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Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150 – 173

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Assessment of relative active tectonics, southwest border of the

Sierra Nevada (southern Spain)
R. El Hamdouni a , C. Irigaray a , T. Fernández b , J. Chacón a,⁎, E.A. Keller c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Granada, E.T.S.I.C.C.P., Campus Fuentenueva, s/n., 18071-Granada, Spain
b
Department of Photogrammetry and Geodetic and Mapping Engineering, University of Jaén,
Campus “Las Lagunillas” s/n., Edificio A-3. Jaén, Spain
c
Department of Earth Science, University of California, Webb Hall, BLDG 526 Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9630, USA
Received 24 January 2007; received in revised form 31 July 2007; accepted 1 August 2007
Available online 15 August 2007

Abstract

We present a new method for evaluating relative active tectonics based on geomorphic indices useful in evaluating morphology
and topography. Indices used include: stream length-gradient index (SL), drainage basin asymmetry (Af), hypsometric integral
(Hi), ratio of valley-floor width to valley height (Vf), index of drainage basin shape (Bs), and index of mountain front sinuosity
(Smf). Results from the analysis are accumulated and expressed as an index of relative active tectonics (Iat), which we divide into
four classes from relatively low to highest tectonic activity.
The study area along the southwest border of the Sierra Nevada in southern Spain is an ideal location to test the concept of an
index to predict relative tectonic activity on a basis of area rather than a single valley or mountain front. The study area has variable
rates of active tectonics resulting from the collision of Africa with Europe that has produced linear east–west anticlinal forms, as
well as extension with variable vertical rates of normal faulting to about 0.5 m/ky. We test the hypothesis that areas of known,
relatively high rates of active tectonics are associated with indicatives values of Iat.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tectonic geomorphology; Geomorphic indices of active tectonics; Sierra Nevada; Betic Cordillera; Southern Spain

1. Introduction rivers, and Quaternary deposits along mountain fronts

Recent tectonic activity associated with continental
uplift is expressed along the SW border of the Sierra
Nevada in southern Spain by fault scarps, deeply incised
⁎ Corresponding author. Departamento de Ingeniería Civil, E.T.S.I.
C.C.P., Universidad de Granada, Campus de Fuentenueva, s/n., 18071,
Granada, Spain. Tel.: +34 958246136, +34 958249449, +34
629476985; fax: +34 958246138.
E-mail addresses: rachidej@ugr.es (R. El Hamdouni),
clemente@ugr.es (C. Irigaray), jchacon@ugr.es (J. Chacón),
keller@geol.ucsb.edu (E.A. Keller).
0169-555X/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.08.004
and in fault-bounded basins (Sanz de Galdeano et al.,
1998). The regional seismic record is characterized by
high frequency of relatively small magnitude earth-
quakes (less than magnitude 4) with infrequent, large,
catastrophic earthquakes. The study of active tectonics,
and in particular those areas with relatively high activity,
in the Holocene and late Pleistocene is important to
evaluate the earthquake hazard (Keller and Pinter,
2002). On a regional scale, obtaining rates of active
tectonics is difficult or even knowing where to go in a
particular region for quantitative studies to obtain rates.
R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173 151

Fig. 1. Geographical and geological setting of the study area.

152 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173
Fig. 2. Subbasins of the Izbor River basin and its reference number.
The approach of this paper is to provide a quantitative
method to focus on areas for more detailed work to
establish rates of active tectonics. We use geomorphic
indices of active tectonics, known to be useful in active
tectonic studies (Bull and McFadden, 1977; Azor et al.,
2002; Keller and Pinter, 2002; Silva et al., 2003; Molin
et al., 2004). This methodology has been previously
tested as a valuable tool in different tectonically active
areas, such as SW USA (Rockwell et al., 1985), the
Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Wells et al., 1988), and the
Mediterranean coast of Spain (Silva, 1994). In detail, the
combination of the Smf and Vf indexes allows
individual mountain fronts to be assigned different
tectonic activity classes (Class 1 to Class 3) developed
under decreasing uplift rates (Bull and McFadden, 1977;
Rockwell et al., 1985). Most studies of geomorphic
indices have concentrated on specific indices at specific
sites, such as a drainage basin or mountain front. With
the exception of the stream length-gradient index (SL),
most of the indices are not spatially analyzed over a
region.
Also Silva et al. (2003) assessed the relative active
tectonics of different mountain fronts in SE Spain using
the Smf and Vf geomorphic indexes. Their approach did
not include a GIS based summary index.
The objective of this paper is to quantify several
geomorphic indices of relative active tectonic and
topographic development to produce a single index
that can be used to characterize relative active tectonics.
For this purpose, we will present the tectonic geomor-
phic analysis of indices followed by a discussion of the
active tectonics based upon recent field-based structural
and geomorphic observation and analysis.
2. Regional setting of the study area
The study area is in southern Spain along the western
and southern flanks of the Sierra Nevada. The area is
∼ 500 km2 (Fig. 1) in the Inner Zone of the Beltic
Cordillera (Balanyá and García-Dueñas, 1987; Sanz de
Galdeano, 1997). Major rock groups are the nevado–
filabride and alpujarride complexes (Egeler and Simon,
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173
Fig. 3. SL index along the Izbor River drainage network.
1969; Aldaya et al., 1979), as well as a small portion of
the former Granada basin, which is filled with post-
tectonic deposits of Neogene to Quaternary age
(González-Donoso, 1978). The study area includes the
Lecrin-Padul and Albuñuelas River valleys, basins
bounded by faults that trend roughly E–W and NW–
SE (Domingo et al., 1983). The nevado–filabride
complex is over-thrusted by the alpujarride complex,
composed of metamorphic rocks Paleozoic and lower
Mesozoic ages deformed during the Alpine Orogeny.
3. Morphometric analysis and geomorphic indices of
active tectonics
Several geomorphic indices may be used to analyze
topography as well as relative tectonic activity.
Individual indices are based on analysis of the drainage
network or mountain fronts. The indices represent a
quantitative approach to differential geomorphic analy-
sis related to erosion and depositional processes that
include the river channel, long profile, and valley
morphology as well as tectonically derived features,
such as fault scarps. Indices of active tectonics may
153
detect anomalies in the fluvial system or along mountain
fronts. These anomalies may be produced by local
changes from tectonic activity resulting from uplift or
subsidence. The research design is to analyze several
different indices in subbasins of the Izbor River basin
(Fig. 2) and break them into tectonic classes based
upon the range of values of individual indices. These are
then summed and averaged and arbitrarily divided into
classes of relative tectonic activity over the study area.
3.1. Stream length-gradient index (SL)
Development of topography results from an adjust-
ment between processes of erosion as streams and rivers
flow over rocks and soils of variable strength (Hack,
1973). The adjustment eventually reaches a dynamic
equilibrium.
The stream length-gradient index (SL) was defined
by Hack (1973) in a study of the role of rock resistance
in streams of the Appalachian Mountains of the
southeastern United States. The SL index is defined as:
SL ¼ ðDh=DlÞl ð1Þ
154 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173
Fig. 4. Distribution of SL index anomalies and the geological strength levels.
where Δh/Δl is the local slope of the channel segment
being evaluated and l is the channel length from the
divide to the midpoint of the channel reach for which the
index is calculated.
The SL index can be used to evaluate relative
tectonic activity. The SL index will increase in value as
rivers and streams flow over active uplifts and may have
lesser values when flowing parallel to features such as
valleys produced by strike–slip faulting (Keller and
Pinter, 2002).
Values of the SL index over the study area,
determined from digital elevation models and geograph-
ic information system (GIS), are shown on Fig. 3. In
order to discriminate values at the index related to rock
resistance, different levels of average rock strength were
defined (by rock type and field observation) from very
low strength (silt, sand, marl, and peat), low strength
(older alluvial fan deposits and fairly well-consolidated
conglomerate), moderate strength (fillite and schist),
high strength (calcareous sandstone, travertine, and
conglomerate), and very high strength (low grade
metamorphisms producing rocks such as marble). The
observed SL index anomalies were then plotted on the
map of the relative strength of materials (Fig. 4), and
their relation to rock strength were analyzed utilizing
GIS applications (Figs. 5, 6 and 7).
Based upon the quantitative SL indices linked to
relative rock resistance described above with field
observations suggest that:
(i) Along the SW border of the Sierra Nevada, values
of the SL index show a variable distribution. The
highest and perhaps most anomalous values of the
index are along the Lanjaron River on the eastern
flank of the Sierra Nevada. These high indices are
not associated with particularly resistant rocks,
and so we interpret these anomalies in the SL
index to be a tectonic signal. Several locations
along the western flank of the Sierra Nevada near
the Padul mountain front also have anomalously
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173 155

Fig. 5. Some longitudinal river profiles in the SW border of Sierra Nevada and the measured SL index.

high SL index values on relatively soft rocks. faults in the harder marbles and schist. Along La
Along the Torrente River, indices increase where Raja Creek, the highest values of the indices,
they cross the mountain front with the Nigüelas which are anomalously high for the area, exist
fault. Other relatively high values are related to where the river crosses the Padul fault (Fig. 5).
156 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173
Fig. 6. Some longitudinal river profiles in the Sierra de Los Guájares and the measured SL index.
Another anomaly, farther downstream along the
La Raja Creek, results from active folding of a
Pleistocene alluvial fan.
(ii) Along the southwestern portion of the study area,
SL indices tend to be relatively low compared
with the Sierra Nevada border. Anomalous values
of the indices along the Albuñuelas River and
Zara Creek are related to outcrops of the resistant
mica schist found along the river profile (Fig. 6).
(iii) Along the northern border of the Sierra de
Albuñuelas, as well as along the area SW of the
Padul basin, the values of the SL index are
relatively low. A few higher values of the index
are related to changes in rock resistance. Along
Anciano Creek, the SL index values decrease
downriver and are adjusted to rock resistance as
demonstrated by the observed profile (Fig. 7).
Along Almeiza Creek, two relatively high
anomalies of the index are apparently related to
the river crossing into stronger rocks. This is
shown on Fig. 7 where relatively resistant rocks
consisting of schist and dolomites are separated
by a middle reach of the creek composed of softer
silts and sands.
3.2. Asymmetric factor (Af)
The asymmetric factor (Af) is a way to evaluate the
existence of tectonic tilting at the scale of a drainage
basin. The method may be applied over a relatively large
area (Hare and Gardner, 1985; Keller and Pinter, 2002).
Af is defined by
Af ¼ 100ðAr=AtÞ ð2Þ
where Ar is the area of the basin to the right (facing
downstream) of the trunk stream and At is the total area
of the drainage basin. If a basin has developed under
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173 157

Fig. 7. Some longitudinal river profiles in the SW area of Padul and the measured SL index.

stable conditions with little or no tilting, the Af factor is
close to 50. The index is sensitive to change in
inclination perpendicular to the channel direction. An
Af factor above or below 50 may result from basin
tilting, resulting either from active tectonics or lithologic
structural control differential erosion, as for example the
stream slipping down bedding plains over time. The
values shown in Table 1 for Af include the Af-50, which
is the amount of difference between the neutral value of
50 and the observed value. For the purpose of evaluating
the relative active tectonics, the absolute difference is
what is important, and values of Af-50 range from about
1 to 28.
Structural control of the orientation of schistocity or
bedding may play a significant role in the development
of basin asymmetry. Inclination of schistocity or
bedding allows for preferred migration of the valley in
the down-dip direction, producing an asymmetric valley.
In order to incorporate this influence, we disregard those
values for which the rock structure is an obvious factor.
Thus in the study area, five of the basins were
determined to have the asymmetric factor related to
structural control, and these were not included in the
development of the index of relative active tectonics.
Other streams show moderate to high asymmetry within
a given lithology (Fig. 8). In general, the most
prominent asymmetry is found along the SW border of
the Sierra Nevada and the northern border of the Sierra
de Los Guájares.
3.3. Hypsometric integral (Hi)
The hypsometric integral is an index that describes
the distribution of elevation of a given area of a
158 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173

Table 1
Asymmetry factor (Af) values of the different basins of the study area. (Ar: surface of downstream right margin of the basin; At: total surface of the
basin)
Ref. no. Basin Ar (km2) At (km2) Af Af-50 Lithological control Class
2 El Anciano 2.8 5.79 48.36 − 1.64 3
3 La Cueva de Campos 3.7 6.43 57.54 7.54 2
4 Almeiza 8.58 15.10 56.82 6.82 3
5 La Alcaza 20.75 46.72 44.41 − 5.59 3
7 El Agua 7.61 11.44 66.52 16.52 Yes –
8 El Búho 0.33 0.70 47.14 − 2.86 3
9 Cortijo del Maestro 0.43 1.08 39.81 − 10.19 2
10 El Aceituno 2.00 4.10 48.78 − 1.22 3
11 Torres 0.95 3.75 25.33 − 24.67 1
12 Luna 15.09 33.90 44.51 − 5.49 Yes –
13 Doña María 5.02 9.03 55.59 5.59 3
14 El Madroñal 3.52 7.59 46.38 − 3.62 3
15 Albuñuelas 26.04 44.63 58.35 8.35 2
16 La Cruz 6.36 9.22 68.98 18.98 1
17 Cabezuelas 2.83 3.96 71.46 21.46 1
18 Mizán de las Cuevas 7.14 10.97 65.09 15.09 Yes –
19 Las Arenas 2.82 3.31 85.20 35.20 1
20 Cortijo de Guindalera 1.12 2.23 50.22 0.22 Yes –
21 Zaza 11.33 16.41 69.04 19.04 1
22 La Cabacilla 1.61 2.96 54.39 4.39 3
24 Lanjarón 28.15 50.56 55.68 5.68 Yes –
25 Salado 2.03 5.96 34.06 − 15.94 1
26 Tablate 2.39 11.18 21.38 − 28.62 1
27 Chite 3.90 7.27 53.65 3.65 3
28 Pleito 2.30 5.90 38.98 − 11.02 2
29 Torrente 12.50 35.80 34.92 − 15.08 1
30 La Hojuela 0.94 1.99 47.24 − 2.76 3
31 El Baño 4.19 9.92 42.24 − 7.76 2
32 La Rambla 2.81 6.18 45.47 − 4.53 3
33 La Cantina 1.42 4.02 35.32 − 14.68 2
34 Las Pedrizas 1.90 3.57 53.22 3.22 3
35 Dúrcal 22.80 65.80 34.65 − 15.35 1
36 Los Lobos 0.56 1.71 32.75 − 17.25 1
37 Peña Horada 0.25 1.12 22.32 − 27.68 1
38 Raja 0.60 2.12 28.30 21.70 1

landscape (Strahler, 1952). The integral is generally
derived for a particular drainage basin and is an index
that is independent of basin area. The index is defined as
the area below the hypsometric curve and thus expresses
the volume of a basin that has not been eroded. The
simple equation that may be used to calculate the index
(Pike and Wilson, 1971; Mayer, 1990; Keller and Pinter,
2002) is
Hi ¼ ð average elevation  min: elevÞ=
ð max: elev:  min: elev:Þ:
The values of elevation necessary for the calculation
are obtained from a digital elevation model. The average
elevation is from 50 points of elevation taken at random
from the drainage basin. The hypsometric integral does
not relate directly to relative active tectonics. This index
is similar to the SL index in that rock resistance as well
as other factors affects the value. High values of the
index generally mean that not as much of the uplands
have been eroded, and may suggest a younger
landscape, perhaps produced by active tectonics. High
values of Hi could also result from recent incision into a
young geomorphic surface produced by deposition. In
our analysis of Hi, we consider whether the curve is
ð3Þ convex in its upper portion, convex to concave, or
convex in the lower portion, as well as the value of the
index itself. We assume that if part of the hypsometric
integral is convex in the lower portion, it may relate to
uplift along a fault or perhaps uplift associated with
recent folding. High values of the index are possibly
related to young active tectonic and low values are
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173
Fig. 8. Map showing the lithologies of the study area and its relationships with the basins with higher asymmetry values.
related to older landscapes that have been more eroded
and less impacted by recent active tectonics. In general,
high values of the hypsometric integral are convex, and
these values are generally N 0.5. Intermediate values
tend to be more concave–convex or straight, and
generally have values between 0.4 and 0.5. Finally,
lower values (b 0.4) tend to have concave shapes.
Analysis of the hypsometric integral in the study area
was based upon digital elevation models and utilization
of all basins of greater than the third order. Some of the
results are shown on Figs. 9 and 10.
3.4. Ratio of valley floor width to valley height (Vf)
Vf is defined as the ratio of the width of the valley
floor to its average height (Bull and McFadden, 1977;
Bull, 1978) and is computed by
Vf ¼ 2Vfw=½ðEld  EscÞ þ ðErd  EscÞ
where Vf is the ratio of valley floor width to valley
height; Vfw is the width of the valley floor; Eld is the
159
elevation of the divide on the left side of the valley; Erd
is the elevation on the right side; and Esc is the average
elevation of the valley floor. This index differentiates
between valleys with a wide floor relative to the height
of valley walls with a “U” shape compared to narrow,
steep valleys with a “V” shape. Valleys with a U shape
generally have high values of Vf, whereas V-shaped
valleys with relatively low values. Because uplift is
associated with incision, the index is thought to be a
surrogate for active tectonics where low values of Vf are
associated with higher rates of uplift and incision. The
index is a measure of incision and not uplift; but in an
equilibrium state, incision and uplift are nearly matched.
The value of Vf is calculated for the main valleys that
cross mountain fronts of the study area (Fig. 11).
Calculation of the index is done at a prescribed distance
upstream from the mountain front (Silva et al., 2003). In
this area a distance varying from ∼ 0.5 to 1 km,
ð4Þ depending on the size of the drainage basin was selected.
It has been observed that the valleys often narrow
upstream from the mountain front (Ramírez-Herrera,
1998). As a result, values of Vf vary depending on basin
160 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173

size, stream discharge, and rock type encountered.
Therefore, values of Vf should be compared for similar
geologic conditions. Values of Vf for the study area are
shown in Table 2, and locations where calculations of the
index are made are shown in Fig. 11. Values of Vf vary
from a low of 0.039 for the Durcal River, where it is
deeply incised into hard marble bedrock, to a high of 11.3
at Cuevas del Campo Creek west of Padul (Fig. 11). In
general, the values of Vf are relatively low for most of the
study area, with the exception of the lower-lying areas in
the NW part of the study area.
A similar analysis, carried out by Silva et al. (2003) in
the Eastern Betic Cordillera (SE Spain), suggests that V-
shaped valleys with low Vf values b 1 develop in
response to active uplift, and that broad U-shaped valleys
with high Vf values N 1 indicate major lateral erosion,
due to the stability of base level or to tectonic quiescence.
3.5. Index of drainage basin shape (Bs)
Relatively young drainage basins in active tectonic
areas tend to be elongated in shape normal to the

Fig. 9. Hypsometry curves of subbasins from the right margin of the Izbor River. (A) is the total surface of the basin. (a) is the surface area within the
basin above a given line of elevation (h), (H) is the highest elevation of the basin.
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173 161

Fig. 9 (continued ).

topographic slope of a mountain. With continued
evolution or less active tectonic processes, the elongated
shape tends to evolve to a more circular shape (Bull and
McFadden, 1977). Horizontal projection of basin shape
may be described by the elongation ratio, Bs (Cannon,
1976; Ramírez-Herrera, 1998) expressed by the equation
Bs ¼ Bl=Bw ð5Þ
where Bl is the length of the basin measured from the
headwaters to the mouth, and Bw is the width of the
basin measured at its widest point. High values of Bs are
associated with elongated basins, generally associated
with relatively higher tectonic activity. Low values of Bs
indicate a more circular-shaped basin, generally associ-
ated with low tectonic activity. Rapidly uplifted
mountain fronts generally produce elongated, steep
basins; and when tectonic activity is diminished or
ceases, widening of the basins occur from the mountain
front up (Ramírez-Herrera, 1998).
Bs was calculated for 37 subbasins in the study areas.
The results are shown in Table 3 and values range from
1.6 to 5.8. The highest values are along the SW border
of the Sierra Nevada.
162 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173

Fig. 10. Hypsometry curves of subbasins from the left margin of the Izbor River. (A) is the total surface of the basin, (a) is the surface area within the
basin above a given line of elevation (h), (H) is the highest elevation of the basin.
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173 163

Fig. 10 (continued ).

3.6. Index of mountain front sinuosity (Smf )
Index of mountain front sinuosity Smf (Bull and
McFadden, 1977; Bull, 1978) is defined by
Smf ¼ Lmf =Ls
where Lmf is the length of the mountain front along the
foot of the mountain where a change in slope from the
mountain to the piedmont occurs; and Ls is the straight
line length of the mountain front. Smf represents a
balance between erosive processes tending to erode a
mountain front, making it more sinuous through streams
that cut laterally and into the front and active vertical
ð6Þ tectonics that tend to produce straight mountain fronts,
often coincidental with active faults or folds (Bull and
McFadden, 1977; Keller, 1986). That is, mountain
fronts associated with active tectonics and active uplift

Fig. 11. Location of sections for the Vf calculations in the Izbor River valley.
164 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173

Table 2 between 1.17 and 3.51. They considered values below

Vf (ratio of valley floor width to valley height) values calculated in the 1.4 as indicative of active tectonics until values above 3
Izbor River valley
were considered as indicating inactive fronts.
Ref. River or Lithology of the Basin Vf Class In this paper, eleven mountain fronts with vertical of
no. creek valley floor superficie
(km2)
relief more than 20 m are evaluated (Fig. 12). Values of
Smf are shown in Table 4 and range from 1.04 to 1.61.
2 Anciano Dolomites 9.60 1.250 3
The lowest values of Smf are associated with the SW
3 Cuevas de Dolomites 10.00 11.430 3
Campos border of the Sierra Nevada coincidental with the
5 Alcaza Dolomites 46.72 1.900 3 Padul–Nigulas fault. However, almost all of the
7 Agua Dolomites 11.51 1.110 3 mountain fronts have relatively low values of Smf.
10 Aceituno Dolomites 8.20 0.530 2 The considered fronts are shown in Fig. 12 and may
12 Luna (up) Marbles 33.90 0.550 1
be aggrupated into three main fronts:
12 Luna Calcareous 33.90 0.160 2
(down) sandstone, silts The fronts along the western border of Sierra Nevada
and sands (fronts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6): these are fronts showing straight
15 Albuñuelas Marbles 44.63 0.100 2 linear shapes and composed mainly by NW–SE border
18 Mizán de las Dolomites 10.97 0.880 2
Cuevas
20 Cortijo Guidalera Dolomites 2.29 0.780 1 Table 3
21 Zaza Mica–schist 16.42 0.078 1 Value of Bs (drainage basin shape index) in the analyzed basins or
24 Lanjarón Dolomites 50.56 0.150 1 subbasins (Bl: length of the basin measured from the headwaters to the
26 Tablate Dolomites 11.52 0.053 2 mouth; Bw: width of the basin measured at its widest point)
27 Chite Dolomites 7.55 0.520 1
29 Torrente Dolomites– 35.59 0.078 2 Ref. no. Basin Bl (m) Bw (m) Bs Class
phyllites 2 El Anciano 6036 2150 2.8 3
35 Dúrcal Marbles 65.80 0.039 1 3 Cuevas de Campo 5759 1500 3.8 2
35 Upper Dúrcal Alluvial fans 65.80 0.640 2 4 Almeiza 6006 2500 2.4 3
36 Los Lobos Dolomites 1.71 0.625 2 5 Alcaza 12,208 5761 2.1 3
37 Peña Horada Dolomites 1.12 0.833 2 6 El Capón 4758 2350 2.0 3
38 Raja Dolomites 3.00 0.530 2 7 El Agua 6313 2058 3.1 2
8 Búho 1931 622 3.1 2
9 Cortijo del Maestro 2324 630 3.7 2
are relatively straight with low values of Smf; but if the 10 El Aceituno 5579 1100 5.1 1
rate of uplift is reduced or ceases, then erosional 11 Torres 4727 1375 3.4 2
processes along the mountain front produce a more 12 Luna 11,185 3500 3.2 2
13 Doña María 6680 2125 3.1 2
sinuous front and thus lower value of Smf.
14 Madroñal 4146 2650 1.6 3
Values of Smf are readily calculated from topograph- 15 Albuñuelas 13,328 3350 4.0 1
ic maps or aerial photography. However, the value 16 La Cruz 6317 1800 3.5 2
obtained depends upon the scale (Bull and McFadden, 17 Cabezuelas 3971 1525 2.6 3
1977). Small-scale maps (1:250,000) produce approx- 18 Mizán de las Cuevas 5472 2678 2.0 3
19 Las Arenas 3352 1000 3.4 2
imate values of Smf, while larger scale topographic
20 Cortijo de Guindalera 3341 843 4.0 1
maps and aerial photography have higher resolution and 21 Zaza 7478 2426 3.1 2
are more appropriate for assessment of Smf. 22 La Calabacilla 2664 1368 1.9 3
Values of Smf approach 1.0 on the most tectonically 24 Lanjarón 19,843 3400 5.8 1
active fronts, whereas Smf increases if the rate of uplift 25 Salado 5455 1825 3.0 2
26 Tablate 9528 1600 6.0 1
is reduced and erosional processes begin to form a front
27 Chite 8314 1560 5.3 1
that becomes more irregular with time. Smf values lower 28 Pleito 6414 1125 5.7 1
than 1.4 indicate tectonically active fronts (Rockwell 29 Torrente 15,924 3650 4.4 1
et al., 1985; Keller, 1986) while higher Smf values (N 3) 30 Hojuela 2635 1100 2.4 3
are normally associated with inactive fronts in which the 31 El Baño 6500 2200 2.95 3
32 Rambla 5680 1530 3.7 2
initial range–front fault may be more than 1 km away
33 La Cantina 3441 1590 2.2 3
from the present erosional front (Bull and McFadden, 34 Las Pedrizas 3680 880 4.2 1
1977). 35 Dúrcal 17,644 4450 4.0 1
This index was also calculated in the Eastern Betic 36 Los Lobos 3331 630 5.3 1
Cordillera by Silva et al. (2003) using a topographic 37 Peña Horada 1972 550 3.6 2
38 Raja 2563 1050 2.4 3
map at scale 1:50,000 from which they obtained values
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173 165

Fig. 12. Mountain front segments with reference numbers delimited for the assessment of the Smf index (see Table 4 for mountain front names).

faults, although also some local fault segments show Triassic metamorphic rocks belonging to the Inner Zone
NE–SW trends. of the Betic Cordillera.
These faults, which usually dip toward SW or S, At the foot of these fronts Pliocene to Quaternary
associated with relatively high relief fronts eroded on deposits have been deposited and provide evidence for
recent active tectonics (deformed alluvial fans, fault
Table 4 breccias, deeply incised river channels and drainage
Values of the Smf (index of mountain front sinuosity) in the defined system).
mountain fronts (Lmf: length of the mountain front along the foot of
the mountain where a change in slope from the mountain to the
The fronts near Sierra de los Guájares (7, 8) have
piedmont occurs; Ls: straight line length of the mountain front) lower relief than the other fronts. Locally, the neogene
sediments and also the Quaternary alluvial fan deposits
Mountain front No Lmf Ls Smf Class
(m) (m) are back-tilted against the mountain front. The fault at
the front attains its greatest vertical displacement just
El Padul 1 5575 5022 1.11 2
El Manar 2 1925 1840 1.04 1 up-slope from deposition of Plio-Quaternary alluvial
Dúrcal 3 3522 3284 1.07 1 sediments (Sanz de Galdeano and López-Garrido,
Niguelas 4 3575 3372 1.07 1 2001). The fault scarps at some locations have a
Lecrín 5 5908 5253 1.12 2 young appearance with heights up to 20 m.
Tablate 6 5666 5195 1.09 1
The fronts around Sierra de Albuñuelas (9, 10, 11)
Guájares 7 10,855 9540 1.13 2
Cerro Llano 8 3834 3289 1.17 2 mainly follow a tectonic boundary between the alpu-
South of Sierra de Albuñuelas 9 10,619 7902 1.34 2 jarride units and the neogene deposits. It is remarkable
Conchar 10 5581 3662 1.52 3 the reduced development of alluvial fans and also the
North-East of Sierra de 11 9950 6176 1.61 3 drainage system, particularly in the Northern border, is
Albuñuelas
not as deeply incised as the previously mentioned fronts.
166 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173

4. Discussion of relative tectonic activity based on Table 5

geomorphic indices Classification of the Iat (relative tectonic activity index) in the
subbasins of the Izbor River basin (SL: stream length-gradient index;
Af: drainage basin asymmetry; Hi: hypsometric integral; Vf: ratio of
Several studies used a combination of two indexes valley floor width to valley height; Bs: index of drainage basin shape;
(Smf and Vf) to provide semi-quantitative information Smf: index of mountain-front sinuosity)
of relative degree of tectonic activity of mountain fronts. Ref. Basin Class of S/n Iat
Two studies using these indices provide an assignation no class
SL Af Hi Vf Bs Smf
to different tectonic activity classes (Bull and McFad-
1 Laguna 3 – 3 – – 3 3.00 4
den, 1977; Silva et al., 2003).
2 El Anciano 3 3 3 3 3 3 3.00 4
In some studies, the morphometric analysis includes 3 Cueva de Campos 3 2 2 3 2 3 2.50 4
the construction of diagrams for the Vf and Smf values, 4 Almeiza 3 3 3 – 3 3 3.00 4
such as frequency distribution diagrams, diagrams 5 Alcaza 3 3 1 3 3 3 2.60 4
showing the distribution of these values along streams 6 El Capón 2 – 3 – 3 3 2.75 4
7 El Agua 3 – 3 3 2 3 2.80 4
and along the mountain front. The Vf values are plotted
8 El Buhó 3 3 2 – 2 3 2.60 4
with the Smf values on a same diagram in order to 9 Cortijo del maestro – 2 1 – 2 2 1.75 2
produce a relative degree of tectonic activity and 10 El Aceituno 2 3 1 2 1 2 1.83 2
recognition of three different classes (Bull and McFad- 11 Torres – 1 2 – 2 2 1.75 2
den, 1977; Silva et al., 2003). These authors describe 12 Luna 2 – 1 2 2 2 1.80 2
13 Boña María 3 3 2 – 2 2 2.40 3
‘‘active fronts’’ as those with low values of Smf (b 1.6)
14 El Madroñal 2 3 2 – 2 2 2.20 3
and Vf (b 0.5) indexes, characterised by the occurrence 15 Albuñuelas 1 2 2 1 1 2 1.50 2
of steep, untrenched fans receiving Holocene sediments 16 La Cruz 1 1 1 – 2 2 1.40 1
at the apex, triggered by uplift rates ranging from 1 to 17 Cabezuelas 1 1 2 – 3 2 1.80 2
5 m/ka. Rockwell et al. (1984) suggest that lower uplift 18 Mizán de las Cuevas 1 – 1 2 3 2 1.80 2
19 Las Arenas 2 1 1 – 2 2 1.60 2
rates of 0.4–0.5 m/ka were sufficient to keep Smf values
20 Cortijo Gundalera – – 2 2 1 2 1.75 2
down to 1.4 and Vf values down to 1, and therefore to 21 Zaza 2 1 1 1 2 2 1.50 2
generate active fronts (Class 1). In addition, Rockwell 22 Calabacilla 2 3 3 – 3 – 2.75 4
et al., reported also that proximally trenched fans can 23 Upper Izbor 1 – 1 – – – 1.00 1
develop along active fronts. 24 Lanjarón 1 – 1 1 1 1 1.00 1
25 Salado 1 1 1 – 2 1 1.20 1
These studies focused the assessment of active
26 Tablate 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.00 1
tectonics along mountain fronts and not an areal, 27 Chite 1 3 1 2 1 2 1.67 2
regional assessment of active tectonics. 28 Pleito 1 2 1 – 1 1 1.20 1
In this study we presented the data on geomorphic 29 Torrente 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.00 1
indices that have been used in other studies to evaluate 30 Hojuela 3 3 1 – 3 – 2.50 4
31 Baño 2 2 3 – 3 – 2.50 4
the landscape in terms of potential tectonic activity. In
32 Rambla 1 3 3 – 2 1 2.00 3
general, the indices along a particular mountain front or 33 Cantina 2 2 1 – 3 1 1.80 2
area are discussed and a judgment made concerning 34 Pedrizas 1 3 2 – 1 1 1.60 2
relative tectonic activity (Bull and McFadden, 1977; 35 Dúrcal 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.00 1
Rockwell et al., 1985; Azor et al., 2002; Molin et al., 36 Los Lobos 1 1 1 2 1 1 1.70 1
37 Peña Horada 2 1 1 2 2 1 1.50 2
2004). We now present a method to evaluate an index
38 Raja 3 1 3 2 3 2 2.33 3
over an area that represents relative tectonic activity
(Iat). We arbitrarily divide the various indices into three
classes, with class one being high activity and class
three being low activity (Table 5). The boundaries of the fronts) have been attempted. Therefore, in order to
various classes change for what index is being develop an areal index, we have made arbitrary, best
evaluated; and for our purpose here, we have chosen estimate decisions. Iat is obtained by the average of the
the boundaries that generally agree with changes in the different classes of geomorphic indices (S/n) and
range of the values of the various indices. Admittedly, divided into four classes, where class 1 is very high
the boundaries chosen for the various indices (Table 5) tectonic activity with values of S/n between 1 and 1.5;
could be improved were rates of uplift or other class 2 is high tectonic activity with values of S/n N 1.5
indications of active tectonics known. Unfortunately, but b 2; class 3 is moderately active tectonics with S/
very few studies to determine relative active tectonics of n N 2 but b 2.5; and class 4 is low active tectonics with
the landscape (mountain blocks, basins, and mountain values of S/n N 2.5. We have chosen to have three classes
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173
of tectonic activity for the various indices, but added
class 4 for Iat because in a few areas (particularly in the
eastern part of the study area) indices of tectonic
geomorphology suggest a large area of unusually low
values suggesting greater tectonic activity. The averag-
ing of the indices of the active tectonics S/n and values
of Iat are summarized in Table 5 for 38 drainage basins
in the study area (see Fig. 2 for basin locations).
The high class values (low tectonic activity) for Iat
mainly occur in the north to northeast of Sierra de
Albuñuelas, while the rest of the study area has classes
of Iat suggesting moderate to high tectonic activity
(south of Sierra de Albuñuelas, north of Sierra de Los
Guájares, and near Padul; and very high along parts of
the border of the Sierra Nevada). The distribution of the
indices defines areas associated with different mountain
fronts and estimates of relative rates of tectonic activity
(Fig. 13). Within the study area, about 45% (201 km2) is
class 1 (very high relative tectonic activity) as measured
by Iat; 22% (99 km2) shows high relative tectonic
activity as measured by Iat (class 2); 12% (53 km2) has
moderate values of tectonic activity in terms of Iat (class
3); and 21% (96 km2) has the lowest values of relative
Fig. 13. Distribution of the Iat index of relative active tectonics in the Izbor River basin.
167
tectonic activity (class 4) based upon Iat. Thus, two-
thirds of the study area is classified into classes 2 or 1 of
high to very high tectonic activity in terms of the
apparent geomorphic response. In different tectonic
environments with greater rates of active tectonics, the
values of indices would differ as well as their range in
value. Values of Iat would also be different, as would the
boundaries between classes of relative tectonic activity.
However, the methodology we outline would provide an
index based on area that estimates relative tectonic
activity as it has for the study area in SW Spain.
The proposed GIS methodology allows a map
showing relative tectonic activity of the landscape to
be produced. This method has been linked to landslide
susceptibility mapping (El Hamdouni, 2001) in alpine
and similar landscapes with widespread evidences of
recent active tectonics. The criteria for the different
classifications proposed by several authors previously
mentioned are summarized in Table 6. The classification
used in this paper for each geomorphic index is also
included. The proposed integrated index (Iat) has no
antecedents in the available literature as it is determined
by six geomorphic indexes across the landscape.
168 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173

5. Field evidence of active tectonics
An obvious question is how well does Iat and the
other indices we use to evaluate relative tectonic activity
compare to field evidence of active tectonics?. Vertical
rates of active tectonics in southern Spain are all but
unknown because of the lack of chronology of
Quaternary units. Abundant evidence is available
concerning amounts of vertical displacement, but
lacking absolute dates has made interpretation of active
tectonics difficult. What is known is that rates along the
border of the Sierra Nevada vary from about 0.4 to 0.6 m/
ky (Keller et al., 1996). However, these rates are often
based on displacement over several million years (Sanz
de Galdeano, 1996; Sanz de Galdeano et al., 1998).
Along the southern edge of the Sierra Nevada, Iat
varies from moderate to very high; and this is one of the
areas where a fair amount of information concerning the
active tectonics is known (Keller et al., 1996). The
Padul–Nigüelas fault, forming a prominent set of
mountain fronts has dramatic expression of active
tectonics (Fig. 14). Straight mountain fronts and deeply
incised drainages are characteristics as are prominent
fault scarps often a meter or two high (Fig. 15). A
prominent fault with triangular facets (Fig. 14) is the
boundary in some locations between the Sierra Nevada
and Granada Basin that is filled with sediments from
Miocene to Holocene age. The fault is known to be tilted
along some of segments as a result of progressive
extension along different segments of the fault. In some
areas the fault dips 30° or locally less, although
originally it probably had a dip of around 60°. At the
North of Nigüelas Village, the fault at the surface has a
good exposure, but is partly buried by Pleistocene
deposits that were later deformed and tilted by more
recent fault movement. Simultaneously, alluvial fans
developed at the base of the front suggesting differential
movements and displacement along faults (Sanz de
Galdeano, 1996; Sanz de Galdeano et al., 1998).
Drainage networks along the southern border of the
Sierra Nevada dissect Quaternary deposits. Outcrops at
some locations have highly deformed sediments of
Pliocene to Pleistocene age (Sanz de Galdeano et al.,
1998). In some locations along La Raja Creek, there are
synthetic convergent faults, associated with the main
Padul–Nigüelas fault, showing drag folding and tilting.
Pleistocene deposits are tilted 40° against the mountain
front within about 100 m upstream of the main fault
(Sanz de Galdeano et al., 1998).
The mountain front (Fig. 14) shows well-developed
triangular facets produced by stream dissection along
the SW border of the Sierra Nevada (Birot, 1965; Riley
and Moore, 1993). These facets suggest active faulting
during the Quaternary (Silva, 1994). Also suggestive are
triangular facets at different elevations that suggest
several stages of uplift and reactivation of tectonic
process (Riley and Moore, 1993). These authors
establish six generations of triangular facets along the
fault zone, four of which are shown on the current
mountain front and two others are at higher elevations
closer to the crest of the Sierra Nevada. The lower two or
three sets of facets are clearly shown in Fig. 14.
The Padul basin, located at the foot of the SW border
of the Sierra Nevada, suggests Pleistocene to Holocene

Table 6
Comparison between the geomorphic indexes classifications used in this study and others from USA (Bull and McFadden, 1977; Rockwell et al.,
1985) and Eastern Betic Cordillera (Silva et al., 2003)
Bull and McFadden (1977) Rockwell et al. Silva et al. Present study
(1985) (2003)
Class 1 Smf: 1.2–1.6 Uplift rate: N 0.4–0.5 m/ka Smf b 1.53 Smf:b 1.1
Vf: 0.055–0.5 Smf b 1.4 Vf b 0.5
–Unentrenched alluvial fans Vf b 1 Vf b 0.60 SL: High anomalous values
–Elongated drainage basins with narrow valley |Af-50|N 15
floors and steep hillslopes even in soft materials Bs N 4
Class 2 Smf: 1.8–3.4 Uplift rate: 0.5–0.05 m/ka Smf 1.8–2.3 Smf: 1.1–1.5
Vf: 0.5–3.6 Vf: 0.5–1
–Entrenched alluvial fans Vf 0.3–0.8 SL: Low anomalous values
–Large drainage basin that are more circular than class 1 |FA-50|: 7–15
Bs: 4–3
Class 3 Smf: 2–7 Uplift rate: b 0.05 m/ka Smf 2.8–3.5 Smf N 1.5
Vf: 2–47 Smf N 1.4 Vf: N 1
–Pedimented fronts and embayments, Vf N 1 Vf 0.8–1.2 SL: no anomalies
–Steep hillslopes only on resistant rock types and |Af-50|b 7
few large integrated stream system in the mountains Bs b 3
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173 169

Fig. 14. Aerial picture of the Padul–Nigüelas fault with its linear trenes and the associated alluvial fans (photography kindly acknowledged to Prof. F.
Aldaya †).

subsidence. A series of peat deposits in the basin are northern margin coincidental with geomorphic indices
dated by 14C; ages are between ∼ 2 and 40 ky (Domingo that suggest relatively moderate to high active tectonics.
et al., 1983). Evaluation of the peat stratigraphy suggests At several locations along the SW border of the
that the more active part of the basin is along the Sierra Nevada, there are alluvial fans segmentation,

Fig. 15. Fresh scarp in Pleistocene deposits at the western end of the Padul–Nigüelas fault.
170 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173
Fig. 16. The alluvial fans in La Raja creek, in the Puntal sector (North of Padul), showing the layers of Pleistocene deposits dipping against the natural
slope and its faulting. The recent alluvial fans fossilize these faults.
recognized by changes in slope. Segmentation in some
cases is from Quaternary faulting (Sanz de Galdeano
et al., 1998) and results from subsidence where the
fans were being deposited. In some locations alluvial
fans are oversteepened from their original depositional
slope and therefore have been tilted by active tectonics
as it is shown in Fig. 16 in the El Puntal alluvial
fan north of the village of Padul. The accumulation
of nearly 100 m of deposits of alluvial fans (García
et al., 1998) suggests extensional deformation of the
region during Quaternary time, expressed by subsidence
of the basin.
The descriptions above of tectonic landforms corre-
spond well with the classification of Iat of moderate to
high tectonic activity. This constitutes the most direct
evidence for active tectonics that reflect the values of the
active tectonic indices. We will now consider more
secondary evidence related to drainage network and
erosion.
Geomorphic analysis of drainage networks and
stream profiles are reflected in the SL index described
earlier. Anomalies in the index were detected in most of
the river profiles along the border of the Sierra Nevada
and Sierra de Los Guájares. Other evidence of rapid
incision includes hanging valleys (Silva, 1988). Often
there are deep narrow gorges observed close to
mountain fronts that dissect alluvial fans emerging
from those fronts. Fig. 17 shows the Tablate River
deeply incised into bedrock. Travertine deposits in the
Durcal River channel draining the Sierra Nevada have
been dated as Pleistocene in age from uranium series
dating (Chacón, 1999; El Hamdouni, 2001), and the
travertine deposit is now 123 m above the valley floor.
This suggests rapid rates of incision and active tectonics
and is reflected by the geomorphic analysis.
6. Conclusions
Geomorphic indices of active tectonics are useful
tools to analyze the influence of active tectonics. These
indices have the advantage of being calculated from GIS
and remote sensing packages over large areas as a
reconnaissance tool to identify geomorphic anomalies
possibly related to active tectonics. This is particularly
valuable in southern Spain where relatively little work
on active tectonics based on absolute dates are available.
Based upon values of the stream length-gradient index
(SL), asymmetric factor (Af), hypsometric integral (Hi),
ratio of valley-floor width to valley height (Vf), basin
drainage shape (Bs), and index of mountain front
sinuosity (Smf), we developed an overall index (Iat)
that is a combination of the other indices that divides
 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173 171

Fig. 17. Tablate River with an important stream excavation.

the landscape into four classes of relative tectonic
activity.
The low class 4 of Iat is mainly in the NNE of Sierra
de Albuñuelas, while the rest of the study areas have
moderate to high active tectonics (south of Sierra de
Albuñuelas, north of Sierra de Los Guájares, and the
area surrounding Padul or very high (along parts of the
border of the Sierra Nevada). In the study area, about
two thirds of the total area, Iat is classified as 2 or 1,
meaning high to very high active tectonics for this
tectonic setting. This suggests that further detailed
evaluation of Quaternary chronology along with major
displacements will be fruitful in future research.
A comparison of field observations of active
tectonics along the western and southern flanks of the
Sierra Nevada clearly coincide with the values and
classes of active tectonics indices and the overall Iat
index. That is, areas with moderate to high and very high
relative tectonic activity index correspond with areas
where prominent fault scarps, triangular facets, hanging
valleys, deformed alluvial fan deposits, and deep narrow
river gorges incised near mountain fronts exist.
Acknowledgements
This research has been funded by CICYT projects
REN2002-03366, “Landslides and active tectonics in
the Guadalfeo River basin: mapping of its vulnerability
and associated risks ” and CGL2005-03332, “ Land-
slides forecasting maps at static and dynamic conditions
and detailed scale using GIS and remote sensing:
application to the Central-Eastern Andalusian region”
and Andalusian Excellence Project P06-RNM-02125,
“Development of automatic techniques for the inventory
172 R. El Hamdouni et al. / Geomorphology 96 (2008) 150–173
of unstable zones based on photogrammetry, remote
sensing and GIS”. Also by funds obtained by the “Group
of Environmental Researches: Geological Hazards and
Terrain Engineering” Code RNM 121 Plan Andaluz de
Investigación (Junta de Andalucía). The considerable
improvement of the manuscript by referee's comments
and recommendations is also highly acknowledged.
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