Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501

The first absolute gravity measurements in Indonesia

Yoichi Fukudaa,∗ , Toshihiro Higashia , Shuzo Takemotoa , Maiko Abea ,
Sjafra Dwipab , Dendi Surya Kusumab , Achmad Andanb , Koichiro Doic ,
Yuichi Imanishid , Giuseppe Arduinoe
a
Department of Geophysics, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
b
Head of Geothermal Division, Directorate of Mineral Resources Inventory, Bandung, Indonesia
c
National Institute of Polar Research, Tokyo 173-8515, Japan
d
Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 164-8639, Japan
e
UNESCO Office, Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta 12110, Indonesia

Received 10 November 2003; received in revised form 5 April 2004; accepted 9 July 2004

Abstract

For the purposes of the calibration of the superconducting gravimeter (SG) in Bandung and the establishment
of the absolute gravity (AG) points, we carried out AG measurements for the first time in Indonesia in November
2002. The measurements in Bandung were conducted between November 15th and 20th by means of a FG5 (#210),
and 14,520 effective drops were obtained. The gravity value newly determined at the AG point in Bandung is
977976701.2 ␮gal (1 ␮gal = 10−8 ms−2 ) and the scale factor for the SG is −52.22 ␮gal/V. We also established
another AG point in Yogyakarta near Merapi volcano and carried out AG measurements in Yogyakarta between
November 22nd and 26th. The gravity value determined for this station is 978203093.5 ␮gal.
© 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The Indonesian archipelago is the area of one of the world highest Earth’s dynamic activities. It is
located at the boundaries between Indo-Australia plate, Eurasia plate, Philippine Sea plate and some
minor plates. The plate collision causes very high seismic activities and many volcanic eruptions in the

∗
Corresponding author. Fax: +81 75 753 3912.
E-mail address: fukuda@kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp (Y. Fukuda).

0264-3707/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jog.2004.07.009
490 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501

area. It is also located in place where the Pacific and Indian oceans meet. Complex ocean currents and/or
heat transfers together with cumulus convections in the tropic drive the Asia-Monsoon and El Nino-
Southern Oscillations (ENSO), which control much of the world’s climate system. These geological
and/or geophysical settings in this area result in useful mineral resources and rich crops, but also cause
several natural hazards. Many kinds of geophysical and other observations have been concentrated in this
area for the studies of seismicity, volcano activities, meteorological phenomena, hydrological phenomena,
and so on.
Among these observations, precise gravimetry provides a brand-new technique for multidisciplinary
purposes. The high sensitivity and long-term stability of superconducting gravimeters (SGs) are expected
to reveal not only the gravity signals due to tectonic actives but also the changes of fluid envelope of
the Earth, i.e., ocean loading (Mukai et al., 2001; Fukuda et al., 1999), atmospheric pressure (Boy et
al., 2002), soil moisture/land water (van Dam et al., 2002; Takemoto et al., 2002) and so on. From the
view points of global geodynamics, on the other hand, a global network of SGs was kicked off by the
Global Geodynamics Project (GGP) in 1997 (Crossley et al., 1999) and the phase II of the project has
been undertaken since July 2003. One of the main goals of the GGP is to detect very small gravity signals
due to the activities of the Earth’s deep interior, for instance, the Slichter triplet. For these purposes,
geographical distribution of the SG stations are very important. The SG station in Bandung is the unique
one in the equatorial region, and the observation using TT-70 (#08) has been conducted since December
1997 under the cooperation between Kyoto University and the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI;
present Directorate of Mineral Resources Inventory). So far, the SG observations in Bandung have been
employed for the studies of the Earth tides (Takemoto et al., 1998), and gravity effects of groundwater
changes (Takemoto et al., 2002). However, SG is a relative gravimeter and it inevitably requires calibration
by means of an absolute gravimeter.
The SG in Bandung was primarily used in Kyoto University and was shifted to Bandung in 1997
(Takemoto et al., 1998). The scale factor of the meter was calibrated in Kyoto in 1995 by parallel mea-
surements with an absolute gravimeter, however, it had not been calibrated in Bandung yet. Consequently
we have so far been using the scale factor calibrated in Kyoto, and were looking forward to carrying out
a calibration in Bandung by means of an absolute gravimeter.
On the other hand, a precise gravity base station network plays a fundamental role to assist the re-
gional gravity surveys and the interpretation of the gravity anomaly data, as well as several geodetic
purposes, for instance, determination of the precise geoid and definition of the nation wide height sys-
tem. The present regional gravity base station network for Indonesia was established in 1977 (Adkins
et al., 1978). The network consists of more than 60 base stations all over the Indonesian Islands in-
cluding the primary base station for Indonesia (DG-0 in Bandung) and the network was linked directly
to International Gravity Standardization Net 1971 (IGSN 71) gravity stations in Australia and Singa-
pore by means of three LaCoste and Romberg gravimeters. However, no absolute gravity (AG) mea-
surement has been conducted in Indonesia so far. Since the network is surely providing a basis for
gravity surveying in Indonesia, the realization of AG measurements in Indonesia, especially at the pri-
mary base station DG-0 in Bandung, had been strongly desired to enhance the national gravity standard
net.
In this study, we therefore conducted AG measurements, for the first time in Indonesia, for the
purposes of the calibration of the SG and enhancing the regional gravity base station network in
Indonesia. At the same time, establishment of AG points together with the continuous SG ob-
servations will surely contribute to future studies of secular gravity changes and consequently to
 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501 491

Fig. 1. Location map of the VSI Bandung. AG and SG denote the AG base station mark and the SG observation room, respectively.
DG-0 (the primary gravity base station for Indonesia) is located within the solid circle mark of AG.

the Calibration/Validation (CAL/VAL) purposes of the dedicated gravity satellite missions such as
GRACE.

2. Absolute gravity measurements

2.1. Absolute gravity measurements in Bandung

Bandung is located at the western part of Java Island, about 250 km South-East of Jakarta. It is sur-
rounded by mountains and the altitude is about 700 m. The VSI office is located in the central part of the
city. Fig. 1 shows the location of Bandung as well as the site map of VSI. There are several institutions
in the same site, for instance, Geological Hazard Mitigation Division and the Geological Museum in
Bandung. We conducted the SG observation in a semibasement building behind the Geological Museum
in which we conducted AG measurements. The Indonesian gravity base station DG-0 is located on the
entrance floor of the Geological Museum, which is opened to the public and many visitors come over.
Thus, we decided to set up a new gravity base mark made of a metal plate in a room a few meters away
from the DG-0 and isolated from the visitors.
AG measurements were conducted on the metal plate using the FG5 (#210) of Kyoto University. The
measurements took place between November 15 and 20, 2002, resulting in 14,520 effective drops with
the standard deviation of a single drop of 16.5 ␮gal. Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the drops and we
determined the AG value at the metal plate to be 977976701.2 ␮gal. More details of the measurements
are found in Higashi et al. (2003), and we summarize the results in Table 1.
492 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501

Fig. 2. Histogram of the AG measurements in Bandung.

2.2. Absolute gravity measurements in Yogyakarta

For the studies of the gravity changes related to volcanic activities as well as enhancing the absolute
gravity net, we also conducted AG measurements in Yogyakarta near Merapi volcano, which is one of the
most active volcanos in Indonesia (Hidayati et al., 1998). Fig. 3 shows the location map of Yogyakarta
and the AG point. Yogyakarta is located at the central part of Java Island and about 30 km south of
Merapi volcano. There is also a gravity base station labeled P.P.M. Volc. (Adkins et al., 1978) in the
Merapi Volcano Observatory. However, P.P.M. Volc. is located at the entrance of a building and there

Table 1
Details of the absolute gravity measurement in Bandung
Location Geological Museum
Latitude* 6◦ 53.90 S
Longitude* 107◦ 37.90 E
Elevation* 718.0 m
Dates of measurements November 15–20, 2002
Gravity value at 1 m height 977976426.9 ± 0.1 ␮gal
Number of total effective drops 14,520
Standard deviation of a single drop 16.5 ␮gal
Vertical gradient of gravity** 2.743 ␮gal/cm
Gravity value at the metal plate 977976701.2 ␮gal
Gravity value at DG-0** 977976.398 mgal
IGSN 71* 977976.38 mgal
∗
Given in Adkins et al. (1978).
∗∗
Computed from the measurements using two LaCoste and Romberg G-meters.
 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501 493

Fig. 3. Location of the AG base mark of the Merapi Volcano Observatory. P.P.M. Volc. denotes one of the gravity base stations
for Indonesia.

is not enough space to conduct AG measurements. Thus, we set up a new metal plate in an observation
room of the observatory. The measurements took place on the metal plate between November 22 and 26,
2002, giving 11,521 effective drops and the determined AG value to be 978203093.5 ␮gal. The results are
summarized in Table 2 and Fig. 4 shows the distribution of the drops. Note, that the single drop standard
deviation of 40.5 ␮gal is rather worse than that of Bandung. One of the reasons is that the buildings of
the observatory were under reconstruction and might have caused artificial noises.

2.3. Gravity connections

One of the important purposes of the AG measurements is to enhance the regional gravity base station
network in Indonesia. Therefore, we conducted relative gravity measurements between the AG points and
the gravity base stations by means of two LaCoste and Romberg gravimeters (G-type). The results are
compared with the gravity values of Adkins et al. (1971) and the gravity differences of 18 ␮gal at DG-0 in
Bandung (Table 1) and 56 ␮gal at P.P.M. Volc. in Yogyakarta (Table 2) are obtained. The previous values
were determined by connecting to IGSN 71 gravity stations in Australia and Singapore (Adkins et al.,
1978), and the differences are within the accuracy of the IGSN 71 net, which is considered to be 0.1 mgal
(Morelli et al., 1974). We will discuss the accuracy of the present AG values and the newly determined
gravity values at the base stations later.
494 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501

Table 2
Details of the absolute gravity measurement in Yogyakarta
Location Merapi Volcano Observatory
Latitude* 7◦ 48.0 S
Longitude* 110◦ 23.3 E
Elevation* 106.0 m
Dates November 23–26, 2002
Gravity value at 1 m height 978202806.2 ± 0.4 ␮gal
Number of total effective drops 11,521
Standard deviation of a single drop 40.5 ␮gal
Vertical gradient of gravity** 2.873 ␮gal/cm
Gravity value at metal plate 978203093.5 ␮gal
Gravity value at P.P.M.Volc.** 978202.924 mgal
IGSN 71* 978202.98 mgal
∗
Given in Adkins et al. (1978).
∗∗
Computed from the measurements using two LaCoste and Romberg G-meters.

3. Calibration of SG #008

There are several methods for calibration of the SG scale factor (e.g. Richter et al., 1995; Falk et al.,
2001). Among those, parallel observation of the SG with an absolute gravimeter is most commonly per-
formed (e.g. Francis, 1997; Imanishi et al., 2002). Moreover, AG measurements give us useful information
on the long-term drift of the SG and/or the real gravity change at the observation point.
Ideally speaking, the parallel observation should be conducted side by side in the same room. However,
the SG observation room in Bandung does not have enough space for the absolute measurements and we
conducted the absolute measurements in a room of the Geological Museum as described above. Although
the distance between the two points is about 30 m, we believe that the tidal gravity signals as well as ocean
and atmospheric loading effects are practically common for both points. Therefore the scale factor can

Fig. 4. Histogram of the AG measurements in Yogyakarta.

 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501 495

Fig. 5. Parallel observations of the FG-5 (#210) and the SG (TT-70 #8). (a) Raw data of the AG measurements; (b) the AG data
after removal of the outliers; (c) raw data (output voltages) of the SG observation.

be obtained by a simple regression analysis between the gravity signals measured by the SG and those
by the FG-5.
Because of relatively very high precision of the SG observations, the overall accuracy of calibration
is essentially limited by the accuracy of the absolute measurements. Moreover, some erroneous values
of absolute measurements affect more seriously the scale factor determination than the calculation of
the AG value. Thus, one has to pay much attention to remove some outliers from the measurements.
Fig. 5(a) shows a time series of the raw FG-5 data. There are some outliers mainly due to false detection
of laser peaks. FG-5 employs the iodine stabilized He–Ne laser as the length standard, however, the laser
496 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501

Fig. 6. An example of the false laser peak detections and their corrections. (a) False peak detections are occurred around the
drop number of 640 and 2400; (b) the false peaks are corrected by allocating appropriate laser peak.

frequently became unstable, perhaps due to room temperature variations and/or unstable electric power
voltage. Although, FG-5 has a function to detect the locked laser peak when the drop is initiated, this
function requires the stability of the laser output voltages. Thus, if the laser output voltages are unstable
due to the room temperature variations or some other reasons, the laser peak detection may fail and
consequently causes an outlier (Iwano et al., 2003). Fig. 6 shows the output voltages of the iodine laser
and the corresponding gravity values with respect to the automatically detected laser peaks. It can be seen
that a lot of false peak detections are around the drop number of 640 and 2400 in Fig. 6(a). These are
corrected in Fig. 6(b) by fixing the false laser peaks.
After careful corrections of the false laser peak detections and also removing outliers due to un-
specified reasons, we obtained the FG-5 data shown in Fig. 5(b). The corresponding SG data are
 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501 497

Fig. 7. The regression line calculated from the parallel observation of AG and SG.

also shown in Fig. 5(c). Using these data sets, the calibration factor has been determined by the re-
gression analysis. Fig. 7 shows the results of the regression analysis and the new factor obtained as
−52.22 ± 0.09 ␮gal/V with the relative precision of 0.18%, while the previous scale factor determined in
Kyoto was −52.23 ± 0.11 ␮gal/V (Takemoto et al., 1998). Since the difference between the two is only
0.01 ␮gal/V, we can conclude that there is negligible change in the scale factor of the SG in Bandung.

4. Tidal analyses

Although we found negligible change in the scale factor of the SG (#008) in Bandung, we made tidal
analyses including recent SG data to give the current most reliable tidal parameters. The GGP1 compatible
data were filtered and re-sampled to obtain a 1-hour interval data set and the tidal analyses were made
by employing “BAYTAP-G” software (Tamura et al., 1991) for short period waves and “BAYTAP-L”,
which is the long period version of the “BAYTAP-G”, for long period waves. The results are summarized
in Table 3. Using a computer program “GOTIC2” (Matsumoto et al., 2001), we next calculated ocean
tide loading effects for major tidal waves by employing NAO 99b (Matsumoto et al., 2000), GOT 99.2b
(Ray, 1999) and CSR 4.0 (Eanes and Shuler, 1999) models, respectively. In Table 4, we summarize the
δ-factors and phases after the ocean tide corrections together with theoretical values of the non-hydro
static anelastic Earth model (DDW 99: Dehant et al., 1999). Although the three ocean tide models give
almost the same corrections, therefore hard to say which model is the best, it seems that NAO 99b and
GOT 99.2b give slightly good results than CSR 4.0 in both amplitudes and phases. Note that the amplitude
discrepancies between the corrected δ-factors and the theoretical model is only 0.1–0.2%. Thus, we may
need a more accurate scale factor for the further discussions.

5. Discussions

One of the important objectives of combining SG observations and AG measurements is to detect

secular gravity changes. For this purpose, it is no doubt that more frequent parallel AG measurements
should be desirable, where possible. However, due to several practical reasons, AG measurements would
498 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501

Table 3
Results of tidal analysis
Symbol Factor RMSE Phase* (◦ ) RMSE (◦ ) Amplitude (␮gal) RMSE (␮gal)
Q1 1.07429 0.00556 10.411 0.297 1.5210 0.0080
O1 1.12498 0.00115 10.515 0.059 8.3180 0.0090
M1 1.16377 0.00840 6.878 0.414 0.6770 0.0050
␲1 1.16675 0.01115 8.446 0.547 0.2350 0.0020
P1 1.16623 0.00212 9.676 0.104 4.0120 0.0070
S1 1.15943 0.01083 10.091 0.535 0.0940 0.0010
K1 1.16630 0.00070 10.720 0.035 12.1280 0.0070
1 1.18793 0.01251 9.907 0.604 0.0970 0.0010
1 1.21169 0.01314 9.151 0.621 0.1790 0.0020
J1 1.23981 0.00858 8.523 0.397 0.7210 0.0050
OO1 1.28346 0.01278 8.268 0.571 0.4080 0.0040
2N2 1.20897 0.00074 0.137 0.035 2.2640 0.0010
N2 1.20618 0.00015 −0.480 0.007 17.0730 0.0020
M2 1.19358 0.00003 −1.133 0.001 88.2410 0.0020
␭2 1.19288 0.00349 −0.950 0.167 0.6500 0.0020
L2 1.18533 0.00087 −1.443 0.042 2.4770 0.0020
T2 1.15776 0.00098 −1.848 0.048 2.3280 0.0020
S2 1.15953 0.00007 −2.010 0.005 39.8830 0.0030
K2 1.16282 0.00021 −1.762 0.010 10.8720 0.0020
M3 1.07270 0.00064 −0.336 0.034 1.5450 0.0010
MSM 1.22750 0.18180 3.340 8.510 0.7660 0.1135
MM 1.15120 0.03340 1.620 1.660 3.7564 0.1090
MSF 1.06490 0.06070 2.440 3.260 0.5763 0.0329
MF 1.11820 0.00490 0.730 0.250 6.9070 0.0303
MSTM 0.86950 0.07210 14.150 4.780 0.1953 0.0162
MTM 1.12590 0.01480 2.400 0.750 1.3316 0.0175
MSQM 1.12100 0.07060 −1.680 3.610 0.2117 0.0133
MQM 1.21610 0.08550 −4.060 4.040 0.1903 0.0134

Data employed are from 1999/02/28 to 2003/09/01.

∗
Negative values show phase lag.

be possible in Indonesia within an interval of few years at the most. Although SG observations include
instrumental drift and/or some steps, it possibly reveals a great deal of seasonal gravity changes at the
site due to hydrological or other effects (Takemoto et al., 2002). Thus, more realistic estimation of the
accuracy of the AG measurements is a key for the future studies of secular gravity changes in Indonesia.
From the statistical point of view, the software of FG-5 gives very small formal errors of the order of
0.1 ␮gal for the estimation of the average value. However, it is hard to believe that formal errors give true
accuracy of the AG measurements. The accuracy of FG-5 mainly depends on the stability of the rubidium
oscillator and the He–Ne laser. Besides these, abrasion of some mechanical parts in the dropping chamber
causes gravity offset. Actually, Micro-g Solutions reported that on the occasion of overhauling the FG-5
(#210) in 2003, it gave 6 ␮gals lower values due to worn balls and vees which form the contact between
the test mass and the cart. It is not an easy task to ensure the accuracy of the AG measurements including
all these issues. One of the practical ways is to conduct repeated measurements regularly at a same site,
not only for the studies of gravity changes but also for the diagnostic purpose of the gravimeter.
 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501 499

Table 4
Tidal parameters corrected for the ocean loading effects
Corrected by

Observed NAO 99b GOT 99.2b CSR 4.0 DDW 99

O1 δ-Factor 1.12498 ± 0.00115 1.1483 1.1563 1.1492 1.1544
Phase* (◦ ) 10.547 ± 0.059 0.1866 −0.1248 −0.0693
K1 δ-Factor 1.16630 ± 0.00070 1.1338 1.1344 1.1291 1.1335
Phase (◦ ) 10.754 ± 0.035 0.1259 −0.1482 0.1196
M2 δ-Factor 1.19358 ± 0.00003 1.1626 1.1617 1.1625 1.1622
Phase (◦ ) −1.068 ± 0.001 −0.0934 −0.1085 −0.0821
S2 δ-Factor 1.15953 ± 0.00007 1.1611 1.1608 1.1593 1.1622
Phase (◦ ) −1.942 ± 0.005 −0.8295 −0.7358 −0.7205
K2 δ-Factor 1.16282 ± 0.00021 1.1643 1.1632 1.1651 1.1622
Phase (◦ ) −1.694 ± 0.010 −0.5989 −0.0669 −0.5315
∗
Negative values show phase lag.

In Kyoto, we are conducting AG measurements regularly using the FG-5 (#210) as long as it is available.
Fig. 8 shows the recent results of AG measurements since September 2001. As shown in Fig. 8, it is known
that there exist a few ␮gals amplitude of seasonal gravity changes perhaps due to the hydrological effects
in Kyoto. The AG measurements in Indonesia were conducted for the period shown by a horizontal
arrow in Fig. 8, and no significant difference between the period before and after was found. We have
no evidence that the FG-5 (#210) suffered instrumental troubles during the measurements in Indonesia.
The background noise level and the single drop standard deviation in Bandung are very similar as those
in Kyoto, and those in Yogyakarta are not so worse than those in Kyoto. Thus, we can conclude that the
accuracies of the AG measurements in Bandung as well as in Yogyakarta are better than 5 ␮gals (probably
2–3 ␮gals), judging from the scatters in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Recent results of AG measurements in Kyoto. All the values are measured by the FG-5 (#210). The curve schematically
shows a typical seasonal gravity change perhaps due to hydrological effects. A detailed study of the gravity changes is ongoing
issue. The horizontal arrow (⇔) shows the period of the AG measurement in Indonesia. No significant difference of the gravity
values was found before and after the period.
500 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501

Note, that the absolute gravity value on the metal plate suffers the uncertainty of the gravity gradient,
which was measured by two LaCoste and Romberg gravimeters. Since 1 m height reduction possibly
introduces a few ␮gals error, it is more safe that the accuracy of the absolute gravity value on the plate
is 5–10 ␮gals. It is needless to say that the value at 1 m above the plate should be referred for the future
studies of secular gravity changes to avoid the error due to the gravity gradient.

6. Concluding remarks

We successfully conducted absolute gravity measurements in Bandung and Yogyakarta for the first
time in Indonesia. The obtained values are consistent with those of IGSN 71 net, but much more accurate.
In both Bandung and Yogyakarta, the accuracy of the absolute gravity values are better than 10 ␮gal on
the metal plates and better than 5 ␮gal at 1 m above the plates. We believe that the newly determined
absolute gravity values will surely contribute to the Indonesian gravity base station network.
We also re-determined the scale factor of the SG (#008) in Bandung. The difference between the new
scale factor and the previous one is very small, and it practically means negligible change is observed. For
the calibration of the scale factor, we primarily planed more long parallel measurements. However, due to
some logistic problems and other practical reasons, period of the measurements was limited within a few
days. Consequently the obtained relative precision of 0.18% is not entirely satisfactory especially from
the viewpoint of precise tidal analyses, as already discussed. In the future, we may need more accurate
calibration of better than 0.1% precision.
Because this is the first absolute gravity measurement in Indonesia, further discussion about the secular
gravity changes may be a task for the future. However, there is no doubt that the AG measurements play a
fundamental role for the studies of gravity changes. Furthermore, the combined observations of AGs and
SGs are expected as a very rare technique for the CAL/VAL of satellite gravity missions such as GRACE.
For these purposes, a worldwide network is a key and we have been conducting AG measurements in
Asia and Oceania with the collaboration of several institutions. We have several AG measurement plans
for China, Malaysia, Thailand, Australia and Antarctica in a few years. Some of these have already been
completed, and this study has also been carried out within the same framework. We hope that the rest of
the planed measurements will be successfully accomplished and the establishment of the precise gravity
net will contribute towards future studies of gravity changes

Acknowledgments
We are deeply indebted to the Geological Museum in Bandung and the Merapi Volcano Observatory
in Yogyakarta for the AG measurements. Especially we would like to thank Dr. M. Sawada and Dr.
A. Ratdomopurbo for their kind help during the measurements. This work was partially supported by
the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology (Nos. 14340132 and 14253004).

References

Adkins, J., Sukardi, S., Said, H., Untung, M., 1978. A regional gravity base station network for Indonesia. Geological Survey of
Indonesia, Publikasi Teknik - Seri Geofisika No 6, 1–85.
 Y. Fukuda et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 38 (2004) 489–501 501

Boy, J.P., Gegout, P., Hinderer, J., 2002. Gravity variations and global pressure loading. J. Geod. Soc. Japan 47, 267–272.
Crossley, D., Hinderer, J., Casula, G., Francis, O., Hsu, H.T., Imanishi, Y., Jentzsche, G., Kaarianen, J., Merriam, J., Meurers,
B., Neumeyer, J., Richter, B., Shibuya, K., Sato, T., van Dam, T., 1999. Network of superconducting gravimeters benefits a
number of disciplines. Eos Trans. AGU 80 (11), 121, 125-126.
Dehant, V., Defraigne, P., Wahr, J.M., 1999. Tides for a convective Earth. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 1035–1058.
Eanes, R., Shuler, A., 1999. An improved global ocean tide model from TOPEX/Poseidon altimetry: CSR 4.0. In: 24th General
Assembly of the EGS, The Hague, The Netherlands.
Falk, R., Harnisch, M., Harnisch, G., Nowak, I., Richter, B., Wolf, P., 2001. Calibration of the superconducting gravimeters
SG103, C023 CD029 and CD030. J. Geod. Soc. Japan 47, 22–27.
Francis, O., 1997. Calibration of the C021 superconducting gravimeter in Membach (Belgium) using 47 days of absolute gravity
measurements. International Association of Geodesy Symposia 117, 212–219.
Fukuda, Y., Sato, T., Tamura, Y., Aoyama, Y., 1999. The effects of sea–surface height variations on the long-period gravity
changes. Bollettino di Geofisica Teorica ed Applicata 40, 511–517.
Hidayati, S., Iguchi, M., Ishihara, K., Purbawinata, M.A., Subandriyo, Sinulingga, I.K., Suharna, 1998. A preliminary result of
quantitative evaluation on activity of Merapi volcano. In: Proceedings of Symposium on Japan–Indonesia IDNDR Project,
21–23 September 1998, Bandung, Indonesia, pp. 165–180.
Higashi, T., Fukuda, Y., Abe, M., Takemoto, S., Dwipa, S., Kusuma, D.S., Andan, A., Doi, K., Imanishi, Y., Arduino, G., 2003.
Determination of absolute gravity values using a FG5 #210 in Bandung and Yogyakarta, Indonesia. J. Geod. Soc. Japan 49,
177–180.
Imanishi, Y., Higashi, T., Fukuda, Y., 2002. Calibration of the superconducting gravimeter T011 by parallel observation with
the absolute gravimeter FG5 #210—a Baysican approach. Geophys. J. Int. 151, 867–878.
Iwano, S., Kimura, I., Fukuda, Y., 2003. Calibration of the superconducting gravimeter TT70 #016 at Syowa Station by parallel
observation with the absolute gravimeter FG5 #203. Polar Geosci. 16, 22–28.
Matsumoto, K., Takanezawa, T., Ooe, M., 2000. Ocean tide models developed by assimilating TOPEX/Poseidon altimeter data
into hydro-dynamical model: a global model and a regional model around Japan. J. Oceanogr. 56, 567–581.
Matsumoto, K., Sato, T., Takanezawa, T., Ooe, M., 2001. GOTIC2: a program for computation of oceanic tidal loading effect.
J. Geod. Soc. Japan 47, 243–248.
Morelli, C., Gantar, C., Honkasalo, T., McConnell, R.K., Tanner, J.G., Szabo, B., Uotila, U., Whalen, C.T., 1974. The international
gravity standardization net 1971 (I.G.S.N. 71). Publ. Spec. Bull. Geod. 4, 1–194.
Mukai, A., Takemoto, S., Higashi, T., Fukuda, Y., 2001. Oceanic tidal loadings estimated from gravity observations in Kyoto
and Bandung. J. Geod. Soc. Japan 47, 261–266.
Ray, R.D., 1999. A global ocean tide model from TOPEX/Poseidon altimeter: GOT 99.2. NASA Tech. Memo. TM-209478, 58.
Richter, B., Wilmes, H., Nowak, I., 1995. The Frankfurt calibration system for relative gravimeters. Metrologia 32 (3), 217–224.
Takemoto, S., Fukuda, Y., Higashi, T., Ogasawara, S., Abe, M., Dwipa, S., Kusuma, D.S., Andan, A., 2002. Effect of groundwater
changes on SG observations in Kyoto and Bandung. Bulletin d’Information des Marees Terrestres (BIM) 136 (10), 839–10848.
Takemoto, S., Dwipa, S., Fukuda, Y., Higashi, T., Andan, A., Kusuma, D.S., Sukhyar, R., Tjetjep, W.S., Tanaka, T., Heliani,
L.S., 1998. Precise gravity observation in Bandung using a superconducting gravimeter. In: Proceedings of Symposium on
Japan–Indonesia IDNDR Project, 21–23 September 1998, Bandung, Indonesia, pp. 223–230.
Tamura, Y., Sato, T., Ooe, M., Ishiguro, M., 1991. A procedure for tidal analysis with a Bayesian information criterion. Geophys.
J. Int. 104, 507–516.
van Dam, T., Wahr, J.M., Cris, P., Milly, D., Francis, O., 2002. Gravity changes due to continental water storage. J. Geod. Soc.
Japan. 47, 249–254.