbon can be sequestered
in soil and enhancing further CO2 uptake by
soil but there is limited information on this
process.
Contact at VTT:
PENTTI PIRKONEN
Senior Scientist
pentti.pirkonen@vtt.fi
+358 40 500 6173
24
Faster and more economic monitoring
tools for water quality assessment
Contributing authors:
Liisa Hakola, Jani Kiuru, Maria Smolander
1
Frost & Sullivan 50th Anniversary: 50 Predictions for 50.
25
Table 1. Application areas for water quality monitoring concepts according to Frost & Sul-
livan 2.
neurotoxic blooms occur worldwide in device, which then presents the analysis result
freshwaters and are a health risk for human as numerical data or a visual colour change.
beings. For example, in the Baltic Sea hepa- This type of test reduces the need for manual
totoxic water blooms occur every summer operation and significantly shortens the time
and have caused a number of animal poi- required for analysis.
sonings. According to EU legislation, the Mass-manufacturing methods, such as
monitoring of cyanobacteria in recreational printing and injection moulding, are ideal
waters is based on visual assessment. How- for the cost reduction of manufacturing
ever, the availability of rapid onsite tests monitoring solutions. Adding innovations
would result in more reliable and frequent exploiting micro-fluidistics to novel mass-
analysis results. manufacturing methods further enables the
development of new kinds of lab-on-chip
Miniaturised lab-on-chip concepts concepts. There is ongoing research at
for water quality assessment VTT in close cooperation with the industry
Conventional rapid-type tests contain sev- to develop test concepts for water quality
eral phases and a lot of manual operation is assessment that are novel, low-cost, min-
needed (Figure 1). Lab-on-chip type devices iaturized, fast and specific, by combining
on the other hand can offer a notably faster manufacturing technologies – printing and
way of analysing samples. A liquid sample injection moulding – with biological and
– even just a single droplet – is placed on chemical detection of certain impurities and
the device. The sample travels through the pollutants from water. Research and devel-
2
Frost & Sullivan, D1EB-TI, June 2010.
26
Faster and more economic monitoring tools for water quality assessment
Figure 1. Conventional rapid test principle for water quality analysis and the proposed
concept. The duration of the conventional process from sample collection to interpreta-
tion is at least one hour, while the proposed method based on the lab-on-chip concept
would provide analysis results within few minutes without manual operation.
opment actions are also taking place within produces detectable signal such as visual
sensing chemistries and their integration to colour change.
sensor and indicator concepts realised by In addition to demonstrators, the
mass-manufacturing techniques. research and development focus is targeted
Some of the concepts will be taken at two applications:
into proof-of-concept at the demonstrator • detection of toxic and odorous cyanobac-
level. The chosen demonstrators are phenol teria
indicators based on 4-aminoantipyrine and • detection of chlorophenols based on
microfluidic chips for the detection of blue enzymatic detection.
algae toxins. The demonstrators will focus
on the detection and sample preparation Handheld instruments as trouble
process. Actual miniaturised chips will be shooting tools for the needs of the
designed and tested. The phenol indica- process industry
tor will consist of injection moulded chip A new approach for short delay time diagnos-
with reagents inside. Adding water sample tic measurements (online or at-line) based on
will result in reagent mixing thus providing miniaturised instrumentation technology has
visual colour change. The blue algae toxins been developed at VTT to serve the process
sensor will be a hot embossed microfluidic industry. The new service is intended for aque-
chip. Water sample reacts with antibody and ous processes and focuses on concurrent
27
testing with new and faster measuring devices combination with the ATP content, these
that can be used either online or at-line. can be used for optimising biocide con-
Traditional process in-line sensors con- sumption and performance.
stitute fixed, real-time measuring equipment, • The measurement of dissolved calcium
but their fixed installation generates some amount using ion selective electrode (ISE)
restrictions. For example, process opti- is a unique method for filler dissolution
misation and troubleshooting may require monitoring and control, especially in neu-
additional data not provided by the rou- tral and alkaline papermaking.
tine process control. For this purpose, VTT • Online measurement of high consist-
assembled a set of inexpensive instruments ency, high pressure samples is enabled
to form an easily transferable and adaptable through the application development of
field laboratory for point-of-need use. For ceramic filtration and a thick stock sam-
the industry, the ability to quickly address pling device.
and solve problems is essential in order to • Optical measurements were utilised for
maintain process runnability and to minimise dissolved oxygen measurement and
the resulting costs. measurement of colloidal turbidity. The
The portable field laboratory has been latter is closely linked to the colloidal
set up during a research and development charge.
project between partners from the pulp and • Multi-parameter probes are economi-
paper industry and VTT. The value for the cal, because they can measure several
partner companies is twofold. First, additional parameters simultaneously online and
references for existing basic measurements store the data in an internal memory.
can now be easily and cost-efficiently Measurable parameters in these probes
obtained as measurement equipment can are pH, conductivity, redox potential, dis-
be added to non-instrumented positions solved oxygen and temperature.
for additional data. Second, the study gen-
erated a set of new measurements, which Case study: reducing biocide costs
have not been traditionally used in the pro- As an example, the conditions within paper
cess industry (some examples are listed mills, that is, an aquatic environment, a
below). All these applications can easily be temperature of 30–60°C, and a pH range
packaged to a measurement portfolio for of 4.5–9.0, offer an ideal environment for
tailored purposes. The philosophy and tech- microbes to grow and reproduce. Traditional
nologies were tested in several industrial tools to evaluate microbial activity within an
process cases. aqueous process are troublesome and time-
Qualities of VTT’s portable field labora- consuming. Results can be seen only after
tory to facilitate decision-making: approximately two days from the sampling. A
• ATP content measurement using a porta- portable luminometer measuring the ATP con-
ble luminometer is an easy-to-use method tent (ATP adenosine triphosphate) proved to
to evaluate microbial activity. Within one be a very useful and rapid method for estimat-
day, it is possible to map the performance ing the microbial activity within the process.
of a biocide system. Based on the results, Two paper mill cases showed that by using
it is possible to draw conclusions, take this method, it is possible to map the bioc-
corrective actions and monitor the effect ide system used to limit or eliminate microbial
of the actions. activity in one to two days, and to draw con-
• Ion-selective electrodes (ISE) measuring clusions, take corrective actions, and monitor
halogen and ammonium content are use- the effect of the actions. As an informative
ful tools for detecting biocide residues. In example, the performance of two different bio-
28
Faster and more economic monitoring tools for water quality assessment
1800
Continuous biocide feed
1600
Batch biocide feed
1400
1200
Total ATP, RLU
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time, min
Figure 2. Analysis of the ATP content used to compare different biocide strategies
in paper mills. The darker green line represents the ATP content within the process
when biocide is added to the process in batches, and the lighter green represents
ATP content with continuous biocide feed. The green background colouring repre-
sents the dosing periods of biocide in batch mode. It can be seen that monitoring the
ATP content effectively reflects the impact of different biocide strategies on microbial
activity.
Contact at VTT:
KIRSI TAPPURA
Principal Scientist
kirsi.tappura@vtt.fi
+358 40 704 1773
29
Mining in the organic waste mountains
Contributing authors:
Craig Faulds, Raija Lantto, Anna-Stiina
Jääskeläinen, Lauri Kuutti, Vidar Grönberg
The public and private sectors generate Solution concept – organic waste
large amounts of organic waste and side refinery
streams deriving from animal, plant, fish and VTT focuses on unlocking these potential prod-
fowl origins. But what should be done with uct streams for the benefit of both producers
this material? Use it as low cost animal feed and end users. Our competencies range from
and throw the surplus away? Incinerate as a the use of novel and current enzymes and
low cost energy source for industry? Much biocatalysts in different environmental appli-
of the material is produced in a wet state cations, biomass utilisation, fractionation and
and so it cannot be kept for too long as it will subsequent product separation from the labo-
degrade and emit bad odours and poten- ratory scale to pilot and commercial trials. This
tially harmful gases. But the initial material aids customers in converting their waste into
generated costs for the producer, so could novel and functional natural raw material and
we earn anything back from these residues in minimising the amount of the final waste,
or use it for something else? Figures have whilst stimulating technology development in
shown that annual food waste generation the manufacturing community. The value-chain
alone in the European Union (EU27) amounts thus links the producer with the end user. Our
to approximately 89 million tons (Mt), or 179 concept, the Organic Waste Refinery, develops
kg per capita. This amount is growing. In novel and robust processes that could ultimately
2010, the EU produced 285.2 Mt of cereals, provide a range of sustainable platform chemi-
58 Mt of vegetables and 36 Mt of fresh fruit cals for utilisation in low- to high-value product
(Eurostat). Up to half of this will end up as ranges, tailored for the customer and the require-
waste or by-products. A bleak future filled ments of a new bio-economy (Figure 1).
with mountains of rotting organic waste will The development of the Organic Waste
only be avoided if we understand the threats Refinery concept has included the following
and make use of possible new technologies issues:
to address the problems. • Developing specific biocatalysts (enzy-
However, there is good news! Within matic and microbial) tailored for the
this material, a wide range of potentially high diversity of the waste stream in order to
value compounds are contained: protein, modify and reuse the amount of organic
carbohydrate, oils and fats, polyphenolics waste.
and small organic acids, and minerals, which • Developing software to identify and
can be used as food ingredients or may form characterize organic waste “hotspots”,
the precursors for the chemical industries. including the establishment and main-
We can use it, but first we need to find effec- tenance of a Europe-wide database on
tive ways to access it – to mine it. biomass side streams.
• Translating this technology to industry.
30
Mining in the organic waste mountains
Figure 1. Potential value chains from organic waste that could be established through
developing tailored processes to extract selected components from agro-industrial
wastes and by-products.
Making the most of side and point and each resource. When the distance
co-streams from a map point to a resource is known,
consideration can be limited to resources that
Mapping our wastes are, for example, less than 200 km away from
The SideStream 2010 computer program has the map point. The total available biomass at
been developed to organise European industry a map point is the total amount of biomass
by-product waste data in the form of a data- contained in resources that are less than 200
base. Five out of ten input variables describe km away.
the type and amount of biomass in dry weight
ton produced annually. These variables are Added value from high protein and oil
the amount of glucose (C6), the amount of industrial co-streams
other sugars (C5), lignin, lipids and protein. Many co-streams from the food industry are
The main idea is to use GPS coordinates to excellent sources of proteins and healthy oils
find locations with the greatest potential where for use in foods and cosmetics. However, at
producers and users are in relatively close the moment these side streams are mainly
proximity. For example, if we have identified used as fish and animal feed, for energy, or
some interesting coordinates on the map and end up as waste.
we know the coordinates of the available side In cooperation with global universities
stream resources scattered on the map, we and small and medium sized enterprises
can calculate distances between the map (SMEs) VTT seeks to enrich several co-stream
31
UPGRADING FOOD END USE
Nutritional and Functional
Fish and rapeseed residue
Nutritional components
Wound dressings
Oil and FAs
Skincare emulsions
Prot/oil
components at once from food quality co- The chosen sidestreams are suitable for
streams of rapeseed, canola, mustard and the production of a multitude of value-added
fish. In particular, this project aims to promote food and cosmetic components, such as
the competitiveness of the SME sector and medicinal skin care products where soy and
developing regional production units located animal protein can be replaced with rapeseed
near primary production. or fish derived protein.
The biorefinery concept aims at com- Processing technologies combine
plete exploitation of selected high protein mechanical and enzymatic process steps
and high oil containing industrial co-streams replacing chemicals with enzymes and focus-
(fish filleting residue and rapeseed meal) ing at reduction of water consumption and
by environmentally benign biomechanical organic solvent usage. Lenient enzymatic
processing technologies to produce value treatment minimizes changes in the protein
components for food and skin care prod- and prevents oxidation of the wanted lipid
ucts and exploit the remaining residue for soil components.
improvement and bio-pesticide use. The approach has the potential to
broaden the scope of the business opportuni-
32
Mining in the organic waste mountains
Contact at VTT:
RAIJA LANTTO
Technology Manager
raija.lantto@vtt.fi
+358 40 727 0703
33
Counteracting material scarcity
Contributing authors:
Heikki Kukko, Ulla-Maija Mroueh,
Jarno Mäkinen
In the inorganic material industry, two needs By developing advanced separation tech-
in the production and use of inorganic materi- niques, a significant amount of scarce
als are highlighted due to the global trends of materials can be obtained from the large
economic growth and technical development. waste flows. The most potential lies in the
First, large waste flows should be used in ways waste from the mining industry, since the
that give more surplus value and techno-eco- ore often contains other valuable elements in
nomic benefits. Secondly, global scarcity of addition to those that are enriched. Technical
several raw materials, such as rare earth ele- challenges lie in the enrichment of valuable
ments and phosphorus, has been recognised. components and in the use and develop-
Moreover the global raw material markets are ment of innovative bio-based methods for
increasingly distorted by protectionist trade that purpose. In order to truly advance the
policies, and maintaining fair and undistorted exploitation of waste material, a change of
access to these materials is increasingly dif- mindset is needed – waste should not only be
ficult. There is a strong need to ensure the separated but the interest should be directed
availability of the scarce materials in the future. to value-adding activity and to classify waste
Figure 1. A set of competences needed for counteracting material scarcity through recy-
cling and recovery.
34
Counteracting material scarcity
so that its productisation can be promoted. Mining activity has increased interna-
Effective recovery of materials implies that tionally and especially in Finland over the
the recycling aspect should p be taken into last few years. This emphasises the techni-
account already in the product’s design cal, economic and ecological development
phase. System analysis involving value chain need in this area, and VTT has actively par-
analysis, collection and logistics are impor- ticipated, for example, in the preparation of
tant elements for developing economically the Finnish National Mineral strategy.
sustainable processes (Figure 1). There are Activating international cooperation
also certain materials for which unstable has been a general topic in the GWW pro-
international trade policies make it necessary gramme. Together with the largest research
to develop new sources and the use of sub- institutes in Europe (Fraunhofer, CEA, SIN-
stituting materials. TEF, SP, TNO, Tecnalia VTT started a pilot
project Value from Waste’ developing con-
VTT is active in developing the use cepts for the recovery of scarce metals and
of large waste flows safe management of nanoparticles in waste
The role of large waste flows, such as vari- treatment processes. The work covers the
ous ashes from power stations and waste total waste recovery value change combin-
(both liquid and solid) from the mining industry ing each partner’s particular strengths and
is increasing. The reasons for this develop- complementarities related to identification,
ment are lack of storage areas for massive separation, enrichment and extraction of
waste material and increasing environmental scarce metals as well as waste collection.
requirements and costs occurring from waste VTT focuses especially through practi-
handling. On the other hand, even minor cal work to strengthen current bioleaching
added value through improved refining and expertise and further on the technologi-
logistics offer considerable benefits when vol- cal potential of recycling of nanomaterials.
umes are high. Phosphorous recovery is again developed
The utilisation of ashes has become together with Australian partners.
more and more complicated in recent years
because of the increasing use of various Research and development can
wastes as fuel, and the developments in prevent scarcity of materials
burning technologies leading to potentially The recovery of critical metals from waste
more challenging consistency of the ashes materials has been studied from the point
for further use. In this area, VTT has identi- of view of advanced solutions for recycling
fied the most significant views, factors and of complex and previously unrecycled
drivers affecting the operational environment materials. This work has been supported
and future research needs in the area. As an by a separate study on electronic waste
example, ashes from biological origins con- as a resource for critical metals. In recent
tain typically a fair amount of unburnt coal research projects at VTT it has become
making landfilling or utilisation as such in clear that along with processing technol-
earth construction a difficult option. Fly ashes ogy, the logistics of waste collection and
also contain valuable minerals that can be handling are of critical importance to cre-
bioleached and recovered. By sintering and ate a sound economic basis for recovery
heat treatment activation the ashes could activities. It is noteworthy in this topic
be transformed into a low cost, light-weight area that various industrial clusters, from
aggregate for construction. Also or new solu- electronics to building and construction
tions for inorganic binders used in concrete is companies are cooperating with VTT for
a potential utilisation route. non-field-specific development.
35
Bioleaching – a promising technology for extracting minerals from waste
36
Counteracting material scarcity
Contact at VTT:
ULLA-MAIJA MROUEH
Principal Scientist
ulla-maija.mroueh@vtt.fi
+358 40 526 1449
37
New business concepts based on
integrated valorisation of waste streams
Contributing authors:
Ulla-Maija Mroueh, Laura Sokka
The concern about the availability of raw of the challenges is that instead of support-
materials, energy and water is reflected in ing the closing of material cycles, in many
ambitious political resource efficiency targets. cases research and development produces
This thinking is presented in the European materials, components and products that are
Waste and Energy Efficiency Directive, as well actually difficult to recycle. The introduction
as in economic measures, such as rising costs of smart design concepts and decision sup-
of landfill disposal. These issues are bound to port tools that enable the transition towards a
impact on current business models and may reusing and recycling society can significantly
cause some of them to become unviable. Inte- improve resource efficiency and even create
grating value-adding activity and functions to totally new business concepts.
waste streams can provide some answers for New business opportunities should also
mature businesses. be seen within the risks related to the avail-
Future improvements of material effi- ability of materials currently in danger of
ciency, together with the radical minimisation scarcity, as they stimulate the development of
of resource wastage, are strongly empha- substitute materials and advanced recovery
sised in the Roadmap to a Resource Efficient solutions covering entire value chains.
Europe, published in 2011. The international
influence of European legislation through Industrial symbiosis concepts
global business actions is also generally rec- require fresh thinking and
ognised. transdisciplinary innovations
In general, the main objective of industrial sym-
Challenges in forming closed biosis concepts is to minimise inefficiencies
material cycles and the amount of waste created in society1.
The new targets require a transition towards In VTT’s research on industrial symbiosis con-
closed cycles, and call for a change from the cepts, processes and industries are seen as
current fragmented thinking towards a better interacting systems and research aims at
understanding of complex technical, environ- developing sustainable and cost-effective
mental and social entities and for a substantial integrated solutions, which will change the
increase in cross-sector collaboration. The material and energy losses of industrial and
importance of integrated resource efficiency societal activities into viable business. The
(material, energy, water) and holistic thinking focus is on the identification and development
is growing. This is reflected both in the need of:
for integrated technology solutions as well • new integrated material and energy recov-
as in the need for assessment models sup- ery concepts combining the exploitation
porting business and societal decisions in the of industrial and municipal waste and side
rapidly-changing business environment. One streams
1
Harper E & Graedel T 2004 ‘Industrial ecology: a teenager’s progress’, Technology in Society, 26: 433–45.
38
New business concepts based on integrated valorisation of waste streams
• value chain and networking concepts for strong basis for the development of cost and
recycling and recovery of materials from eco effective solutions.
waste flows
• concepts for integrated water, material Case study of industrial symbiosis in
and energy efficiency of mines and for the forest industry
life cycle management of the environmen- Life Cycle Assessment and other sustainabil-
tal impacts of mines ity assessment methods have quite generally
• modelling and measuring concepts for been used for the evaluation of the potential
the evaluation of systemic changes. environmental impacts in technology devel-
opment projects. An extensive investigation
In this complicated, multi-technologi- of the environmental life cycle impacts of an
cal and cross-scientific research area, the industrial symbiosis concept based on pulp
exploitation and adaptation of VTT’s various and paper production was carried out at
technological competencies is an important VTT in a dissertation published in 20112. It
prerequisite for success. VTT’s transdisci- was one of the first studies where all the life
plinary approach enables proceeding from cycle stages from raw material extraction and
concept identification and evaluation to production to the waste management of an
technology development needed in practi- industrial symbiosis were analysed. The case
cal industrial applications, and further to was also compared to four hypothetical refer-
piloting. Just to mention a few examples, ence scenarios, where the actors worked on
know-how on recycling, fractionation and their own in order to study whether industrial
characterisation methods, chemistry and symbiosis produced environmental benefits
biotechnology, energy and process tech- compared to the hypothetical scenarios.
nologies as well as monitoring technologies Most of the environmental impacts of the
is available and applied to R&D activities symbiosis case were smaller than those of
within VTT. Electronics and IT competencies the reference scenarios. This was mainly due
and smart applications can also be applied to changes in the way energy was produced.
to strengthen industrial symbiosis, reuse and It was concluded that based on this case, it is
recycling. possible both to produce economic benefits
In addition to the innovative combination and to reduce the environmental impacts of
of technological competencies, the design of industrial symbiosis based on pulp and paper
integrated solutions is based on the analysis production. The results also showed that
of the sustainability, technical and business the environmental impacts caused by the
potential of the solutions in the changing extraction and processing of the materials
operational environment. Modelling and meas- and the energy used by the symbiosis were
urement concepts are developed for better considerable, and therefore all the life cycle
understanding and forecasting of the impacts stages should be studied. Industrial symbio-
of systemic changes. Various sustainability sis should be seen as part of the process of
analysis tools, such as Life Cycle Assessment improving the environmental performance of
(LCA), Life Cycle Cost assessment (LCC), a system .
carbon and water footprint, material flow
analysis, energy efficiency analysis, and com- Examples from analysis of waste value
binations of them are one cornerstone of this chains
assessment. The combination of sustain- Municipal waste and construction and demoli-
ability analysis tools with system dynamic tion waste value chains have been analysed
and process modelling, scenario analysis and to identify their most important development
foresight and business competence creates a targets, and to analyse selected new tech-
2
Sokka, L. Local systems, global impacts. Using life cycle assessment to analyse the potential and con-
straints of industrial symbioses. Doctoral dissertation. VTT Publications 768. VTT Technical Research Centre
of Finland, Espoo, 2011. 71 p. + app. 76 p.
39
nological developments for their life cycle most important development needs in these
environmental impacts, costs and technical chains have been highlighted, and the poten-
potential. tial of further industrial development projects is
One example of the several studies made currently being analysed.
is the analysis of the environmental and cost
aspects of pneumatic waste collection sys-
tem of municipal waste in a selected case
study area. It was carried out in collaboration
with the University of Helsinki and several pro-
ducers and potential users of such pneumatic
systems. The aim was to analyse the ben-
efits and potential constraints of integrating
the system into an existing city infrastructure.
The Punavuori area of Helsinki was chosen
as a case study area, and the system was
also compared with the prevailing container
collection system. In general, the pneumatic
system has many benefits. The integration
into an existing system is, however, clearly
more challenging than construction in a new
area.
The environmental impacts of both waste
collection methods were compared based on
a life cycle inventory. It was concluded that in
the Punavuori case, the pneumatic waste col-
lection system creates more greenhouse gas
and nitrogen oxide emissions than conven-
tional systems. This is mainly due to the high
electricity consumption of both the pneumatic
collection and the manufacturing of system
components. On the other hand, at the local
level the emissions reduce because of traffic
reduction. The system also has the poten-
tial to increase the safety and hygiene levels
of waste collection. Especially in new areas,
the pneumatic collection may save space for
buildings or other activities.
The results of the study cannot be gen-
eralised for all cases, because issues such as
population density and properties of the sys-
tem affect the results of the comparison.
A holistic analysis of the material flows and Contact at VTT:
the environmental and cost efficiency of the
MSW and C&D value chains was also carried OLLI SALMI
out. Based on these studies and the analysis Research Professor
of drivers, markets and potential future devel- olli.salmi@vtt.fi
opments of the operational environment, the +358 40 734 2154
40
Related publications
Arnold, M. & Merta, E. Towards energy self-sufficiency tors for wet end chemistry. IPW - The magazine for
in wastewater treatment by optimized sludge treatment. the international pulp and paper industry, 1, 2011, pp.
Water Practice & Technology, 6(4). IWA Publishing 17–23.
2011. doi: 10.2166/wpt.2011.0069 Korpijärvi, K., Ryymin, R., Saarno, T., Reinikai-
Gaál, G., Kaija, J., Baker, J., Cassard, D., D’Hugues, nen, M. & Räisänen, M. Recycling of ashes from
S.P., Grundfelt, B., Ehinger, S., Kurylak, W., Mizera, co-combustion of peat and wood – case study of a
W., Sarlin, J., Spiteri, A. & Weihed, P. A new approach modern CFB-boiler. Proceedings of International Nordic
to mineral resources in Europe – ProMine. International Bioenergy. Jyväskylä, Finland, 5–9 September 2011.
Conference on Sustainable Production and Consump- 8 p.
tion of Mineral Resources – Integrating the EU’s Social Kurola, J.M., Arnold, M., Kontro, M.H., Talves, M.,
Agenda and Resource Efficiency. Wroclaw, Poland, 20 & Romantschuk, M. Wood ash for applica¬tion in
– 22 October 2011. Pp. 131–142. municipal biowaste composting. Bioresource Technol-
Harlin, A., Blomberg, P., Räsänen, L., Shan, J., ogy, 102, 2011, pp. 5214–5220.
Koukkari, P., Tapper, U. & Sarlin, J. Routes to produce Kyllönen, H., Järvelä, E. & Martikainen, P. A view to
nanomaterials using acid mine drainage waters. Inter- antiscalant dosing in RO membrane filtration. Proceed-
national Conference on Sustainable Production and ings in SIWW, Singapore International Water Week, 4–7
Consumption of Mineral Resources – Integrating the July 2011.
EU’s Social Agenda and Resource Efficiency. Wroclaw, Maunuksela, L., Torniainen, M., Kapanen, A,
Poland, 20–22 October 2011. Pp. 205–213. Vikman, M. & Laine, M. Applicability of biogas plant
Järvelä, E., Ihalainen, J., Grönberg, V. & Jääskeläi- end-products as organic fertilizers. ACSEE – The Asian
nen, A.S. Concentration of the dilute tannin solution Conference on Sustainability, Energy and the Environ-
using forward osmosis process (poster). Euromem- ment. Osaka, Japan, 2–5 June, 2011.
brane. London, UK, 23–27 September 2012. Nikkola, J., Mannila, J. & Nättinen, K. Use of atmos-
Kaksonen, A.H., Lavonen, L., Kuusenaho, M., Kol- pheric plasma in modification of polyolefin surfaces.
li, A., Närhi, H., Vestola, E., Puhakka, J.A. & Tuo- Membrane Science and Technology MST2011. Nan-
vinen, O.H. Bioleaching and recovery of metals from yang Technological University, Singapore, 23–26
final slag waste of the copper smelting industry. Min- August, 2011.
erals Engineering, 24(11), 2011, pp. 1113–1121. doi: Nyman, K. & Hakala, T. Decolorization of ink jet inks
10.1016/j.mineng. 2011.02.011 with laccase mediator system during pulp deinking.
Kapanen, A., Vikman, M., Lehtonen, A. & Itä- BioResources, 6(2), 2011, pp. 1336–1350.
vaara, M. The influence of the carrier material on the Raulio, M., Juvonen, R., Alakomi, H.L., Ekman, J.,
microbial diversity in packed-bed biofilm reactors. IWA Hesampour, M. & Lundin, T. Characterisation of (bio)
Biofilm Conference 2011. Processes in Biofilms. Tongji fouling on used reverse osmosis membranes (poster).
University, Shanghai, China, 27–30 October 2011. Euromembrane. London, UK, 23–27 September, 2012.
Kiuru, J., Peltosaari, A. & Wathén, R. Reviewing the Sokka, L. Local systems, global impacts. Using
potential of hand-held sensors as performance indica- life cycle assessment to analyse the potential and
41
constraints of industrial symbioses. Doctoral disser-
tation. VTT Publications 768. VTT Technical Research
Centre of Finland, Espoo, 2011. 71 p. + app. 76 p
Vepsäläinen, M., Kivisaari, H., Pulliainen, M.,
Oikari, A. & Sillanpää, M. Removal of toxic pollut-
ants from pulp mill effluents by electrocoagulation.
Separation and Purification Technology, 81(2), 2011,
pp. 141–150.
Vikman, M., Saario, E., Kapanen, A. & Itävaara, M.
Microbial diversity and nitrate removal efficacy in
small-scale gray water treatment units. 12th Nordic
Wastewater Conference. Marina Congress Center, Hel-
sinki, Finland, 14–16 November, 2011.
Virtanen, H., Boer, H. & Smolander, M. Develop-
ment of printable indicators and sensors containing
oxidoreductase enzymes (poster). OxiZymes, Marseille,
France, 16–19 September, 2012.
42
Series title and number
VTT Research Highlights 4
43
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland is a globally networked
multitechnological contract research organization. VTT provides high-end technology
solutions, research and innovation services. We enhance our customers’ competitiveness,
thereby creating prerequisites for society’s sustainable development, employment, and
wellbeing.
VTT publications
VTT employees publish their research results in Finnish and foreign scientific journals, trade
periodicals and publication series, in books, in conference papers, in patents and in VTT’s
own publication series. The VTT publication series are VTT Visions, VTT Science, VTT
Technology and VTT Research Highlights. About 100 high-quality scientific and profes-
sional publications are released in these series each year. All the publications are released
in electronic format and most of them also in print.
VTT Visions
This series contains future visions and foresights on technological, societal and business
topics that VTT considers important. It is aimed primarily at decision-makers and experts
in companies and in public administration.
VTT Science
This series showcases VTT’s scientific expertise and features doctoral dissertations and
other peer-reviewed publications. It is aimed primarily at researchers and the scientific
community.
VTT Technology
This series features the outcomes of public research projects, technology and market
reviews, literature reviews, manuals and papers from conferences organised by VTT. It is
aimed at professionals, developers and practical users.
GH
E
•RES
and Waste (GWW) is to create technological stepping stones towards
TS• VISION
a zero emission society using our internationally recognised
competence. 4
for Water and Waste
OGY
Central technologies in GWW are energy efficient water purification
OL
and reuse, recovery of valuable compounds from waste and side
S
N
•S
CIE H
streams and new waste recycling processes. Focus is on developing NCE•TEC
membrane technologies, recovery of critical minerals and new waste
derived products. Sustainability and efficiency are ensured with new
monitoring and data management tools.