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Investigation of Surface
Investigation of Surface
INTRODUCTION
1.1. INTRODUCTION
roughness, high production rate, less tool wear on the cutting tools, economy of
machining in terms of cost saving and increase the performance of the product with
manufacturing industries including the aerospace and automotive sectors. The brief
introduction to hard turning, importance of surface finish and fuzzy modeling of hard
Hard turning process is a fine or finish turning process to machine the material in
hardened condition in the hardness range of 45-65 HRC. Hard turning differs from
process the components are initially rough machined, subsequently hardened to the
desired hardness and then finally finish ground to the desired dimensions. Hard turning
eliminates the series of operations required to produce the component and thereby
reducing the cycle time and hence resulting in productivity improvement. The various
advantages of hard tuning are the higher productivity, reduced set up times, surface finish
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closer to grinding and ability to machine the complex parts. In hard turning the specific
cutting forces are larger than in conventional turning, and thus the
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engagement between cutting tools and the work piece must be limited. In hard turning
small cutting depths are required and cutting takes place on the nose radius of cutting
tools. In hard turning higher cutting forces and higher temperatures are generated during
machining, hence high rigidity of the machine, high strength cutting tools, use of cutting
fluids, and proper cutting conditions are highly desirable than conventional turning.
In hard turning ceramic and CBN cutting tools are commonly used without
coolant whereas carbide tools are used with coolant. Recent improvements in the carbide
tools like restricted contact and use various coatings on carbides make it suitable in
machining of hard materials under dry condition. The carbide tools are typically prepared
with chamfered or honed edges to provide a stronger edge geometry that is less prone to
effective rake angle, while neutral or positive rake angles are typical in conventional
machining. The large negative rake angles yield increased cutting forces compared to
machining with positive rake tools, and also induce larger compressive loads on the
machined surface.
Cutting tools are very important for machining operations to produce required
shape, size and surface finish. A variety of cutting tool materials is used to machine
various materials. Cutting tools mainly suffers from crater wear when cutting steels at
high speed. The development of coated carbide since around 1970 represented significant
advance in cutting tool technology. Coated carbides have one or more layer of thin layers
of CVD or PVD coating such as TiC, TiN, Al2O3, ZrN, and diamond. They are best
increasingly demanding on cutting tool materials. The main purpose of tool coating is to
The first coating to be used successfully to machine steels in industry and still the
most recognized, distinguished by it's attractive bright gold colour. The PVD TiN coating
was first used on High Speed Steel (HSS) tools. However the many advantages of the
PVD TiN coating were obvious to the cemented carbide industry, and in 1985 the first
PVD TiN coated cemented carbide cutting tool inserts were introduced for machining
applications. The TiN coating is a wear resistant ceramic coating suitable for a wide range
of applications, materials, and cutting conditions where tool life extended and elevated
feeds and speeds are required. The TiN coating is used for machining (carbon, alloy, and
stainless steels, cast irons, and aluminum alloys) and protecting dies, moulds, punches,
lubrication, cooling and chip flushing functions. In hard turning, great amount of coolants
and lubricants are required to avoid thermal damage to the work and tool. Use of cutting
fluids in large quantities pose problems like costs associated with procurement, storage
and disposal of cutting fluid systems, physical effects on the operator and overall effect
on the worker safety and environment. In other words apart from the cost, flood
seriously looking into the possibilities of dry machining or minimum fluid application
The quality of the surface plays a very important role, a good-quality machined
surface significantly improves the fatigue strength, corrosion resistance, or creep life.
Surface roughness also affects several functional attributes of parts, such as contact
causing surface friction, wearing, light reflection, heat transmission, ability of distributing
and holding a lubricant, coating, or resisting fatigue. Therefore, the desired surface finish
is usually specified and the appropriate processes are selected to reach the required
quality. Hard turning is a fine finishing process and the surface roughness obtained in
hard turning process depends on various factors like cutting conditions, cutting tool and
its geometry, cutting fluid, rigidity of the machine tool and type of the work material. The
final surface roughness might be considered as the sum of two independent effects:
operation
2. The ideal surface roughness is a result of the geometry of tool and feed rate.
3. The natural surface roughness mainly depends on rigidity of the machine tool and
it can be easily avoided by selecting rigid machine. The ideal surface roughness
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1.4. FUZZY MODELLING
complex and vague dynamic process such as the machining operation. This approach has
been applied successfully to vague and complex problems. The resulting model can
effectively predict process outputs when the process inputs are given. Fuzzy logic initially
introduced in Zadeh’s pioneering work in mid 1960s and later explored by Mamdani.
Fuzzy logic has great capability to capture human commonsense reasoning, decision
making and other aspects of human cognition. Vagueness in the coefficients and
constraints may be naturally modeled by fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic is particularly attractive
due to its ability to solve problems in the absence of accurate mathematical models.
1. To study the performance of coated tools in machining hardened steels under dry
conditions.
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1.6. ORGANIZATION OF THESIS
The study of project has been reported in seven chapters as given in the following.
Chapter -1 deals with the introduction about to hard turning, coated tools, importance of
surface finish and fuzzy modeling. The objectives of the present work are
Chapter-2 deals with the literature survey on machining parameters, hard turning,
Prediction techniques.
Chapter-3 deals with the Design of Experiments (DOE) and fuzzy modeling.
Chapter-5 deals with the fuzzy model development for hard turning process,
Chapter-7 based on experimental and predicted results conclusions and further scope
are drawn.
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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1. INTRODUCTION
The present work is modeling of hard turning process to predict the surface roughness
using fuzzy logic. In this chapter brief literature survey on surface texture, hard turning
Metal cutting is one of the most significant manufacturing processes in the area
of material removal (Chen & Smith, 1997). Metal cutting is defined as the removal of
metal chips from a work piece in order to obtain a finished product with desired attributes
of size, shape, and surface roughness. To achieve these, the excess undesired material is
removed form the work piece in the form of chips with the help of cutting tools. Metal
The machining process depends upon various parameters such as the work piece
material, the cutting tool material, the rigidity of the machine, the rigidity of the work
piece, cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, chatter, and tool wear etc. Some of them are
described below
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2.3.1 Cutting Variables
Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are the most important variable in metal
cutting. Cutting speed is defined as the distance of the cutting tool edge travel over the
surface of the work piece in unit time. It is normally expressed in terms of surface speed
the tool life and efficiency of machining. The feed rate defined as the rate of advancement
of the cutting tool. The tool can be moved in three directions with respect to the axis of
the work. Hence there are three types of feeds. Those are
2. Cross feed: The movement of the tool perpendicular to the axis of the work is
3. Angular feed: The movement of the tool at angular direction to the work axis
Depth of cut is depth or distance perpendicular to axis of the work (in case of turning),
by which the tool penetrates into the work. This is expressed in “mm”
Hard turning is the process of turning hard materials at hardness range of 45-
65 HRC (Rockwell scale C) by using single point cutting tools. The traditional method of
machining the hardened materials includes rough turning, heat treatment, and then
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grinding process. Hard turning eliminates the series of operations required to produce the
component and thereby reducing the cycle time. Even though small
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depths of cut and feed rates are required for hard turning, material removal rates in hard
Hard turning have many potential advantages compared with grinding, they are
the higher productivity, reduced set up times, surface finish closer to grinding and ability
to machine the complex parts. The combination of increased flexibility and improved
strategies that minimize the inventory and batch sizes. Furthermore, because the process
is more flexible and productive, only fewer machine tools are required. Turning is also a
more efficient cutting process than grinding, so less energy is required to remove the
same volume of material. Finally, hard turning has the possibility of eliminating cutting
is obvious that hard turning is an attractive replacement for many grinding operations.
1. The lathe offers the versatility to "Soft Turn" and Hard Turn on the same machine
tool. A single machine can perform the both operations leads to reduce the floor
2. Metal removal rates with hard turning are 4 to 6 times greater than equivalent
grinding operations.
4. Multiple operations can be machined with a single set-up, resulting in less part
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5. Hard turning can achieve good surface finishes ranging from 0.0001 mm to 0.0004
6. Environmentally, the hard turned chips are less costly to dispose of than grinding
swarf. Dry cut parts without coolant contamination are even more economical to
dispose of.
The range of hard turned applications will vary based upon the part requirements,
tolerance levels, surface finish and very importantly the machine tool. The various work
materials can be machined by using hard turning process include heat treated steels, high
speed steels, die steels, bearing steels, alloy steels, case hardened steels, white cast iron
and alloy cast iron. These steels are important class of engineering materials due to
improved strength and wear resistance compared with other metals. Due to high
dimensional and surface requirements, these materials have traditionally been machined
machine tool technology specifically the rigidity, precision and the development of new
cutting tools have allowed the machining of hardened steels by hard turning.
Hard turning differs from conventional turning of softer materials in several ways.
In hard turning process the material to be machined is harder, specific cutting forces
developed more than in conventional turning, and thus the engagement between cutting
tools and the work piece must be limited. At the small cutting depths required, cutting
takes place on the nose radius of cutting tools, and the tools are prepared with chamfered
or honed edges to provide a stronger edge geometry that is less prone to premature
compressive stresses on hard turned surfaces that improved fatigue life. Higher
temperatures are also generated in the cutting zone, and because cutting is typically done
without coolant, hard turned surfaces can exhibit thermal damage in the form of micro
Hard turning is not used more extensively because of the following disadvantages.
Hard turning is a new technology compared to grinding and the existing knowledge base
and equipment that supports hard turning is minimum. Hard turning applications are not
good enough to replace certain grinding operations. A good example of this is center less
grinding. In hard turning the cutting tools are prepared with chamfered or honed edges
these leads to increase cutting forces, generation of excessive heat at cutting zone, these
causes thermal damage in the form of microstructural changes and development of tensile
residual stresses compared to machining with positive rake tools. Hard turning can
influence the work piece surface microstructure by generating undesirable residual stress
patterns over hardened surface zones that are referred to as “white layers”. The biggest
limitations of hard turning are surface quality and unacceptable life of expensive cutting
tools. Due to these reasons, there is a need to develop a better understanding of the effects
of process conditions on the behavior of cutting tools and the surface quality that can be
In hard turning process the material is removed at hardened state, to obtain longer
tool life and desired surface finish it requires rigid machine tools with adequate power,
very hard and tough tool materials with appropriate tool geometry, tool
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holders with high stiffness and appropriate cutting conditions are some of the
The precision and rigidity of machine tools have been improved to allow hard
turning by using newly developed cutting tool materials with negative rake angles (the
edge chamfer) on cutting tool edges. During the hard turning process large dynamic thrust
forces will develop that requires adequate machine rigidity, spindle power, damping
Dimensional Accuracy
treatment. Historically this has been done by grinding, which leads to dimensional
inaccuracies. The hard turning process must be capable of producing similar geometric
precision and quality surfaces at proper conditions with a good machine. Hard turning can
produce good dimensional accuracy and better surface finishes for most applications
Surface Integrity
surfaces of acceptable quality. This includes both the surface topography (surface finish)
and surface integrity like surface finish, microstructure, micro hardness, fatigue
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2.4.2 CUTTING TOOLS
advance in cutting tool technology. Coated carbides improve machinability, and have one
or more thin layers of wear resistance CVD or PVD coating such as TiC, TiN, Al2O3,
ZrN, CrC or diamond. Coating thickness is usually in the range of 2.5 - 13 μm. The use of
coated cutting tools to machine various materials represents the art of machining
cutting tool materials. The main purpose of tool coating is to improve productivity by
Selection of Cutting tools are very important factor for hard turning process to
obtain high productivity and good surface finish. The machining of hardened steels
employing polycrystalline cubic boron nitride and ceramic tooling has been investigated
over the last 20 years; however the newer cemented carbide grades are developed in
machining of hardened steels of hardness up to 45 HRC (Rockwell C). The tooling choice
will need to be matched to the application, desired production rates and the operating cost
goals. The carbide tools are available in a wide range of grades and coatings for suitable
various applications. Cutting tools required for hard turning are relatively expensive. Poor
selection of cutting conditions can lead to excessive tool wear and eliminate any cost
Indexable inserts are removable cutting tips, which mean they are not brazed or
welded to the tool body. They are usually rotated or flipped without disturbing the overall
geometry of the cutting tool. This saves time in manufacturing by allowing fresh cutting
Fig.2.1 Types of insert shapes and their relative strengths.
Turning is one of the most basic material removal processes in which material is
removed from the external surface of a rotating work piece. The performance of a turning
operation is greatly influenced by the application of cutting fluid, and in this regard
turning operations can be classified into different types, such as dry turning, turning with
minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), flood turning, and cryogenic turning. Flood
turning is also known as wet turning it is the most traditional technique and widely used
known as cutting fluid at the cutting tool and work piece interface. Cutting fluid is
applied for a number of reasons, such as to reduce the cutting temperature, to increase the
tool life, to produce a better surface finish, to improve dimensional accuracy, and to
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However, in recent years, the application of cutting fluids in machining operations
reduced due to its effects on health of the operators and the environment. Dry turning is
the metal removal process in which the material is removed from the work piece in dry
conditions i.e with out applying cutting fluids. This process has gained new interest for its
potential environmental and economic benefits. Nevertheless, in spite of all its economic
and environmental benefits, the dimensional accuracy and surface finish of component
friction, lubrication, and wear (Thomas, 1999). In general, it has been found that friction
increases with average roughness. The effect of roughness on lubrication has also been
studied to determine its impact on issues regarding lubrication of sliding surfaces, and
roller bearing fatigue. Finally, some researchers have found a correlation between initial
roughness of sliding surfaces and their wear rate. Such correlations have been used to
(Thomas, 1999). The characterization of surface roughness can be done in two principal
planes. Using a sinusoidal curve as a simplified model of the surface profile, roughness
can be measured at right angles to the surface in terms of the wave amplitude, and
parallel to the surface in terms of the surface wavelength. The latter one is recognized as
texture. The technique used to measure roughness in any of these two planes will
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inevitably have certain limitations. The smallest amplitude and
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wavelength that the instrument can detect correspond to its vertical and horizontal
resolution, respectively. Similarly, the largest amplitude and wavelength that can be
measured by the instrument are the vertical and horizontal range. The quality of machined
surface is characterized by the accuracy of its manufacture with respect to the dimensions
the machined surface. This evidence in the form of finely spaced micro irregularities left
by the cutting tool. Each type of cutting tool leaves its own individual pattern which
therefore can be identified. This pattern is known as surface finish or surface roughness.
Fig.2.2 Various Surface irregularities.
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A surface is a boundary that separates an object from another object or substance.
A normal surface is a theoretical, geometrically perfect surface which does not exist in
practice, but is an average of the irregularities that are superimposed on it. A real surface
is the actual boundary of an object. It deviated from the nominal surface as a result of the
manufacturing process that created the surface; it also depends on the properties,
Surface integrity is the sum of all elements that describes all the conditions
existing on or at the surface of a work piece. Surface integrity has two aspects. The first is
surface topography which describes the roughness, lay, texture of this outer most layer of
the work piece i.e., its interface with the environment. The second is surface metallurgy,
which describes the nature of the altered layers below the surface with respect to the base
of matrix material.
generally irregular and complex. These irregularities are defined by height, width and
direction and other random characteristics not of a geometric nature. The general term
employed to define these surface irregularities is surface texture. Surface texture is the
repetitive or random deviation from the nominal surface which forms the pattern of the
surface. The measure of the surface texture is generally determined in terms of its
roughness, waviness, lay and flaw. The various parameters representing surface
characteristics is shown in Fig.2.3. The profile of the surface texture is shown in Fig.2.4.
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Fig.2.3 Surface Characteristics
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2.7.1 Roughness:
various machining process as shown in Fig.2.3. Roughness height is the height of the
micro inches. It is also known as the height of unevenness. Roughness width is the
distance parallel to the nominal surface between successive peaks or ridges which
should always be greater than the roughness width in order to obtain the total roughness
height rating.
2.7.2 Waviness:
Waviness is the widely spaced component of the surface texture. This may be the
result of work piece or tool deflection during machining, vibrations or tool run out.
Waviness height is the peak to valley distance of the surface profile, measured in
millimeters. Waviness width is the spacing of successive wave peaks or successive wave
valleys.
2.7.3 Lay:
2.7.4 Flaws:
The roughness sampling length is the sampling length within which the roughness
waviness.
2.8. SURFACE
FINISH PARAMETERS
machining operations, some of the popular parameters of surface finish specification are
described as follows,
(arithmetic average) of CLA (center line average). Ra is universally recognized and the
the departure of the roughness profile from the mean line. An example of the surface
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2.8.2 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) roughness (Rq): This is the root-mean-
the distance between two lines parallel to the mean line that contacts the extreme upper
and lower points on the profile within the roughness sampling length.
2.9 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SURFACE FINISH
The surface quality is one of the most specified customer requirements and the
major indicator of surface quality on machined parts is surface roughness. The surface
The Fishbone diagram with factors that influence on surface roughness is shown in
Fig.2.5. The surface finish in turning operation depends up on the following factors.
a) Cutting speed
b) Feed, and
c) Depth of cut.
2) The tool geometry: The design and geometry of the cutting tool also plays a vital
role in determining the quality of the surface. Some geometric factors which affect
a) Nose radius
b) Rake angle
c) Side cutting edge angle, and
d) Cutting edge.
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3) Workpiece and tool material combination and their mechanical properties
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2.10. METHODS FOR MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE
TEXTURE
The methods used for measuring the surface finish can be classified into two groups.
1. Inspection by comparison
is assessed by observation of the surface. These are the methods of qualitative analysis of
the surface texture. The texture of the surface to be tested is compared with that of a
specimen of known roughness value and finished by similar machining processes. The
1. Visual inspection
2. Touch inspection
3. Scratch inspection
4. Microscopic inspection
5. Surface photographs
6. Micro-Interferometer
analysis. These methods enable to determine the numerical value of the surface finish by
using instruments using stylus probe type operating on electrical principles. The stylus
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1. Profilometer
In this section a review of the different approaches that are used for predicting the
a predefined product quality with given equipment, cost and time constraints.
to ensure that these requirements will be met. Surface roughness is a widely used index
of product quality and in most cases a technical requirement for mechanical products.
Achieving the desired surface quality is of great importance for the functional behavior of
a part. There are two main practical problems that engineers face in a manufacturing
process. The first is to determine the values of the process parameters that will yield the
desired product quality (meet technical specifications) and the second is to maximize
advances in the manufacturing field, for instance the ever growing use of computer
controlled machine tools, have brought up new issues to deal with which further
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There have been several attempts to model and predict surface roughness in machining
processes. Prediction and identification of surface roughness has been the subject in the
manufacturing field. In this work various methodologies and strategies to predict surface
roughness is presented.
● Classification of approaches
This approaches emphasis on certain aspects from the theory of machining such as
process kinematics, cutting tool properties, chip formation mechanism etc. Computer
aided design (CAD) methods and tools are utilized so as to achieve the goal of building a
model that will be able to simulate the creation of the machined surface profile, thus
there are some theoretical models that relate surface roughness to cutting conditions such
as the feed rate. These models are generally not accurate so their improvement with the
approach is that a lot of other factors that contribute to the roughness formation
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mechanism are not considered, for example wear and
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deflection of the cutting tool or certain thermal phenomena. The integration of these
factors to the already existing models is estimated to increase their accuracy, especially in
Grzesik (1996) used the minimum undeformed chip thickness to predict surface
roughness in turning. The molecular mechanical theory of friction and the theory of
plasticity were used to mathematically model the tribological effects at the chip
cutting tool interface. The approach was based on the assumption that the difference
between the theoretical and measured surface roughness values is due to adhesion at the
chip cutting tool interface and that the minimum undeformed chip thickness corresponds
to the transition from ploughing to micro cutting. Consequently, an existing model for
predicting the roughness of a turned surface was improved and the difference between the
The experimental approach may be the most ‘obvious’ method. The factors that
are to be considered for the experiments are most important and the obtained results are
used to investigate the effect of each factor as well as the influencing mechanism on the
models based on the experimental data. The experimental approach is mainly adopted in
cases where there is no analytical formulation of the cause and effect relationships
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The relationship between tool life, surface roughness and vibration was examined
by O.B. Abouelatta et al. (2001). The variables like the cutting speed, feed rate, depth of
cut, tool nose radius, tool overhang, approach angle, work piece length and work piece
diameter and the accelerations in both radial and feed directions were considered. The
technique by studying the effects of cutting vibration during hard turning. It was assumed
that the average surface roughness is the result of the superposition of a theoretical profile
dynamics). An inductance type displacement sensor was used to measure the relative
A detailed investigation was carried out by J.D. Thiele et al. (1999) concerning
the effects of the cutting edge geometry and work piece hardness on the surface finish and
cutting forces in the finish hard turning of steel. The experimental study included accurate
a rigid machine tool with good spindle accuracy to minimize vibration and analysis of
2.11.3 Designed
experiments approach
available resources. The response surface methodology (RSM) and Taguchi techniques
for design of experiments (DOE) seem to be the most wide spread methodologies for the
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surface roughness prediction problems.
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Taguchi techniques for DOE overview
DOE dictates a series of steps to follow for the experiment to yield an improved
Planning phase:
Execution phase:
Analysis phase:
10. Analyze the experimental results, e.g. using analysis of variance (ANOVA).
There are three types of OAs, dealing with two-level factors, three-level factors
and mixed-level factors. The selection of the appropriate OA is based on the following
criteria: the number of factors and interactions of interest, the number of levels for the
factors of interest and the desired experimental resolution or cost limitations. The first
two determine the smallest OA that is possible to use, while the third gives the possibility
to conduct a larger experiments with higher resolution. The Taguchi DOE is more of a
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factor screening procedure to determine the significance of
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each factor, that is, it identifies the most influential parameters and the values that
neural network (ANN) models, genetic algorithms (GAs), fuzzy logic and expert
systems. Simulating the way in which human beings process information and make
processes to predict the surface roughness, cutting forces, tool wear, and also for
similar behavior to that of its biological analog. It is essentially a mathematical model that
mimics the human reasoning and neurobiology. Neural networks are basically
typical neuron receives one or more input signals. The output signal provided by the
neurons in varying intensities. The neurons in the input layer receive input signals from
the user and provide the output through the neurons in the output layers. Only the
neurons in the input and output layers interact with the outside world/user; the rest are
hidden. After choosing the network architecture, the network is trained. Neural networks
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have found applications for surface roughness prediction in turning and use
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the process parameters like feed, depth of cut, cutting speed, and cutting forces for
Fig.2.6 Neuron model
power of these algorithms is derived from a very simple heuristic assumption that the best
solution will be found in the regions of solution space containing high proportion of good
solution, and that regions can be identified by judicious and robust sampling of the
solution space. The mechanics of a GA are simple and involve the coding of solution
states in chromosomes as a series of binary elements (0 and 1). A set (i.e. population) of
function is used to evaluate each of the solutions in the population. The chromosomes
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encoding the better solutions are broken apart and recombined through the use of genetic
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that is generally better or fit, in one generation or iteration. These operators are essentially
mathematical models of genetic operations that take place in the human body. The
simplest form of GA involves three types of operators selection (copying of the strings
into a ‘mating pool’, in proportion to their fitness values), crossover (swapping parent
alteration with a small probability of the value of a string position, in binary strings, this
Fuzzy logic, initially introduced in Zadeh’s pioneering work in mid 1960s and
later explored by Mamdani to control a simple laboratory steam engine has established
developed fuzzy logic approach is used to model or to control a complex and vague
dynamic process such as the machining operation. This approach has been applied
successfully to vague and complex problems. The resulting model can effectively predict
process outputs when the process inputs are given. Fuzzy logic is a mathematical theory
of inexact reasoning that allows us to model the reasoning process of humans in linguistic
terms. It is suitable in defining the relationship between the system inputs and the desired
system outputs. Fuzzy logic is one of the most successful of today’s technologies for
developing sophisticated control and prediction systems. Fuzzy controllers and fuzzy
reasoning have found particular applications in industrial systems that are very complex
and cannot be modeled precisely even under various assumptions and approximations
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Fuzzy logic has great capability to capture human commonsense reasoning,
decision-making and other aspects of human cognition. Vagueness in the coefficients and
constraints may be naturally modeled by fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic is particularly attractive
due to its ability to solve problems in the absence of accurate mathematical models.
Fuzzy logic is based on the concept of fuzzy sets. A fuzzy set is a set without a crisp,
clearly defined boundary that is, it can contain elements with a partial degree of
In a neuro fuzzy system ANNs are used to determine parameters of fuzzy systems
neuro-fuzzy system can be made so as the two systems work independently of each other
2.12 SUMMARY
In this chapter the literature related hard turning, surface roughness and modeling
of machining process is explained. In the next chapter the detail information regarding
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CHAPTER-3
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS AND FUZZY
MODELING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the importance of design of experiments and various methods used
in design of experiments is discussed. The steps involved in fuzzy modeling are also
improve quality of product. In addition to tolerances, surface roughness is one of the most
critical constraints for the selection of machines and cutting parameters in process
planning. The goal of any experimental activity is to get the maximum information about
program recognizes the major “factors” that affect the outcome of the experiment. A
relationship between factors affecting a process and the output of that process Design of
and fix the problem in a process, and also identify the possibility of estimating
interactions.
The primary purpose of the DOE process is to provide a concise guide for
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executing effectively designed experiments. The purpose of product or process
42
development is to improve the performance characteristics of the product or process
decisions must be made concerning which parameters affect the performance of a product
or process. The loss function quantifies the need to understand which design factors
process. By properly adjusting the average and reducing variation, the product or process
(parameters) for their ability to affect the resultant average or variability of particular
proper fashion, the levels of the factors are varied in a strategic manner, the results of the
particular test combinations are observed, and the complete set of results is analyzed to
determine the influential factors and whether increases or decreases of those levels will
3.2.3 Phases
involved in design of experiment
The DOE process is divided into three main phases. They are
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Design of experiments (DOE) is used in many industrial sectors, in the development
wafers in the electronics industry, the manufacturing of engines in the car industry, and
does not jump directly into an optimization problem rather initial screening experimental
designs are used in order to locate the most fruitful part of the experimental region in
question. The choice of the design of experiments can have a large influence on the
accuracy of the approximation and the cost of constructing the response. The DOE
methods are
3. D-optimal designs.
6. Audze-eglais approach.
3.2.4 Full Factorial Design
A full factorial design contains all possible combinations of a set of factors. This
is the most conservative design approach, but it is also the most costly in experimental
the factor levels. The sample size is the product of the numbers of levels of the factors.
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A full factorial design of experiments consists of the following:
● formulation experiments
3.3 FUZZY MODELING
Fuzzy Logic was initiated in 1965, by Lotfi A. Zadeh, professor for computer
science at the University of California in Berkeley. Fuzzy logic and fuzzy inference
system (FIS) is an effective technique for the identification and control of complex non
linear systems with its great capabilities of capture human commonsense reasoning,
theory of inexact reasoning that allows us to model the reasoning process of humans in
linguistic terms. It is suitable in defining the relationship between the system inputs and
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Fuzzy logic is one of the most successful of today’s technologies for developing
sophisticated control systems. Fuzzy controllers and fuzzy reasoning have found
particular applications in industrial systems that are very complex and cannot be
modeled precisely even under various assumptions and approximations. The control of
such systems by experienced human operators was proven to be in many cases more
successful and efficient than by classical automatic controllers. The human controllers
employ experiential rules that can cast into the fuzzy logic framework. It is also popular,
as its capability for developing rule based expert systems. These observations inspired
many investigators to work in this area with result being the development of the so-called
Fuzzy logic (FL) has been used in many practical engineering situations because
of its capability in dealing with imprecise and inexact information. The powerful aspect
of fuzzy logic is that most of human reasoning and concept formation is translated into
fuzzy rules. The combination of incomplete, imprecise information and the imprecise
nature of the decision making process make fuzzy logic are very effective in modeling
complex engineering, business, finance and management systems which are otherwise
difficult to model. The major issues involved in the application of FL or fuzzy inference
system (FIS) are the selection of fuzzy membership functions (MFs), in terms of number
and type, designing the rule base, simulating the decision process as well as the scaling
factors used in fuzzification and defuzzification stages. These parameters and the
structures are, in general, decided based on trial and error and expert knowledge.
46
Methodology: As per Klir & Yuan (1998) fuzzy logic involves a fuzzy interference
functions. Governing rules in linguistic form, such as if cutting force is high and
machining time is high, then tool wear is high, are formulated on the basis of
experimental observations. Based on each rule, inference can be drawn on output grade
and membership value. Inferences obtained from various rules are combined to arrive at a
final decision. The membership values thus obtained are defuzzified using various
prescription or location of the boundaries of the set. A classical set wholly includes or
wholly excludes any given elements. The value 0 represents non membership, while the
A fuzzy set is a set without a crisp, clearly defined boundary. It can contain
elements with only a varying degree of membership. Elements in a fuzzy set their
Membership need not be complete and also be a member of other fuzzy sets on the same
universe. That is, a member of a set can be full member (100% membership status) or a
partial member (eg. less than 100% membership and greater than 0% membership). A
The advantage of fuzzy set theory is, it has the property of relativity, variability
48
measurements can make use of fuzzy sets in mathematical modeling and in analytical
solutions to improve the generality i.e allows multiple solutions of varying possibilities
instead of crisp exact solution. Fuzziness can be measured in terms of the degree of
EXAMPLE
Let us take an example to describe describing young people using a fuzzy set. In
general, young people range from the age of 0 to 20. But, if we use this strict interval to
define young people, then a person on his 20th birthday is still young (still a member of
the set). But on the day after his 20th birthday, this person is now old (not a member of
the young set). This strict separation can easily be relaxed by considering the boundary
between young and old as "fuzzy". The Fig.3.1 graphically illustrates a fuzzy set of young
Fig.3.1. Graphical illustration of fuzzy sets
49
In the above figure the people whose ages are >= zero and <= 20 are complete
members of the young set (that is, they have a membership value of one). Also note that
people whose ages are > 20 and < 30 are partial members of the young set. For example,
a person who is 25 would be young to the degree of 0.5. Finally people whose ages are
>= 30 are non-members of the young set. Reasoning in fuzzy logic is just a matter of
generalizing the familiar yes-no (Boolean) logic. If we give true the numerical value of 1
and false the numerical value of 0, we're saying that fuzzy logic also permits in-between
participation of each input. It associates a weighting with each of the inputs that are
processed, define functional overlap between inputs, and ultimately determines an output
valuation. Degrees of truth are often confused with probabilities, although they are
conceptually distinct, because fuzzy truth represents membership in vaguely defined sets,
Membership functions were introduced by Zadeh in the first paper on fuzzy sets
element's membership in a fuzzy set. The x axis represents the universe of discourse,
whereas the y axis represents the degree of membership and is usually denoted by μ and
its value between 0 and 1. The value 0 means that membership function is not a member
50
of the fuzzy set, and the value 1 means that membership function is a fully member of the
51
fuzzy members. There is no standard method of choosing the proper shape of the fuzzy
set of the control variable. The method to assign membership functions to fuzzy variables
issue. In this work the membership functions considered for the input and output
commonly used, but trapezoidal, bell curve, sigmoid curve, Gaussian curve,
pi-shaped curve, z-shaped curve, s-shaped curve have been used. More complex
Fig.3.2 Triangular shape membership function
Formulae for triangular membership function:
52
3.3.3 Logical Operations on Fuzzy Sets
The logical operations generally used AND, OR and NOT operators. In fuzzy
logic these operators are replaced by min., max.operators. Replace the AND operation
with the min. function, so that x AND y becomes equivalent to min (x, y). Using the same
reasoning, we can replace the OR operation with the max function, so that x OR y
becomes equivalent to max (x, y). AND = min, OR = max, and NOT = additive
complement. Typically most fuzzy logic applications make use of these operations and
these functions are arbitrary to a surprising degree. In fuzzy logic the truth of any
Fig.3.3 Fuzzy membership function for AND operator
In Fig.3.3 to find the intersection of these sets take the minimum of the two
53
membership values (µA and µB) at each point on the x-axis (see the formal definition
above). For example, in the figure the fuzzy set has a membership µA is ZERO when
54
x = 4 and the fuzzy set has a membership µB is ONE when x = 4. The intersection would
have a membership value of ZERO when x = 4 because the minimum of zero and one is
zero.
Fig.3.4 Fuzzy membership function for OR operator
In the figure 3.4, to find the union of these sets take the maximum of the two
membership values (µA and µB) at each point on the x-axis (see the formal definition
above). For example, in the figure the fuzzy set (µA ) has a membership of ZERO when x
= 4 and the fuzzy set (µB) has a membership of ONE when x = 4. The union would have a
membership value of ONE when x = 4 because the maximum of zero and one is one.
55
3.3.4 FUZZY IF-THEN RULES
prediction. However, there are some basic aspects are needed for better understanding.
Specifically:
(1) No standard methods exist for transforming human knowledge or Experience into the
(2) There is a need for effective methods for tuning the membership functions
index.
Fuzzy if then rules or fuzzy conditional statements are expressions of the form “if A
then B”, where A and B are labels of fuzzy sets. Characterized by appropriate
membership functions due to their concise form , fuzzy if-then rules are often employed
to capture the imprecise modes of reasoning that play an essential role in the human
Where,
High and small are linguistic values or labels that are characterized by
membership functions.
Fuzzy rules are a set of linguistic statements which establishes the relationship
between the input and the output in a fuzzy system. Fuzzy if-then rules have been used
extensively in both modeling and control through the use of linguistic labels and
56
membership functions. Fuzzy if-then rules are defined based on experimental work or
expert knowledge. Fuzzy rules design and optimization is a crucial step in the
simple two inputs fuzzy model will have more than thousand possible combinations of
fuzzy rules. A fuzzy designer normally uses intuition and trial and error method for the
rules assignment. The number of fuzzy rules in a fuzzy system is related to the number of
fuzzy sets for each input variable. In this study, there are three input variables which are
classified into twenty seven fuzzy sets and there are twenty seven surface roughness
states to be determined.
Fuzzy inference is the process of formulating the mapping from a given input to
an output using fuzzy logic. The mapping provides a basis from which decisions can be
made. The process of fuzzy inference involves membership functions, fuzzy logic
operators, and if-then rules. Fuzzy inference systems have been successfully applied in
fields such as automatic control, data classification, decision analysis, expert systems, and
computer vision. Because of its multidisciplinary nature, fuzzy inference systems are
systems, fuzzy modeling, fuzzy associative memory, fuzzy logic controllers, and simply
(and ambiguously) fuzzy systems. There are two types of fuzzy inference systems that
Mamdani's fuzzy inference method is the most commonly seen fuzzy methodology.
57
By construct, a fuzzy inference system employing fuzzy IF-THEN rules can
model the qualitative aspects of human knowledge and reasoning processes without
number of rules is decided by an expert who is familiar with the system to be modeled.
Basically fuzzy inference system as shown in Fig. 3.5 is composed of five functional
blocks.
● A rule base containing a number of fuzzy if-then rules.
● A data base which defines the membership functions of the fuzzy sets used in the
fuzzy rules.
● A fuzzification interface which transforms the crisp inputs into degree of match
● A defuzzification interface which transform the fuzzy results of the interface into
a crisp output.
● Generally the rule base and data base are jointly referred to as the knowledge
base.
58
Fig.3.5.
FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM
59
The steps of fuzzy reasoning (inference operations upon fuzzy if-then rules)
1. Compare the input variables with the membership functions on the premise part to
obtain the membership values of each linguistic label. This step is called
fuzzification.
2. Combine the membership values on the premise part to get firing strength
minimization.
3. Generate the qualified consequents, either fuzzy or crisp of each rule depending
4. Aggregate the qualified consequents to produce a crisp output. This step is called
defuzzification.
Application areas
Air conditioners
Cameras
Rice cookers
Dishwashers
Elevators
60
Video game artificial intelligence
61
Language filters on message boards and chat rooms for filtering out offensive text
Fuzzy logic has also been incorporated into some microcontrollers and
microprocessors.
3.4. SUMMARY
discussed. This chapter also discussed the fuzzy logic, fuzzy set, membership functions,
62
CHAPTER-4
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF HARD
TURNING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
cutting tool is used to remove the material from cylindrical work piece. During the
operation, high temperatures and forces affect the life of the cutting tool. If cutting tool
fails, it will lead to poor surface finish. So, surface roughness is the very important
response to evaluate the cutting performance. In this investigation the experiments are
planned using full factorial design of experiments for machining of AISI 4340 and AISI
52100 alloy steels on lathe machine by using coated carbide cutting tools. These materials
were chosen based on its wide applications. The three cutting parameters were selected
for the present work is cutting speed (V, rpm), feed rate (f mm/rev), and depth of cut (d,
mm). The arrangement of cutting tool and holder is shown in Fig.4.1, and lathe set up
shown in Fig4.2. In this work the surface roughness was measured after end of each cut
by using Mitutoyo surface roughness tester (SJ-201 P) stylus type (Mitutoyo Corporation,
63
Fig.4.1 The cutting tool and tool holder
Parameter Description
Tip radius 5 μm
4.2 EXPERIMENTATION OF AISI 4340 ALLOY STEEL
This work is concerned with turning of AISI 4340 hardened alloy steel of
cylindrical work piece of 50mm diameter at hardness state of 45 HRC using Titanium
Nitride (TiN) coated indexable carbide cutting tools. In the present work, the
experimental investigation has been conducted to study the effect of the cutting
conditions such as cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut on the surface finish and
performance of cutting tool grade during the hard turning of the AISI 4340 steel under
64
dry conditions. The chemical composition and physical properties of the work material
65
Table.4.2. Chemical Composition of AISI 4340 alloy steel
Property value
Density (lb / cu. in.) 0.28
Thermal Conductivity 21
4.2.1 Experimental conditions
66
Three-factor three-level design is used to study the effects of the three process
67
parameters such as cutting speed (V, rpm), feed rate (f, mm/rev) and depth of cut (d, mm)
on surface roughness (µ, Ra). The ranges of machining conditions were selected from the
recommendations given by the tool manufacturer and machining data handbook. The
levels of parameters are given Table.4.4. The experimental results for the full factorial
Machining Levels
parameters symbol Level 1 level 2 level 3
Cutting speed (rpm) V 450 710 1120
Feed rate (mm/rev) f 0.2 0.4 0.63
Depth of cut (mm) d 0.25 0.5 0.75
68
Table.4.5. Experimental Results for AISI 4340 material
4.3. EXPERIMENTATION OF AISI 52100 ALLOY STEEL
In this work the surface roughness was studied in the machining of AISI 52100
Titanium Nitride (TiN) coated indexable carbide tools under dry conditions. The
69
experiments were carried out to study the effect of various combinations of cutting
parameters like cutting speed (V), feed rate (f), and depth of cut (d) on surface
70
finish during hard turning of AISI 52100 alloy steel. Cutting speed, feed rates, and depth
of cut are selected at three different levels, like level 1(low), level 2(medium), and level 3
(high) as shown in Table.4.6. The chemical composition and physical properties of the
Table.4.6 Machining parameters and their levels for AISI 52100 steel.
Machining Levels
parameters symbol Level 1 level 2 level 3
Cutting speed (rpm) V 450 710 1120
71
72
Table.4.9 Experimental Results for AISI 52100 material
4.4 SUMMARY
In this chapter the surface roughness obtained for two different alloy
5.1. INTRODUCTION
fuzzy logic approach. In this study to get the sufficient model that related to the surface
roughness and the cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut), different
tests for all possible combinations for the selected levels of cutting parameters are
conducted, and these experimental results are presented chapter.4. Several cutting speeds,
feed rates, and depth of cuts have been taken into account to get the model that predicts
The fuzzy model that has been designed for predicting surface roughness for the
turning operation uses three inputs and one output. Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of
cut are the inputs and surface roughness is the output of the system. In fuzzy model the
selection of cutting conditions are most important, the shape of the membership function
will depend on the experimental results obtained for the selected conditions. In the
present work triangular shape membership function is used for the input and the output
variables. The system is modeled based on the interrelationship that exists for machining
alloy steel material between its cutting speed (input 1) feed rate (input 2), depth of cut
(input 3)and the corresponding surface roughness (output). The fuzzy inference system
74
for surface roughness in terms of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut is shown Fig.5.1
75
Fig.5.1. Fuzzy inference system
5.2.1 Fuzzy model for surface roughness for AISI 4340 alloy steel
In the present work, the first step in model development is selecting the cutting
conditions; choose the shape of fuzzy membership functions or fuzzy sets for the process
variables based upon experimental data. The fuzzy expressions for input and output
parameters are shown in below table 5.1. The membership functions for each fuzzy set
for input fuzzy variables and for output fuzzy variable are shown in Fig.5.2. The
participation of each input. It associates a weighting with each of the inputs that are
processed, define functional overlap between inputs, and ultimately determines an output
response. In our modeling process no expert is available and the number of membership
functions assigned to each input and output variables, The ranges of input and output
parameters are selected based on the considered input levels and experimentally obtained
76
Fuzzy rules for surface roughness
The relation ship between the inputs and the output in a fuzzy system is
characterized by a set of linguistic statements which are called fuzzy rules. Fuzzy if then
rules or fuzzy conditional statements are used to formulate the ‘logic’ by creating
statements that contain knowledge. In the present work the fuzzy rules are formed based
on experimental work. The rules use the input membership values as weighting factors to
determine their influence on the fuzzy output sets of the final output conclusion. The
number of fuzzy rules in a fuzzy system is related to the number of fuzzy sets for each
input variable. In this work there are three input variables each one classified into three
fuzzy sets. Therefore the maximum number of rules for this system can be 27. The fuzzy
rules used in the present work for AISI 4340 steel are shown in Table.5.2
S Slow S Slow
Md Medium Md Medium
F Fast F Fast
77
1
0
250 500 750 1000 1250
speed
(a)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
feed
(b)
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
d.o.c
(c)
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13 1415 16
Surface Roughness
(d)
Fig.5.2. Membership functions for Fuzzy variable (a) Cutting speed
(b) Feed Rate (c) Depth of Cut (d) Surface roughness
78
Table.5.2 Fuzzy rules for AISI 4340 alloy steel in linguistic forms
1. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is good.
2. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
3. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
4. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is good.
5. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
6. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
poor.
7. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very good.
8. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is poor.
9. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very poor.
10. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is good.
11. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is
normal.
12. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
13. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
good.
14. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
15. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
poor.
16. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very
good.
17. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is poor.
18. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is extremely
poor.
19. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very good.
20. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is good.
21. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
22. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
good.
23. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
24. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is poor.
25. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very good.
26. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is good.
27. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is extremely
poor.
79
Defuzzification
The defuzzification means finding the final output value for the given input
variables. In this the fuzzy model is developed using MATLAB fuzzy logic tool box. Fig
5.3 shows final output for defzzification to predict the surface roughness for cutting speed
of 750 rpm, feed of 0.4 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.5mm. For these input values the
selected rule from the rule base is “If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of
cut is medium then surface finish is normal”, (rule no.14). The output value obtained
80
5.2.2 Fuzzy model for surface roughness for AISI 52100 alloy steel
The first step in model development is selecting the cutting conditions; choose the
shape of fuzzy membership functions or fuzzy sets for the process variables based upon
experimental data. The fuzzy expressions of AISI 52100 steel for input and output
parameters are shown in table 5.3. The membership functions for each fuzzy set for input
fuzzy variables and for output fuzzy variable are shown in Fig.5.4. In our modeling
process no expert is available and the number of membership functions assigned to each
input and output variables, the ranges of input and output parameters are selected based
on the considered input levels and experimentally obtained surface roughness values.
The relation ship between the inputs and the output in a fuzzy system is
characterized by a set of linguistic statements which are called fuzzy rules. Fuzzy if then
rules or fuzzy conditional statements are used to formulate the ‘logic’ by creating
statements that contain knowledge. In the present work the fuzzy rules are formed based
on experimental work. The number of fuzzy rules in a fuzzy system is related to the
number of fuzzy sets for each input variable. In this work there are three input variables
each one classified into three fuzzy sets. Therefore the maximum number of rules for this
system can be 27. The fuzzy rules used in the present work for AISI 52100 steel are
shown in Table.5.4
81
Table.5.3 Fuzzy Expressions for input and output parameters of AISI 52100 steel
S Slow S Slow
Md Medium Md Medium
F Fast F Fast
0
250 500 750 1000 1250
speed
(a)
82
1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
feed
(b)
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
d.o.c
(c)
(d)
Fig.5.4. Membership functions for Fuzzy variable (a) Cutting speed
(b) Feed Rate (c) Depth of Cut (d) Surface roughness
83
Table.5.4 Fuzzy rules in linguistic form for AISI 52100 alloy steel
1. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is V.V. Good.
2. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is good.
3. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very poor.
4. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very good.
5. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
6. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
very
7. poor.
8. If Speed is slow and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very good.
9. If Speed is slow and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is good.
10. If Speed is slow and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is extremely
11. poor.
12. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very good.
13. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is poor.
14. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very very
poor.
15. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is good.
16. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is
normal.
17. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very
poor.
18. If speed is medium and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is normal.
19. If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very
poor.
20. If speed is medium and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is extremely
poor.
21. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is low then surface finish is very good.
22. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is low then surface finish is normal.
23. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is low then surface finish is poor.
24. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is very good.
25. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is normal.
26. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is medium then surface finish is poor.
27. If speed is high and feed is slow and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very good.
28. If speed is high and feed is medium and depth of cut is high then surface finish is poor.
29. If speed is high and feed is high and depth of cut is high then surface finish is very poor.
84
Defuzzification
The defuzzification means finding the final output value for the given input
variables. In this the fuzzy model is developed using MATLAB fuzzy logic tool box. Fig
5.5 shows final output for defzzification to predict the surface roughness for cutting speed
of 750 rpm, feed of 0.4 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.5mm. For these input values the
selected rule from the rule base is “If speed is medium and feed is medium and depth of
cut is medium then surface finish is normal”, (rule no.14). The output value obtained
85
5.3 SUMMARY
The fuzzy model to predict the surface roughness for two different alloy steel
materials AISI 4340 and AISI 52100 machining with TiN coated tool is presented in this
chapter. The results and discussion are presented in the next chapter.
86
CHAPTER-6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the present work the effect of cutting speed (rpm), feed rate (mm/rev), and
depth of cut (mm) on surface roughness in machining of AISI 4340 and AISI 521000
alloy steels using coated tungsten carbide cutting tool were studied. The experimental
results are presented in chapter -4. The relative influence of various parameters on surface
roughness is analyzed in this chapter. The fuzzy modeling results also presented in this
chapter.
6.2.1 Influence of cutting speed on surface roughness in machining AISI 4340 steel
alloy steel with TiN coated cutting tool is presented in this section. The variation in
surface roughness with cutting speed at constant Depth of cut (0.25 mm) at three different
feed rates is shown in Fig.6.1. Fig.6.2 shows the variation in surface roughness with
cutting speed at constant depth of cut (0.5 mm) at three different feed rates. The variation
in surface roughness with cutting speed at constant depth of cut (0.75mm) at three
different feed rates is shown in Fig.6.3. From Fig.6.2 and Fig.6.3, The experimental result
shows with increasing the cutting speed the surface roughness is decreased. Fig.6.1,
Shows with increasing the cutting speed, the surface roughness was decreased at feed rate
0.2 mm/rev and 0.4 mm/rev. but, at feed rate 0.63 mm/rev the surface roughness was
0
450 710 1120
Fig.6.1 The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at three
Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.25mm).
10
0
450 710 1120
Fig.6.2
The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at
three Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.5).
88
14
12
10
0
450 710 1120
Fig.6.3 The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at three
Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.75).
The influence of feed rate on surface roughness in machining of AISI 4340 alloy
steel with TiN coated cutting tool is discussed here. The variation in surface roughness
with feed rate at constant cutting speed (450 rpm) at three different depths of cuts is
shown in Fig.6.4. Fig.6.5 shows the variation in surface roughness with feed rate at
constant cutting speed (710 rpm) at three different depths of cuts. The variation in surface
roughness with feed rate at constant cutting speed (1120 rpm) at three different depths of
cuts is shown in Fig.6.6. From Fig.6.4, Fig.6.5 and Fig.6.6 The experimental result shows
89
14
12
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.63
14
12
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.63
90
14
12
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.63
Fig.6.6 The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three Different
depth of cuts and constant cutting speed
(v=1120 rpm).
alloy steel with TiN coated cutting tool at different cutting conditions is mentioned here.
The variation in surface roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.2 mm/rev) at
three different cutting speeds is shown in Fig.6.7. Fig.6.8 shows the variation in surface
roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.4 mm/rev) at three different cutting
speeds. The variation in surface roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.63
mm/rev) at three different cutting speeds is shown in Fig.6.9. The experimental result
shows with increasing the depth of cut the surface roughness is slightly increased. The
influence of depth of cut on surface roughness is low when compared to feed rate and
cutting speed.
91
4
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Fig.6.7.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at
three Different cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.2 mm/rev).
0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)
Fig.6.8.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at three Different
cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.4 mm/rev).
92
16
14
12
10
0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)
Fig.6.9.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at three
Different cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.63 mm/rev).
16
14
12
10
0 5678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
1 18
2
3
4
No.of Tests
Fig.6.10.The variation in surface roughness between measured
surface roughness and predicted surface roughness.
93
6.3 Prediction of surface roughness for AISI 4340 steel at different
conditions
The variation in the measured surface roughness and predicted surface roughness
94
26. 1120 0.75 0.4 3.53 3.5
27. 1120 0.75 0.63 13.44 14
95
6.4 Influence of various parameters on surface roughness in
machining AISI 52100 steel
alloy steel with TiN coated cutting tool is presented in this section. The variation in
surface roughness with cutting speed at constant Depth of cut (0.25 mm) at three different
feed rates is shown in Fig.6.11. Fig.6.12 shows the variation in surface roughness with
cutting speed at constant depth of cut (0.5 mm) at three different feed rates. The variation
in surface roughness with cutting speed at constant depth of cut (0.75mm) at three
different feed rates is shown in Fig.6.13. The experimental result shows that with
12
10
0
450 710 1120
Cutting Speed (rpm)
Fig.6.11.The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at
three Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.25).
96
12
10
0
450 710 1120
14
12
10
0
450 710 1120
Fig.6.13.The variation in surface roughness with cutting speed at
three Different feeds and constant depth of cut (d=0.75).
97
6.4.2 Influence of feed rate on surface roughness in machining AISI
52100 steel
The influence of feed rate on surface roughness in machining of AISI 52100 alloy
steel with TiN coated cutting tool is discussed here. The variation in surface roughness
with feed rate at constant cutting speed (450 rpm) at three different depths of cuts is
shown in Fig.6.14. Fig.6.15 shows the variation in surface roughness with feed rate at
constant cutting speed (710 rpm) at three different depths of cuts. The variation in surface
roughness with feed rate at constant cutting speed (1120 rpm) at three different depths of
cuts is shown in Fig.6.16. The experimental result shows that with increasing the feed
rate the surface roughness is increased. The variation in surface roughness at different
14
12
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.63
Fig.6.14.The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three Different
depth of cuts and constant cutting speed (450 rpm).
98
14
12
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.63
Fig.6.15.The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three Different
depth of cuts and constant cutting speed (710 rpm).
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.63
Feed Rate (mm/rev)
Fig.6.16.The variation in surface roughness with feed rate at three Different
depth of cuts and constant cutting speed (1120 rpm).
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6.4.3 Influence of depth of cut on surface roughness in machining AISI
52100 steel
alloy steel with TiN coated cutting tool at different cutting conditions is mentioned here.
The variation in surface roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.2 mm/rev) at
three different cutting speeds is shown in Fig.6.17. Fig.6.18 shows the variation in surface
roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.4 mm/rev) at three different cutting
speeds. The variation in surface roughness with depth of cut at constant feed rate (0.63
mm/rev) at three different cutting speeds is shown in Fig.6.19. The experimental result
shows with increasing the depth of cut the surface roughness is slightly increased. The
influence of depth of cut on surface roughness is low when compared to feed rate and
cutting speed.
0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)
Fig.6.17.The variation in surface roughness with cutting velocity at three
Different depth of cuts and constant feed rate (f=0.2 mm/rev).
100
10
0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)
Fig.6.18.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at
three Different cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.4 mm/rev).
16
14
12
10
0
0.25 0.5 0.75
Depth of cut (mm)
Fig.6.19.The variation in surface roughness with Depth of cut at three
Different cutting speeds and constant feed rate (f=0.63 mm/rev).
101
6.5 Prediction of surface roughness for AISI 52100 steel at
different conditions
The variation in the measured surface roughness and predicted surface roughness
for AISI 52100 at different conditions is shown in Table.6.2. The graphical representation
102
27. 1120 0.75 0.63 8.73 9.00
103
16
14
12
10
0 5678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
1234 22 23 24 25 26 27
No.of Tests
Fig.6.20.The variation in surface roughness between measured
surface roughness and predicted surface roughness.
6.6 Summary
The influence of cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut on surface roughness
for two different alloy steel materials AISI 4340 and AISI 52100 machining with TiN
104
CHAPTER-7
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The increase of customer needs for quality products have driven the metal cutting
industry to continuously improve the quality of metal cutting processes. An attempt has
been made in this project work to predict the surface roughness using fuzzy logic
technique. The experiments are carried out on turning machine using full factorial design
of experiments and data were collected and reported in chapter-4, the methodology
adopted in chapter-5. The results and discussion have been presented in chapter-6.
7.2 CONCLUSIONS
The surface roughness in the hard turning process has been measured for machining
of hardened alloy steels, AISI 4340 and AISI 52100 under different cutting conditions
with TiN coated carbide cutting tools using full factorial design of experiments (DOE). In
this work the fuzzy logic is used to model the hard turning process to predict the surface
roughness. Based on the experimental and predicted results the following conclusions are
drawn.
determined with the help of full factorial design of experiments. A full factorial
design contains all possible combinations of a set of factors. This is the most
resources.
105
● The experimental results showed that the feed is the most influencing parameter
on surface roughness when compared to cutting speed and depth of cut. With
It is observed that with increasing the cutting speed the surface roughness is
decreasing.
● Depth of cut is the least influencing parameter among the selected variables; the
● The predicted and measured values are fairly close for both AISI 4340 and AISI
52100 alloy steels, which indicates that the developed models can be effectively
● For achieving good surface finish of hardened alloy steels high cutting speeds,
7.3 LIMITATIONS
● Many factors are influenced on surface roughness during the machining process.
In this work only three machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed and
● To perform the hard turning operation we require high rigid machine tools.
● In this work, Fuzzy model was developed based on only three levels of fuzzy
106
7.4. FURTHER SCOPE
● In the present work experiments are conducted only by considering the cutting
variables like speed, feed and depth of cut on surface roughness. Further
experiments are required to study the influence of other parameters like tool
● Further study could also consider the tool wear that would affect on the surface
roughness.
● The fuzzy model can be improved by considering more levels fuzzy membership
functions
107
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