Edward Thorndike's 
Connectionism Theory 2. Set of attitudes
In a report published in 1910 in The Journal of Educational Psychology, entitled “The
Contribution of Psychology to Education”, Edward Thorndike –a prominent
American psychologist- introduced a set of principles that would come to be known
as Thorndike's Laws. According to these Laws, learning is achieved when an
individual is able to form associations between a particular stimulus and a response.
These are known as “habits”, and can either be encouraged or deterred by external
parameters and the frequency an individual is exposed to the stimulus and the
response.In a learning environment, Thondike's Laws highlight the importance of
rewards and emphasize on the necessity of practice and repetition. More
specifically, the Law of Readiness (see below) suggests that a teacher can only
instruct a student if that student is willing to be educated. When a student does not
show any signs of readiness, a teacher should provide instructions that will help the
student develop.
Thorndike's Learning Laws
1. Law of effect
An individual's response to a specific situation followed by a reward will
eventually make those responses stronger. Therefore, the responses
become habits when the individual is presented with that particular
situation again. Additionally, if a response deters an individual from
achieving a reward, or a “rewarding state”, then this response becomes
weaker.
2. Law of readiness
A series or a set of responses can be linked together in order to achieve a
goal. If the person is prevented from achieving this goal, this will cause
“annoyance”.
3. Law of exercise
Frequently made associations become strengthened. Likewise, rare or
sporadic associations become weaker.
Thorndike’s Learning Theory
Thorndike’s learning theory, however, consists of numerous additional laws:
1. Multiple responses
In any given situation, an individual might react in a variety of ways if the
initial reaction does not immediately lead to a satisfying result.
Individuals are inclined to react in a particular way. These reactions are
unique for species or groups of related species.
3. Prepotency of elements
Individuals are able to filter out any irrelevant aspects of a particular
situation and respond only to significant parameters that directly affect
this situation.
4. Response by analogy
Reactions from a previously experienced situation might be transferred to a
new one. This is also called Theory of Identical Elements.
5. Associative shifting
Sometimes, a reaction to a certain stimulus might shift to a different one.
Thorndike’s Connectionism  Theory
Thorndike also suggested the Connectionism Theory, which is based on the ideas
presented by associationism. In this theory, Thorndike hypothesized that certain
elements become associated though a similar experience and that more complex
ideas can be taught or explained through a series of simplified rules. In this theory,
there are four key principles:
1. Learning involves both practice and a reward system (based upon the law
of effect).
2. Stimulus and response associations can be linked if they are part of the
same “action sequence” (based upon the law of readiness).
3. The transfer of knowledge and learning is based on situations that have
been previously experienced by the individual.
4. Intelligence is determined by how many of these associations have been
learned and/or acquired
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring
them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes,
even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies,
abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.
––John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930
Forget your thoughts, emotions, moods, preconceived notions and beliefs. Your
actions, your behavior, everything you physically do can be controlled through
conditioning. In summary, your physical behavior can be measured, trained, and
altered based off of changes in your environmental stimuli, despite the thoughts in
your head screaming “No, no, no!” Well, at least that’s what Radical Behaviorists
believed in the early 1900s.
In general, behaviorism is a theoretical approach in psychology that emphasizes the
study of behavior, more specifically, the observable reactions to stimuli rather than
the conscience and mental thoughts (Weidman 2005, p. 205). In other words, it
focuses on behavior noticeable on the outside rather than invisible behavior in the
inside of one's mind. Predominantly centered in the United States, behaviorism had
two phases: the first dominated by psychologist John B. Watson and the second led
by the equally renowned psychologists Edward C. Tolman, Clark Hull, and B.F.
Skinner. According to professor George Rey (2006), the first phase consisted of the
eliminativist strategy which proposed to exclude mental phenomena and explain all
human and animal behavior in terms of physically specified stimuli, responses, and
reinforcements (p. 520). Contrastingly, the second phase, which was dominated by
the reductionist strategy, attempted not to eliminate aspects of the mind, but
rather to save them by identifying them with existing physical phenomena (Rey,
2006, p. 520). This chapter focuses on the first phase of behaviorism, known as
Radical Behaviorism, which shaped society, culture, and beliefs throughout the
1910s-1930s.
To start with, the combined works of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike and John
Watson culminated in Radical Behaviorism, which was continually revised through
the studies of future behaviorists. Its roots go back to the 1700s and are derived
from John Locke’s empiricist theories of the mind being a tabula rasa––a blank
tablet which develops through experience (Andrea & Neel, 2011, p. 381). However,
this conventional postulation did not please radical behaviorists completely. They
thought it was too reliant on aspects of the mind (e.g. private entities, ideas, and
impressions) which the behaviorists thought improper for objective scientific
inquiry. In their reevaluation of psychology, radical behaviorists proposed that there
are associations among physically characterizable stimuli and an organism’s sensory
and responsive system. In Mr. Hunt’s words, they began “making connections
*insert appropriate hand motion*” between the physical and mental phenomena of
humans.
The first branch of Psychology, Behaviorism, is based on the studies of Ivan Pavlov
in the late 1800’s. This section of Psychology is completely focused around a
subject’s response to stimuli, external environment, patterns, and how he/she
relates training and conditioning to rewards and punishments. Strict Behaviorists,
such as the branch’s founder, John Watson, tend to believe that the unconscious
and the mind should not be included in the study of the human experience.
Ivan Pavlov, the creator of Behaviorism
As the years passed, the traditional view of Behaviorism morphed into the theory of
Neobehaviorism in the 1930’s. The most simple way to describe it: Neobehaviorists
believe that behavior should be the focus of Psychology but accept theoretical
speculation of the human mind. For example, if a neobehaviorist were to come back
and recreate the “Little Albert Experiment” done by John Watson in the 1920’s,
rather than focusing solely on classical conditioning, the neobehaviorist may go
through and research more into the child’s fear itself. Why are children instinctively
afraid of loud noises? The main Psychologists that influenced Neobehaviorism are
Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, and B.F. Skinner (who was by far the most radical).
If Neobehaviorists were to study York Students in their day-to-day lives, they would
most likely study what drives York students to behave the way they do. Why do
they want to play sports? Is the reward to that student to stay in shape, to excel in
an aspect of their lives, to please their parents? And why are most York students
driven to go to college? This is where they may bring in some Psychological
thoughts: aside from the reward of an education and pleasing themselves and those
around them, what makes York Students different from an average high school
student pool? Is it the way they are raised, the environment they learn in? Mixing
the behavior and drives of humans with possible psychological influences is what
the Neobehaviorists are all about.
Tolman and Neobehaviorism
Edward C. Tolman was a psychologist who studied at Harvard, taught at Berkeley
most of his life and wrote a book called Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men in
1932. In his book, he emphasized that he wanted to use Behaviorist methods to
study the minds of humans and animals, yet his ideas were based around the
theory of Purposive Behaviorism. This means he believed that exact nerves, glands,
etc. were less influential than the purpose of the animal or human doing the
behavior in shaping the behavior itself. For example, primary animal purposes and
drives relate to food. If the purpose of an animal is to eat, their behavior (whether
aggressive, sneaky, etc.) is based on their need to achieve the goal of eating food.
This is a simple concept a Yorkie can understand. When the vending machine was
taken away, all York students were running around with dollar bills in their hands
trying to find food. They even sneaked into Mrs. Sherry and Mrs. Scott's offices to
try to find a cup'o'noodles or chocolates! They would do anything (i.e. behave any
way) to achieve that goal of finding a snack. This theory allowed Tolman to remain a
Behaviorist by focusing on behavior but also incorporating the mind and intent into
his studies.
Tolman and Learning
While he is not the inventor of latent learning, his ideas are considered important in
the theories of latent learning. Tolman's view on how we learn was distinct from
the behaviorists' perspective in that Tolman, while believing in objectivity and
empiricism, did not believe that reinforcement of any kind was necessary for
learning.
Tolman's experiment
Tolman, in collaboration with C. H. Honzik, worked on an experiment involving rats
finding their way through a maze. They allowed their rats to explore the maze with
no obvious reward for a few days. During this time, the rats developed a cognitive
map . Then the researchers placed a reward in the maze. After placing this obvious
reward, the rats that experienced latent learning (for at least 13 days) actually did
better than the rats that received constant reinforcement. The average number of
errors made in the maze was lower for the group that went through latent learning
Clark L. Hull
Neobehaviorism
Clark L. Hull studied Psychology at the University of Michigan and later became a
professor at Yale. Similar to Tolman, Hull believed that in order to study a subject’s
response to stimuli, one must be able to study the learning and motivation of the
subject’s behavior, as well. In the peak of his studies, Hull wrote Mathematico-
Deductive Theory of Rote Learning (1940) and The Principles of Behavior (1943).
Hull’s focus differed from Tolman in the way he focused on the molecular behavior
of a subject, and how those molecules form connections between external
environment and internal drives.
The sum of Hull’s Behaviorist theory: organisms suffer deprivation, deprivation
creates needs, needs activate drives; drives activate behavior, behavior is goal
directed, achieving the goal has survival value (Wikipedia). Any Yorkie can
understand this theory. Think about how important it is to get a good grade on that
Psychology test. If you get an A on this test, it’s an A for the year! The need here is a
good grade. This need gives you the drive to want to achieve the A grade. This drive
activates the behavior, in this case studying nightly everything you’ve learned in
CTorg Psychology. You’re aiming for the goal: highest grade in the class. Once you
have achieved your goal, you survived the year with an A. Your survival rate in more
difficult classes is upped now too, because you’re more prepared with all of this
practice.
B.F. Skinner
Neobehaviorism
Tolman and Hull‍are not the only two neobehaviorist psychologists. B.F. Skinner is
known as a radical behaviorist. He first started to study Behaviorism after reading
John Watson's book on the subject, and Skinner later decided to make his own
version of Operant Behaviorism. He received his PhD. form Harvard a few years
later. Skinner began his Behaviorist studies by focusing on reflexes and observation
because he believed they related directly to the subject responding to the external
environment. To him, behavior was purely based on consequences and the events
that follow specific responses. For example, he performed experiments on rats, and
determined how they would change their behavior based on their reward, a food
pellet. This device in which he tested these theories is commonly known as
"Skinner's Box." Unlike many Psychologists of the time, he did not relate any of his
studies to the internal human state Psychological theories. Later he brought in
Operant Conditioning (where Reinforcement is key), which he felt was much more
important than Classical Conditioning.
B.F. Skinner at Harvard, circa 1950
If B.F. Skinner were to study a York student, he would probably do something along
the lines of what he did with his rats, only he'd try to bribe them with what Yorkies
really love: good grades. Skinner would train the students to write a certain way on
their Psychology homework, and once they used the key phrase he was looking for,
he'd give them an 'A'. Once the Yorkies realize that this phrase is what Skinner is
looking for, they will continue that behavior in order to receive their reward (good
grades).
Watch this podcast, which gives an overview on the influence B.F. Skinner had on
Behaviorism and Learning.
Edward Thorndike:
Theory of Connectionism
Edward Thorndike work on animal behaviour and the learning process led to the
theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for modern
educational psychology.
Thorndike was one of the first pioneers of active learning, a theory that proposes
letting children learn themselves, rather than receiving instruction from teachers.
Thorndike's early studies with animal behaviour led him to declare his Law of Effect.
The Law of
Effect states that:
  Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened
 Responses that are followed by discomfort are weakened.
Thorndike's Law of Exercise continued this line of thought;
 Stimulus-response connections that are repeated are strengthened
 Stimulus-response connections that are not used are weakened.
Edward Thorndike later conducted research that provided evidence that the Law of
Exercise lacked validity. Thorndike characterized the two most basic intelligences as
Trial-and-Error and Stimulus-Response Association.
Thorndike's Theory of Learning
 The most basic form of learning is trial and error learning.
 Learning is incremental not insightful.
 Learning is not mediated by ideas.
 All mammals learn in the same manner.
 Law of readiness: Interference with goal directed behaviour causes
frustration and causing someone to do something they do not want to do
is also frustrating.
a. When someone is ready to perform some act, to do so is satisfying.
b. When someone is ready to perform some act, not to do so is annoying.
c. When someone is not ready to perform some act and is forced to do so, it is
annoying.
 Law of Exercise: We learn by doing. We forget by not doing, although to a
small extent only.
a. Connections between a stimulus and a response are strengthened as they are
used (law of use)
b. Connections between a stimulus and a response are weakened as they are not
used (law of disuse)
 Law of effect: If the response in a connection is followed by a satisfying
state of affairs, the strength of the connection is considerably increased
whereas if followed by an annoying state of affairs, then the strength of
the connection is marginally decreased.
 Multiple Responses: A learner would keep trying multiple responses to
solve a problem before it is actually solved.
 Set or Attitude: What the learner already possesses, like prior learning
experiences, present state of the learner, etc., while it begins learning a
new task.
 Prepotency of Elements: Different responses to the same environment
would be evoked by different perceptions of the environment which act as
the stimulus to the responses. Different perceptions would be subject to
the prepotency of different elements for different perceivers.
 Response from analogy: New problems are solved by using solution
techniques employed to solve analogous problems.
 Associative Shifting: Let stimulus S be paired with response R. Now, if
stimulus Q is presented simultaneously with stimulus S repeatedly, then
stimulus Q is likely to get paired with response R.
 Belongingness: If there is a natural relationship between the need state of
an organism and the effect caused by a response, learning is more effective
than if the relationship is unnatural.
Edward Thorndike specified three conditions that maximized learning: 
 The law of effect stated that the likely recurrence of a response is generally
governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or
punishment. 
 The law of recency stated that the most recent response is likely to govern
the recurrence. 
 The law of exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are
strengthened through repetition.
Major Contributions
 Edward Thorndike published about 500 books and articles as learning in
fish, methods of statistical analysis and the elements of aesthetic quality in
urban life.
 He studied animal intelligence... known for his 'cats in a puzzle box'
experiments on Trial and Error.
 He applied animal to human educational experience; he was once the
leader in this field.
1910 – Thorndike introduces his Laws and Connectionism Theory, which are based 1. Multiple responses
on the Active Learning Principles. Check the Instructional Design Models and In any given situation, an individual might react in a variety of ways if the
Theories: Connectionism Theory article and presentation to find more. initial reaction does not immediately lead to a satisfying result.

Edward Thorndike's Connectionism Theory 2. Set of attitudes

In a report published in 1910 in The Journal of Educational Psychology, entitled
“The Contribution of Psychology to Education”, Edward Thorndike –a prominent
American psychologist- introduced a set of principles that would come to be known 3.
as Thorndike's Laws. According to these Laws, learning is achieved when an
individual is able to form associations between a particular stimulus and a response.
These are known as “habits”, and can either be encouraged or deterred by external
parameters and the frequency an individual is exposed to the stimulus and the
response.In a learning environment, Thondike's Laws highlight the importance of 4.
rewards and emphasize on the necessity of practice and repetition. More
specifically, the Law of Readiness (see below) suggests that a teacher can only
instruct a student if that student is willing to be educated. When a student does not
show any signs of readiness, a teacher should provide instructions that will help the 5.
student develop.
Individuals are inclined to react in a particular way. These reactions are
unique for species or groups of related species.
Prepotency of elements
Individuals are able to filter out any irrelevant aspects of a particular
situation and respond only to significant parameters that directly affect
this situation.
Response by analogy
Reactions from a previously experienced situation might be transferred to
a new one. This is also called Theory of Identical Elements.
Associative shifting
Sometimes, a reaction to a certain stimulus might shift to a different one.

Thorndike's Learning Laws Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory

1. Law of effect Thorndike also suggested the Connectionism Theory, which is based on the ideas
An individual's response to a specific situation followed by a reward will presented by associationism. In this theory, Thorndike hypothesized that certain
eventually make those responses stronger. Therefore, the responses elements become associated though a similar experience and that more complex
become habits when the individual is presented with that particular ideas can be taught or explained through a series of simplified rules. In this theory,
situation again. Additionally, if a response deters an individual from there are four key principles:
achieving a reward, or a “rewarding state”, then this response becomes
1. Learning involves both practice and a reward system (based upon the law
weaker.
of effect).
2. Law of readiness
2. Stimulus and response associations can be linked if they are part of the
A series or a set of responses can be linked together in order to achieve a
same “action sequence” (based upon the law of readiness).
goal. If the person is prevented from achieving this goal, this will cause
“annoyance”. 3. The transfer of knowledge and learning is based on situations that have
been previously experienced by the individual.
3. Law of exercise
Frequently made associations become strengthened. Likewise, rare or 4. Intelligence is determined by how many of these associations have been
sporadic associations become weaker. learned and/or acquired
Thorndike’s Learning Theory David Ausubel, M.D. (1918 - 2008 )
Meaningful Verbal Learning
Thorndike’s learning theory, however, consists of numerous additional laws:
Subsumption Theory

Biography
David Ausubel was an American psychologist who did his undergraduate work at
the University of Pennsylvania (pre-med and psychology). He graduated from
medical school at Middlesex University. Later he earned a Ph.D in Developmental
Psychology at Columbia University. He was influenced by the work of Piaget. He
served on the faculty at several universities and retired from academic life in 1973
and began his practice in psychiatry. Dr. Ausubel published several textbooks in
developmental and educational psychology, and more than 150 journal articles. He
was awarded the Thorndike Award for "Distinguished Psychological Contributions
to Education" by the American Psychological Association (1976).
Theory
Ausubel, whose theories are particularly relevant for educators, considered neo-
behaviorist views inadequate. Although he recognized other forms of learning, his
work focused on verbal learning. He dealt with the nature of meaning, and believes
the external world acquires meaning only as it is converted into the content of
consciousness by the learner.
Meaningful Verbal Learning
Meaning is created through some form of representational equivalence between
language (symbols) and mental context. Two processes are involved:
1. Reception, which is employed in meaningful verbal learning, and
2. Discovery, which is involved in concept formation and problem solving.
Ausubel's work has frequently been compared with Bruner's. The two held similar
views about the hierarchical nature of knowledge, but Bruner was strongly oriented
toward discovery processes, where Ausubel gave more emphasis to the verbal
learning methods of speech, reading and writing.
Subsumption Theory
To subsume is to incorporate new material into one's cognitive structures. From
Ausubel's perspective, this is the meaning of learning. When information is
subsumed into the learner's cognitive structure it is organized hierarchically. New
material can be subsumed in two different ways, and for both of these, no
meaningful learning takes place unless a stable cognitive structure exists. This
existing structure provides a framework into which the new learning is related,
hierarchically, to the previous information or concepts in the individual's cognitive
structure.
When one encounters completely new unfamiliar material, then rote learning, as
opposed to meaningful learning, takes place. This rote learning may eventually
contribute to the construction of a new cognitive structure which can later be used
in meaningful learning. The two types of subsumption are:
1. Correlative subsumption - new material is an extension or elaboration of what is
already known.
2. Derivative subsumption - new material or relationships can be derived from the
existing structure. Information can be moved in the hierarchy, or linked to other
concepts or information to create new interpretations or meaning. From this type
of subsumption, completely new concepts can emerge, and previous concepts can
be changed or expanded to include more of the previously existing information.
This is "figuring out".
Ausubel is a proponent of didactic, expository teaching methods. From this
perspective, expository (verbal) learning approaches encourage rapid learning and
retention, whereas discovery learning (Bruner) facilitates transfer to other contexts.
Advanced Organizers
Ausubel contributed much to the theoretical body of cognitive learning theory, but
not as much to the practical classroom aspects as Bruner and others. Ausubel's
most notable contribution for classroom application was the advance organizer.
The advance organizer is a tool or a mental learning aid to help students `integrate
new information with their existing knowledge, leading to "meaningful learning" as
opposed to rote memorization. It is a means of preparing the learner's cognitive
structure for the learning experience about to take place. It is a device to activate
the relevant schema or conceptual patterns so that new information can be more
readily `subsumed' into the learner's existing cognitive structures.
Ausubel believed that it was important for teachers to provide a preview of
information to be learned. Teachers could do this by providing a brief introduction
about the way that information that is going to be presented is structured. This
would enable students to start with a "Big Picture" of the upcoming content, and
link new ideas, concepts, vocabulary, to existing mental maps of the content area.
 
Learning Theory Bibliography
Subsumption Theory  (David Ausubel)
Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of
meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in
contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According
to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and
combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary
process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas
in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive 1.
structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs
because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.
2.
A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance
organizers:
The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then
progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.
Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with
previously presented information through comparisons and cross-
referencing of new and old ideas.

"These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also
presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since
the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on
the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material
they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the
programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive
structure." (1963 , p. 81).
Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and
summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level
of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a
subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.
Metacognition Theory
Biography
John Flavell of Stanford University is regarded as a foundation researcher in
metacognition. He was influenced by the work of Jean Piaget. One of Flavell's
significant accomplishments was the publication of his book, The Developmental
Psychology of Jean Piaget (Flavell, 1963). While many recent researchers now
challenge certain aspects of Piaget's theories, many ideas that he proposed have
found their way into the conventional wisdom of metacognition. Included among
those is the notion of intentionality. Intentionality presupposes thinking that is
deliberate and goal-directed, and involves planning a sequence of actions.

Ausubel's theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that involve
schema (e.g., Bartlett< ) as a central principle. There are also similarities with
Bruner's "spiral learning" model , although Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption
involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of new
structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by
the work of Piaget on cognitive development.
Application
Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository)
learning in school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and
discovery learning; the former because it doesn't involve subsumption (i.e.,
meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information
through problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the
effects of advance organizers in learning (see Ausubel, 1968, 1978).
Ausubel (1963, p. 80) cites Boyd's textbook of pathology as an example of
progressive differentiation because the book presents information according to
general processes (e.g., inflammation, degeneration) rather than by describing
organ systems in isolation. He also cites the Physical Science Study Committee
curriculum which organizes material according to the major ideas of physics instead
of piece-meal discussion of principle or phenomenon (p. 78).
Principles
Theory
Flavell (1971) used the term metamemory in regard to an individual's ability to
manage and monitor the input, storage, search and retrieval of the contents of his
own memory. Flavell invited the academic community to come forth with additional
metamemory research, and this theme of metacognitive research has continued
more than thirty years later. He implied with his statements that metacognition is
intentional, conscious, foresighted, purposeful, and directed at accomplishing a goal
or outcome. These implications have all been carefully scrutinized in subsequent
research, and in some cases have been the subjects of controversy among
researchers in metacognition. For example, Reder & Schunn (1996) and Kentridge
and Heywood (2000) argue that metacognitive processes need not operate in a
person's conscious awareness.
In his 1976 article, Flavell recognized that metacognition consisted of both
monitoring and regulation aspects. It was here that the term metacognition was
first formally used in the title of his paper. He defined metacognition as follows: "In
any kind of cognitive transaction with the human or non-human environment, a
variety of information processing activities may go on. Metacognition refers, among
other things, to the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration
of these processes in relation to the cognitive objects or data on which they bear,
usually in service of some concrete goal or objective." (p.232). Hacker (1998)
offered a more comprehensive definition of metacognition, to include the
knowledge of one's own cognitive and affective processes and states as well as the
ability to consciously and deliberately monitor and regulate those processes and
states.
Flavell (1976) also identified three “metas” that children gradually acquire in the
context of information storage and retrieval. These were: (a) The child learns to
identify situations in which intentional, conscious storage of certain information
may be useful at some time in the future; (b) the child learns to keep current any
information which may be related to active problem-solving, and have it ready to
retrieve as needed; and (c) the child learns how to make deliberate systematic
searches for information which may be helpful in solving a problem, even when the
need for it has not been foreseen.
Flavell (1979) was another seminal paper. In this work Flavell acknowledged the
explosion of interest and work in areas related to metacognition, such as oral skills
of communication, persuasion and comprehension, reading, writing, language
acquisition, memory, attention, problem-solving, social cognition, affective
monitoring, and self-instruction. In the 1979 paper, Flavell proposed a formal model
of metacognitive monitoring to include four classes of phenomena and their
relationships. The four classes included (a) metacognitive knowledge, (b)
metacognitive experiences, (c) tasks or goals, and (d) strategies or activities.
Flavell's 1979 model will be further described in the section on the theories of
metacognition.
The first attempt to generate a formal model of metacognition was presented by
Flavell (1979). He acknowledged the significance of metacognition in a wide range
of applications which included reading, oral skills, writing, language acquisition,
memory, attention, social interactions, self-instruction, personality development
and education. Flavell mentioned that components of metacognition can be
activated intentionally, as by a memory search aimed at retrieving specific
information, or unintentionally, such as by cues in a task situation. Metacognitive
processes can operate consciously or unconsciously and they can be accurate or
inaccurate. They can also fail to be activated when needed, and can fail to have
adaptive or beneficial effect. Metacognition can lead to selection, evaluation,
revision or deletion of cognitive tasks, goals, and strategies. They can also help the
individual make meaning and discover behavioral implications of metacognitive
experiences.
In his 1979 paper, Flavell proposed a formal model of metacognitive monitoring
which included four classes of phenomena and their relationships. The four classes
were (a) metacognitive knowledge, (b) metacognitive experiences, (c) tasks and
goals, and (d) strategies or actions. Each of these will be discussed in detail. Figure 1
is a concept map showing the components of Flavell's model.
The first of Flavell's (1979) classes was metacognitive knowledge, which he defined
as one's knowledge or beliefs about the factors that effect cognitive activities. The
distinction between cognitive and metacognitive knowledge may lie in how the
information is used, more than a fundamental difference in processes.
Metacognitive activity usually precedes and follows cognitive activity. They are
closely interrelated and mutually dependent. Metacognitive knowledge can lead
the individual to engage in or abandon a particular cognitive enterprise based on its
relationship to his interests, abilities and goals. Flavell described three categories of
these knowledge factors: 1) Person variables 2) task variables, and 3) strategy
variables. These are the three categories in which Flavell proposed that individuals
have metacognitive knowledge. The person category of knowledge includes the
individual's knowledge and beliefs about himself as a thinker or learner, and what
he believes about other people's thinking processes. Flavell gave examples of
knowledge such as a person believing that he can learn better by listening than by
reading, or that a person perceives her friend to be more socially aware than she is.
One's beliefs about himself as a learner may facilitate or impede performance in
learning situations.
The task category of metacognitive knowledge encompassed all the information
about a proposed task that is available to a person (Flavell, 1979). This knowledge
guides the individual in the management of a task, and provides information about
the degree of success that he is likely to produce. Task information can be plentiful
or scarce, familiar or unfamiliar, reliable or unreliable, interesting or not, organized
in a useable or unusable fashion. Task knowledge informs the person of the range
of possible acceptable outcomes of the cognitive enterprise and the goals related to
its completion. Knowledge about task difficulty and mental or tangible resources
necessary for its completion also belong to this category.
The strategy category of metacognitive knowledge involved identifying goals and
sub-goals and selection of cognitive processes to use in their achievement (Flavell,
1979). Flavell also emphasized that these types of variables overlap and the
individual actually works with combinations and interactions of the metacognitive
knowledge that is available at that particular time. He also stated that
metacognitive knowledge is not fundamentally different than other knowledge, but
its object is different. He also mentioned that metacognitive knowledge may be
activated consciously or unconsciously by the individual. This question of
consciousness later became a subject of controversy among researchers in
metacognition.
Metacognitive experiences, Flavell's (1979) second class of phenomena included the
subjective internal responses of an individual to his own metacognitive knowledge,
goals, or strategies. These may be fleeting or lengthy, and can occur before, during,
or after a cognitive enterprise. As monitoring phenomena, these experiences can
provide internal feedback about current progress, future expectations of progress
or completion, degree of comprehension, connecting new information to old, and
many other events. New or difficult tasks, or tasks performed under stress tend to
provoke more experiential interaction, while familiar tasks may tend to provoke less
metacognitive experience.
According to Flavell (1979). Metacognitive experience can also be a “stream of
consciousness” process in which other information, memories, or earlier
experiences may be recalled as resources in the process of solving a current-
moment cognitive problem. Metacognitive experience also encompasses the
affective response to tasks. Success or failure, frustration or satisfaction, and many
other responses effect the moment-to-moment unfolding of a task for an individual,
and may in fact determine his interest or willingness to pursue similar tasks in the
future. Flavell underscored the overlapping nature of metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive experience.
Metacognitive goals and tasks are the desired outcomes or objectives of a cognitive
venture. This was Flavell's third major category. Goals and tasks include
comprehension, committing facts to memory, or producing something, such as a
written document or an answer to a math problem, or of simply improving one's
knowledge about something. Achievement of a goal draws heavily on both
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experience for its successful
completion (Flavell, 1979).
Metacognitive strategies are designed to monitor cognitive progress. Metacognitive
strategies are ordered processes used to control one's own cognitive activities and
to ensure that a cognitive goal (for example, solving a math problem, writing an
effective sentence, understanding reading material) have been met. A person with
good metacognitive skills and awareness uses these processes to oversee his own
learning process, plan and monitor ongoing cognitive activities, and to compare
cognitive outcomes with internal or external standards. Flavell (1979) indicated that
a single strategy can be invoked for either cognitive or metacognitive purposes and
to move toward goals in the cognitive or metacognitive domains. He gave the
example of asking oneself questions at the end of a learning unit with the aim of
improving knowledge of the content, or to monitor comprehension and assessment
of the new knowledge.
Flavell (1987) elaborated on several aspects of the theory he proposed in 1979. In
the category of metacognitive knowledge, he suggested subcategories of person
variables; he defined intra-individual variables such as knowledge or beliefs about
the interests, propensities, aptitudes, abilities, and the like, of oneself or of another
person. Inter-individual variables provide comparisons between or among people in
a relativistic manner. The universal subcategory deals with generalizations a person
forms about learning and learners in general. Flavell underscored the importance of
cultural influences on the formation of beliefs about learning.
Flavell (1987) offered additional description of task variables, reflecting that
individuals learn about the implications that various tasks carry with them. Personal
experience builds up sets of expectations about which tasks will be rigorous or
difficult, and which will be less taxing. Different kinds of information require
different kinds of processing and place different demands on the learner.
Strategy variables are interlocked with one's goals or objectives in the learning
process (Flavell, 1987). It is important to distinguish between cognitive strategies,
such as summing a column of numbers, and metacognitive strategies, such as
evaluating whether the correct answer has been obtained.
Flavell (1987) also offered clarification on the term metacognitive experience. He
defined metacognitive experience as affective or cognitive awareness that is
relevant to one's thinking processes. He described a variety of examples such as
feeling that one is not understanding something, feeling that something is difficult
or easy to remember, solve, or comprehend, and feeling that one is approaching or
failing to approach a cognitive goal. Metacognitive experiences arise when they are
explicitly demanded by a situation, such as when one is asked why he chose a
particular answer or a particular way of doing something. Unfamiliar and novel
situations and expectations also generate metacognitive experiences. Situations
having an important consequence can also stimulate strong metacognitive
experience. If the outcome is very important, the individual is likely to monitor his
judgements and decisions more carefully. Conflict and paradox also trigger
metacognitive experiences. Becoming aware of inconsistencies, paradigm
differences, and counterexamples are likely to generate strong affective responses.
More urgent subjective experiences such as physical or emotional pain are also
powerful triggers for metacognitive experience.
Flavell (1987) also proposed numerous questions and possible explanations relating
to the development of metacognition. He proposed that the emergence in the child
of awareness of the flow of time, and specifically awareness of future time could
support the ability to form metacognitive goals. Another change that occurs during
childhood development is the sense of the self as an active agent in one's own
experiences. As early as 1987 Flavell was actively encouraging the development of
metacognition in school children; in schools there are abundant opportunities to
develop metacognitive knowledge about persons, tasks, and strategies.
Metacognition
Metacognition is "cognition about cognition", or "knowing about knowing". It
comes from the root word "meta", meaning beyond.[1] It can take many forms; it
includes knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or
for problem solving.[1] There are generally two components of metacognition:
knowledge about cognition, and regulation of cognition. [2]
Metamemory, defined as knowing about memory and mnemonic strategies, is an
especially important form of metacognition.[3] Differences in metacognitive
processing across cultures have not been widely studied, but could provide better
outcomes in cross-cultural learning between teachers and students. [4]
Some evolutionary psychologists hypothesize that metacognition is used as a
survival tool, which would make metacognition the same across cultures. [4] Writings
on metacognition can be traced back at least as far as Perì Psūchês; and the Parva
Naturalia of the Greek philosopher Aristotle.[5]
Definitions
This higher-level cognition was given the label metacognition by American
developmental psychologist John Flavell (1979).
The term metacognition literally means cognition about cognition, or more
informally, thinking about thinking. Flavell defined metacognition as knowledge
about cognition and control of cognition. For example, I am engaging in
metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; [or] if it
strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact. J. H. Flavell
(1976, p. 232). Andreas Demetriou, in his theory, one of the neo-Piagetian theories
of cognitive development, used the term hypercognition to refer to self-monitoring,
self-representation, and self-regulation processes, which are regarded as integral
components of the human mind.[6] Moreover, with his colleagues, he showed that
these processes participate in general intelligence, together with processing
efficiency and reasoning, which have traditionally been considered to compose fluid
intelligence.[7]
Metacognition also thinks about one's own thinking process such as study skills,
memory capabilities, and the ability to monitor learning. This concept needs to be
explicitly taught along with content instruction. Metacognitive knowledge is about
our own cognitive processes and our understanding of how to regulate those
processes to maximize learning.
Some types of metacognitive knowledge would include:
 Person knowledge (declarative knowledge) which is understanding one's
own capabilities
 Task knowledge (procedural knowledge) which is how one perceives the
difficulty of a task which is the content, length, and the type of assignment
 Strategic knowledge (conditional knowledge) which is one's own capability
for using strategies to learn information. Young children are not
particularly good at this; it is not until upper elementary where students
start to develop the understanding of strategies that will be effective.
Different fields define metacognition very differently. Metacognition variously
refers to the study of memory-monitoring and self-regulation, meta-reasoning,
consciousness/awareness and auto-consciousness/self-awareness. In practice these
capacities are used to regulate one's own cognition, to maximize one's potential to
think, learn and to the evaluation of proper ethical/moral rules.
In the domain of experimental psychology, an influential distinction in
metacognition (proposed by T. O. Nelson & L. Narens) is between Monitoring—
making judgments about the strength of one's memories—and Control—using
those judgments to guide behavior (in particular, to guide study choices). Dunlosky,
Serra, and Baker (2007) covered this distinction in a review of metamemory
research that focused on how findings from this domain can be applied to other
areas of applied research.
In the domain of cognitive neuroscience, metacognitive monitoring and control has
been viewed as a function of the prefrontal cortex, which receives (monitors)
sensory signals from other cortical regions and through feedback loops implements
control (see chapters by Schwartz & Bacon and Shimamura, in Dunlosky & Bjork,
2008).[3]
Metacognition is studied in the domain of artificial intelligence and modelling.[8]
Therefore, it is the domain of interest of emergent systemics.
It has been used, albeit off the original definition, to describe one's own knowledge
that we will die. Writers in the 1990s involved with the grunge music scene often
used the term to describe self-awareness of mortality. [citation needed]
Components
Metacognition is classified into three components: [9]
1. Metacognitive knowledge (also called metacognitive awareness) is what
individuals know about themselves and others as cognitive processors.
2. Metacognitive regulation is the regulation of cognition and learning
experiences through a set of activities that help people control their
learning.
3. Metacognitive experiences are those experiences that have something to
do with the current, on-going cognitive endeavor.
Metacognition refers to a level of thinking that involves active control over the
process of thinking that is used in learning situations. Planning the way to approach
a learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating the progress towards
the completion of a task: these are skills that are metacognitive in their nature.
Metacognition includes at least three different types of metacognitive awareness
when considering metacognitive knowledge:[10]
1. Declarative knowledge: refers to knowledge about oneself as a learner and
[2]
about what factors can influence one's performance. Declarative
knowledge can also be referred to as "world knowledge". [11]
2. Procedural knowledge: refers to knowledge about doing things. This type
of knowledge is displayed as heuristics and strategies. [2] A high degree of
procedural knowledge can allow individuals to perform tasks more
automatically. This is achieved through a large variety of strategies that can
be accessed more efficiently.[12]
3. Conditional knowledge: refers to knowing when and why to use declarative
and procedural knowledge.[13] It allows students to allocate their resources
when using strategies. This in turn allows the strategies to become more
effective.[14]
Similar to metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive regulation or "regulation of
cognition" contains three skills that are essential.[2][15]
1. Planning: refers to the appropriate selection of strategies and the correct
allocation of resources that affect task performance.
2. Monitoring: refers to one's awareness of comprehension and task
performance
3. Evaluating: refers to appraising the final product of a task and the
efficiency at which the task was performed. This can include re-evaluating
strategies that were used.
Similarly, maintaining motivation to see a task to completion is also a metacognitive
skill. The ability to become aware of distracting stimuli – both internal and external
– and sustain effort over time also involves metacognitive or executive functions.
The theory that metacognition has a critical role to play in successful learning
means it is important that it be demonstrated by both students and teachers.
Students who demonstrate a wide range of metacognitive skills perform better on
exams and complete work more efficiently. They are self-regulated learners who
utilize the "right tool for the job" and modify learning strategies and skills based on
their awareness of effectiveness. Individuals with a high level of metacognitive
knowledge and skill identify blocks to learning as early as possible and change
"tools" or strategies to ensure goal attainment. Swanson (1990) found that
metacognitive knowledge can compensate for IQ and lack of prior knowledge when
comparing fifth and sixth grade students' problem solving. Students with a high-
metacognition were reported to have used fewer strategies, but solved problems
more effectively than low-metacognition students, regardless of IQ or prior
knowledge.[16]
Metacognologists are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses, the nature of
the task at hand, and available "tools" or skills. A broader repertoire of "tools" also
assists in goal attainment. When "tools" are general, generic, and context
independent, they are more likely to be useful in different types of learning
situations.
Another distinction in metacognition is executive management and strategic
knowledge. Executive management processes involve planning, monitoring,
evaluating and revising one's own thinking processes and products. Strategic
knowledge involves knowing what (factual or declarative knowledge), knowing
when and why (conditional or contextual knowledge) and knowing how (procedural
or methodological knowledge). Both executive management and strategic
knowledge metacognition are needed to self-regulate one's own thinking and
learning.[17]
Finally, there is no distinction between domain-general and domain-specific
metacognitive skills. This means that metacognitive skills are domain-general in
nature and there are no specific skills for certain subject areas. The metacognitive
skills that are used to review an essay are the same as those that are used to verify
an answer to a math question.[18]
Metacognitive experience is responsible for creating an identity that matters to an
individual. The creation of the identity with meta-cognitive experience is linked to
the identity-based motivation (IBM) model. The identity-based motivation model
implies that "identities matter because they provide a basis for meaning making and
for action."[19] A person decides also if the identity matters in two ways with meta-
cognitive experience. First, a current or possible identity is either "part of the self
and so worth pursuing"[20] or the individual thinks that the identity is part of their
self, yet it is conflicting with more important identities and the individual will decide
if the identity is or is not worth pursuing. Second, it also helps an individual decide if
an identity should be pursued or abandoned.
Usually, abandoning identity has been linked to meta-cognitive difficulty. Based on
the identity-based motivation model there are naive theories describing difficulty as
a way to continue to pursue an identity. The incremental theory of ability states
that if "effort matters then difficulty is likely to be interpreted as meaning that more
effort is needed."[21] Here is an example: a woman who loves to play clarinet has
come upon a hard piece of music. She knows that how much effort she puts into
learning this piece is beneficial. The piece had difficulty so she knew the effort was
needed. The identity the woman wants to pursue is to be a good clarinet player;
having a metacognitive experience difficulty pushed her to learn the difficult piece
to continue to identify with her identity. The entity theory of ability represents the
opposite. This theory states that if "effort does not matter then difficulty is likely to
be interpreted as meaning that ability is lacking so effort should be suspended." [21]
Based on the example of the woman playing the clarinet, if she did not want to
identify herself as a good clarinet player, she would not have put in any effort to
learn the difficult piece which is an example of using metacognitive experience
difficulty to abandon an identity.[22]
Relation to sapience
Metacognologists believe that the ability to consciously think about thinking is
unique to sapient species and indeed is one of the definitions of sapience. [citation needed]
There is evidence that rhesus monkeys and apes can make accurate judgments
about the strengths of their memories of fact and monitor their own uncertainty, [23]
while attempts to demonstrate metacognition in birds have been inconclusive. [24] A
2007 study has provided some evidence for metacognition in rats,[25][26][27] but
further analysis suggested that they may have been following simple operant
conditioning principles,[28] or a behavioral economic model.[29]
Metacognitive strategies
Metacognitive-like processes are especially ubiquitous when it comes to the
discussion of self-regulated learning. Being engaged in metacognition is a salient
feature of good self-regulated learners.[citation needed] Reinforcing collective discussion
of metacognition is a salient feature of self-critical and self-regulating social groups.
[citation needed]
The activities of strategy selection and application include those
concerned with an ongoing attempt to plan, check, monitor, select, revise, evaluate,
etc.
Metacognition is 'stable' in that learners' initial decisions derive from the pertinent
facts about their cognition through years of learning experience. Simultaneously, it
is also 'situated' in the sense that it depends on learners' familiarity with the task,
motivation, emotion, and so forth. Individuals need to regulate their thoughts about
the strategy they are using and adjust it based on the situation to which the
strategy is being applied. At a professional level, this has led to emphasis on the
development of reflective practice, particularly in the education and health-care
professions.
Recently, the notion has been applied to the study of second language learners in
the field of TESOL and applied linguistics in general (e.g., Wenden, 1987; Zhang,
2001, 2010). This new development has been much related to Flavell (1979), where
the notion of metacognition is elaborated within a tripartite theoretical framework.
Learner metacognition is defined and investigated by examining their person
knowledge, task knowledge and strategy knowledge.
Wenden (1991) has proposed and used this framework and Zhang (2001) has
adopted this approach and investigated second language learners' metacognition or
metacognitive knowledge. In addition to exploring the relationships between
learner metacognition and performance, researchers are also interested in the
effects of metacognitively-oriented strategic instruction on reading comprehension
(e.g., Garner, 1994, in first language contexts, and Chamot, 2005; Zhang, 2010). The
efforts are aimed at developing learner autonomy, interdependence and self-
regulation.
Metacognition helps people to perform many cognitive tasks more effectively. [1]
Strategies for promoting metacognition include self-questioning (e.g. "What do I
already know about this topic? How have I solved problems like this before?"),
thinking aloud while performing a task, and making graphic representations (e.g.
concept maps, flow charts, semantic webs) of one's thoughts and knowledge. Carr,
2002, argues that the physical act of writing plays a large part in the development of
metacognitive skills.[30]
Strategy Evaluation matrices (SEM) can help to improve the knowledge of cognition
component of metacogntion. The SEM works by identifying the declarative (Column
1), procedural (Column 2) and conditional (Column 3 and 4) knowledge about
specific strategies. The SEM can help individuals identify the strength and
weaknesses about certain strategies as well as introduce them to new strategies
that they can add to their repertoire.[31]
A regulation checklist (RC) is a useful strategy for improving the regulation of
cognition aspect of one's metacognition. RCs help individuals to implement a
sequence of thoughts that allow them to go over their own metacogntion. [31] King
(1991) found that fifth-grade students who used a regulation checklist
outperformed control students when looking at a variety of questions including
written problem solving, asking strategic questions, and elaborating information. [32]
Metacognitive strategies training can consist of coaching the students in thinking
skills that will allow them to monitor their own learning. Examples of strategies that
can be taught to students are word analysis skills, active reading strategies, listening
skills, organizational skills and creating mnemonic devices. [33]
Metastrategic knowledge
"Metastrategic knowledge" (MSK) is a sub-component of metacognition that is
defined as general knowledge about higher order thinking strategies. MSK had been
defined as "general knowledge about the cognitive procedures that are being
manipulated". The knowledge involved in MSK consists of "making generalizations
and drawing rules regarding a thinking strategy" and of "naming" the thinking
strategy.[34]
The important conscious act of a metastrategic strategy is the "conscious"
awareness that one is performing a form of higher order thinking. MSK is an
awareness of the type of thinking strategies being used in specific instances and it
consists of the following abilities: making generalizations and drawing rules
regarding a thinking strategy, naming the thinking strategy, explaining when, why
and how such a thinking strategy should be used, when it should not be used, what
are the disadvantages of not using appropriate strategies, and what task
characteristics call for the use of the strategy. [35]
MSK deals with the broader picture of the conceptual problem. It creates rules to
describe and understand the physical world around the people who utilize these
processes called higher-order thinking. This is the capability of the individual to take
apart complex problems in order to understand the components in problem. These
are the building blocks to understanding the "big picture" (of the main problem)
through reflection and problem solving. [36]
Characteristics of Theory of Mind: Understanding the mind and the "mental world":
1. False beliefs: understanding that a belief is only one of many and can be
false.
2. Appearance–reality distinctions: something may look one way but may be
something else.
3. Visual perspective taking: the views of physical objects differ based on
perspective.
4. Introspection: children's awareness and understanding of their own
thoughts.
Metacognition and action
Both social and cognitive dimensions of sporting expertise can be adequately
explained from a metacognitive perspective according to recent research. The
potential of metacognitive inferences and domain-general skills including
psychological skills training are integral to the genesis of expert performance.
Moreover, the contribution of both mental imagery (e.g., mental practice) and
attentional strategies (e.g., routines) to our understanding of expertise and
metacognition is noteworthy.[37] The potential of metacognition to illuminate our
understanding of action was first highlighted by Aidan Moran who discussed the
role of meta-attention in 1996 [38] A recent research initiative, a research seminar
series called META funded by the BPS, is exploring the role of the related constructs
of meta-motivation, meta-emotion, and thinking and action (metacognition).
Mental illness and metacognition
Sparks of interest
In the context of mental health, metacognition can be loosely defined as the
process that "reinforces one's subjective sense of being a self and allows for
becoming aware that some of one's thoughts and feelings are symptoms of an
illness.[39]" The interest in metacognition emerged from a concern for an individual's
ability to understand their own mental status compared to others as well as the
ability to cope with the source of their distress.[40] These insights into an individual's
mental health status can have a profound effect on the over-all prognosis and
recovery. Metacognition brings many unique insights into the normal daily
functioning of a human being. It also demonstrates that a lack of these insights
compromises 'normal' functioning. This leads to less healthy functioning. In the
Autism spectrum, there is a profound inability to feel empathy towards the minds
of other human beings.[41] In people who identify as alcoholics, there is a belief that
the need to control cognitions is an independent predictor of alcohol use over
anxiety. Alcohol may be used as a coping strategy for controlling unwanted
thoughts and emotions formed by negative perceptions.[42] This is sometimes
referred to as self medication.
Implications
Well's and Matthew's[43] theory proposes that when faced with an undesired choice,
an individual can operate in two distinct modes: 'object' and 'Metacognitive.' Object
mode interprets perceived stimuli as truth, where Metacognitive mode understands
thoughts as cues that have to be weighted and evaluated. They are not as easily
trusted. There are targeted interventions unique of each patient, that gives rise to
the belief that assistance in increasing metacognition in people diagnosed with
schizophrenia is possible through tailored psychotherapy. With a customized
therapy in place clients then have the potential to develop greater ability to engage
in complex self-reflection.[44] This can ultimately be pivotal in the patient's recovery
process. In the Obsessive Compulsive Disorder spectrum, cognitive formulations
have greater attention to intrusive thoughts related to the disorder. "Cognitive Self-
Consciousness" are the tendencies to focus attention on thought. Patients with OCD
exemplify varying degrees of these 'intrusive thoughts.' Patients also suffering from
Generalized Anxiety Disorder also show negative thought process in their cognition.
[45]
With any metacognition strategy, the main consensus is to believe that they are
good. But in all actuality some may be very harmful. Cognitive-Attentional
Syndrome (CAS) characterizes a Metacognitive model of emotion disorder. ((CAS is
consistent with the constant with the attention strategy of excessively focusing on
the source of a threat.)) This ultimately develops through the client's own beliefs.
Metacognitive therapy attempts to correct this change in the CAS. One of the
techniques in this model is called Attention Training (ATT). [46] It was designed to
diminish the worry and anxiety by a sense of control and cognitive awareness. Also
ATT trains clients to detect threats, test how controllable reality appears to be. [47]
Works of art as metacognitive artifacts
The concept of metacognition has also been applied to reader-response criticism.
Narrative works of art, including novels, movies and musical compositions, can be
characterized as metacognitive artifacts which are designed by the artist to
anticipate and regulate the beliefs and cognitive processes of the recipient, [48] for
instance, how and in which order events and their causes and identities are
revealed to the reader of a detective story. As Menakhem Perry has pointed out,
mere order has profound effects on the aesthetical meaning of a text. [49] Narrative
works of art contain a representation of their own ideal reception process. They are
something of a tool with which the creators of the work wish to attain certain
aesthetical and even moral effects.[50]
Mind wandering and metacognition
There is an intimate, dynamic interplay between mind wandering and
metacognition. Metacognition serves to correct the wandering mind, suppressing
spontaneous thoughts and bringing attention back to more "worthwhile" tasks.
Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner of Harvard has identified seven distinct intelligences. This theory
has emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which
students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform,
and understand in different ways," according to Gardner (1991). According to this
theory, "we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical
analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve
problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an
understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these
intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such
intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse
problems, and progress in various domains."
Gardner says that these differences "challenge an educational system that
assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a
uniform, universal measure suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently
constituted, our educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes of
instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-
quantitative modes as well." Gardner argues that "a contrasting set of assumptions
is more likely to be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are
identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as
a whole - would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a numbers of
ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of means." The learning
styles are as follows:
Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very
aware of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps,
daydream. They can be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools
include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video,
videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.
Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen
sense of body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They
communicate well through body language and be taught through physical activity,
hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real
objects.
Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are
also sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in
the background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking
rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio,
stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.
Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn
through interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts.
They can be taught through group activities, seminars, dialogues. Tools include the
telephone, audio conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video
conferencing, writing, computer conferencing, E-mail.
Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to
shy away from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom,
intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can
be taught through independent study and introspection. Tools include books,
creative materials, diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the
learners.
Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory
skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up
poetry or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words,
read books together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape
recorders, and lecture.
Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and
are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment,
solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games,
investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can
deal with details.
At first, it may seem impossible to teach to all learning styles. However, as we
move into using a mix of media or multimedia, it becomes easier. As we understand
learning styles, it becomes apparent why multimedia appeals to learners and why a
mix of media is more effective. It satisfies the many types of learning preferences
that one person may embody or that a class embodies. A review of the literature
shows that a variety of decisions must be made when choosing media that is
appropriate to learning style.
Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object
identification, spatial relationship, or motor skills where words alone are inefficient.
Printed words: There is disagreement about audio's superiority to print for
affective objectives; several models do not recommend verbal sound if it is not part
of the task to be learned.
Sound: A distinction is drawn between verbal sound and non-verbal sound such
as music. Sound media are necessary to present a stimulus for recall or sound
recognition. Audio narration is recommended for poor readers.
Motion: Models force decisions among still, limited movement, and full
movement visuals. Motion is used to depict human performance so that learners
can copy the movement. Several models assert that motion may be unnecessary
and provides decision aid questions based upon objectives. Visual media which
portray motion are best to show psychomotor or cognitive domain expectations by
showing the skill as a model against which students can measure their performance.
Color: Decisions on color display are required if an object's color is relevant to
what is being learned.
Realia: Realia are tangible, real objects which are not models and are useful to
teach motor and cognitive skills involving unfamiliar objects. Realia are appropriate
for use with individuals or groups and may be situation based. Realia may be used
to present information realistically but it may be equally important that the
presentation corresponds with the way learner's represent information internally.
Instructional Setting: Design should cover whether the materials are to be used in
a home or instructional setting and consider the size what is to be learned. Print
instruction should be delivered in an individualized mode which allows the learner
to set the learning pace. The ability to provide corrective feedback for individual
learners is important but any medium can provide corrective feedback by stating
the correct answer to allow comparison of the two answers.
Learner Characteristics: Most models consider learner characteristics as media
may be differentially effective for different learners. Although research has had
limited success in identifying the media most suitable for types of learners several
models are based on this method.
Reading ability: Pictures facilitate learning for poor readers who benefit more
from speaking than from writing because they understand spoken words; self-
directed good readers can control the pace; and print allows easier review.
Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and
most include some or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories; intellectual skills,
verbal information, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Several models
suggest a procedure which categorizes learning outcomes, plans instructional
events to teach objectives, identifies the type of stimuli to present events, and
media capable of presenting the stimuli.
 Events of Instruction: The external events which support internal learning
processes are called events of instruction. The events of instruction are planned
before selecting the media to present it.
Performance: Many models discuss eliciting performance where the student
practices the task which sets the stage for reinforcement. Several models indicate
that the elicited performance should be categorized by type; overt, covert, motor,
verbal, constructed, and select. Media should be selected which is best able to elicit
these responses and the response frequency. One model advocates a behavioral
approach so that media is chosen to elicit responses for practice. To provide
feedback about the student's response, an interactive medium might be chosen,
but any medium can provide feedback. Learner characteristics such as error
proneness and anxiety should influence media selection.
Testing which traditionally is accomplished through print, may be handled by
electronic media. Media are better able to assess learners' visual skills than are
print media and can be used to assess learner performance in realistic situations.
Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Harvard professor Howard Gardner has identified eight different types of
intelligences that each individual has the capacity to possess. The idea of multiple
intelligences is important because it allows for educators to identify differing
strengths and weaknesses in students and also contradicts the idea that intelligence
can be measured through IQ. In researching about genius, we found that Howard
Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences provides a great alternative to the
popular measurable IQ method.
Summaries of eight intelligences:
1. Visual/Spatial - Involves visual perception of the environment, the ability to
create and manipulate mental images, and the orientation of the body in
space.
2. Verbal/Linguistic - Involves reading, writing, speaking, and conversing in
one's own or foreign languages.
3. Logical/Mathematical - Involves number and computing skills, recognizing
patterns and relationships, timeliness and order, and the ability to solve
different kinds of problems through logic.
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic - Involves physical coordination and dexterity, using fine
and gross motor skills, and expressing oneself or learning through physical
activities.
5. Musical - Involves understanding and expressing oneself through music
and rhythmic movements or dance, or composing, playing, or conducting
music.
6. Interpersonal - Involves understanding how to communicate with and
understand other people and how to work collaboratively.
7. Intrapersonal - Involves understanding one's inner world of emotions and
thoughts, and growing in the ability to control them and work with them
consciously.
8. Naturalist - Involves understanding the natural world of plants and
animals, noticing their characteristics, and categorizing them; it generally
involves keen observation and the ability to classify other things as well.
"Multiple intelligences is a psychological theory about the mind. It's a critique of the
notion that there's a single intelligence which we're born with, which can't be
changed, and which psychologists can measure. It's based on a lot of scientific
research in fields ranging from psychology to anthropology to biology. It's not based
upon based on test correlations, which most other intelligence theories are based
on. The claim is that there are at least eight different human intelligences. Most
intelligence tests look at language or logic or both - those are just two of the
intelligences. The other six are musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalist. I make two claims. The first claim is that all human
beings have all of these intelligences. It's part of our species definition. The second
claim is that, both because of our genetics and our environment, no two people
have exactly the same profile of intelligences, not even identical twins, because
their experiences are different."
Intelligence Genes
Many scientists from around the world have researched on the genetic basis of
intelligence. Through advancing technology and the mapping of the Human
Genome they have come close to pinpointing a group of genes responsible for
intelligence. But one must take into account that these studies are done on the
basis that intelligence can be measured by IQ, which contradicts what many
eminent scientists believe, including Harvard University's Howard Gardner and
Steven Jay Gould.
A group of scientists joined together to look for the genes that are responsible for
intelligence. They began by looking on the long arm of Chromosome 6, a specific
chromosome that was mapped completely by the Human Genome Project. They
selected a group of individuals with high IQ's and compared them to people with
average IQ's. In order to compare the two groups they looked at the differences
between 37 different genes on the long arm of Chromosome 6.
They found that one gene on Chromosome 6, IGF2R, showed a difference between 173; Scientists (39) 164; Fiction writers (53) 163; Statesmen (43) 159; Musicians (11)
the two groups. This gene has at least seven different alleles and two of these 153; Artists (13) 150; Soldiers (27) 133.
alleles were more frequently obtained. Allele 5 was more common in extremely
high IQ groups (46% had at least one IGF2R Allele 5) than in the average IQ group Adult IQ's of Famous Geniuses:
(only 23% had at least Allele 5). Although the findings may seem trivial to those of
us not in the research world, it shows clear differences between individuals with Bobby Fischer (Chess Player) 187
higher and average intelligence. More research will allow scientists to pinpoint
Galileo Galilei
exactly which gene or set of genes is responsible for intelligence. 185
(Astronomer/Philosopher/Physicist)
The study is important because it demonstrates that the influence of genetics on
Rene Descartes
human cognition is based on many factors. The research was done in order to find 180
(Philosopher/Mathematician)
the subtle genetic differences that might have some influence on intelligence. It was
also one of the first attempts to directly isolate genes that differ between groups Immanuel Kant (Philosopher) 175
rather than based on family resemblances.
Charles Darwin (Naturalist) 165
The problems with the study was that the differing allele could only account for a
2% variance in IQ, or about 4 points. It is also possible that the gene used, IGF2R, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Composer) 165
may not be a functional gene on the chromosome. Another gene on that
chromosome could actually be responsible for the variation. Since only a portion of Albert Einstein (Physicist) 160
the chromosome has been mapped, to verify that IGF2R is the right gene, the entire
chromosome needs to be mapped. George Eliot (Writer) 160

The previous research project was conducted by Michael and Karen Korney (Penn
State University), Nicole Seese (Penn State University), Mike Owens (University of
Wales), J. Daniels (University of Wales), Peter McGuffin (University of Wales), Lee
Thompson (Case Western Reserve University), Douglas Detterman (Case Western
Reserve University), Camilla Benbow (Vanderbilt), David Lubinski (Vanderbilt), T.
Eley (Kings College London), and Robert Plomin (Kings College London). The paper
written about the study: A quantitative trait locus associated with cognitive ability
in children. Psychological Science, 9, 159-166, (1998).
Estimated IQ's of Famous Geniuses
A normal IQ, or intelligence quotient, ranges from 85 to 115 according to the
Stanford-Binet test. Only approximately 1% of all the people in the world have an IQ
higher than 135. 1926, psychologist Dr. Catherine Morris Cox - who had been
assisted by Dr. Lewis M. Terman, Dr. Florence L. Goodenaugh, and Dr. Kate Gordon -
published a study "of the most eminent men and women" who had lived between
1450 and 1850 to estimate what their IQs might have been. The resultant IQs were
based largely on the degree of brightness and intelligence each subject showed
before attaining the age of 17.
Cox also found that different fields have quite widely varying average IQs for their
acknowledged leading geniuses. She gives the following figures (the number in
brackets is the number in the sample considered): Philosophers (22) average IQ
Nicolaus Copernicus (Astronomer) 160
Rembrandt van Rijn (Painter) 155
It is important to remember that the numbers given above are estimates. Many
individuals believe that IQ cannot be used to measure intelligence because of the
construction of the test and the fact that multiple intelligences may exist. These
considerations have to be taken into account when looking at the IQ's of any
individuals.
Albert Einstein - A True Genius's Brain
The best way to study the genetic aspects of a true genius is through Albert
Einstein. Because he is a recent and well-known genius, his brain is still available for
research and observation. Three papers have been published about aspects of his
brain that vary from the norm.
1. The First Paper
  Research: For the first paper, scientists counted the number of neurons and glial
cells in four areas of Einstein's brain: area 9 of the cerebra cortex on the right
and left hemisphere and area 39 on the cerebral cortex on the right and left
hemisphere. The ratios of neurons to glial cells in Einstein's brain were
compared to those from the brains of 11 men who died at the average age of
 64.
Findings: Compared to the ratios of the brains of the 11 normal men, the ratios
of neurons to glial cells in Einstein's brain were smaller in the left area 30. In this
area, there were more glial cells for every neuron in his brain.
Conclusion: The Scientists concluded that the greater number of glial cells per
neuron indicates that he neurons had an increased metabolic need - they
needed and used more energy, causing Einstein to have better thinking abilities
and conceptual skills.
2. The Second Paper
Findings: This paper found that Einstein's brain weighed only 1,230 grams which
is far less than the average adult male brain (about 1,400 grams). The authors
also reported that the thickness of Einstein's cerebral cortex was thinner than
that of five control brains, but the density of the neurons was greater in
 
Einstein's brain.
Conclusion: The fact that the density of neurons was greater meant that
Einstein was able to pack more neurons in a given area of cortex.
3. The Third Paper
Research: Scientists compared external surface characteristics of Einstein's brain
with that of 35 men whose average age was 57 years old.
Findings: Unlike the 35 control brains, Einstein's brain had an unusual pattern of
grooves (called sulci) on both the right and left parietal lobes. This particular
area is thought to be important for mathematical abilities and spatial reasoning.
 
Also, his brain had a much shorter lateral sulcus that was partially missing.
Finally, his brain was 15% wider than the other brains used in the study.
Conclusion: Researchers think that these unique brain characteristics may have
allowed better connections between neurons important for math and spatial
reasoning
Autistic Savants
"Autistic savant" refers to individuals with autism who have extraordinary skills not
exhibited by most persons. The estimated prevalence of savant abilities in autism is
10%, whereas the prevalence in the non-autistic population, including those with
mental retardation, is less than 1%.
Savant skills occur within a narrow but constant range of human mental functions,
generally in six areas: calendar calculating; lightening calculating & mathematical
ability; art (drawing or sculpting); music (usually piano with perfect pitch);
mechanical abilities; and spatial skills. In some instances unusual language abilities
have been reported but those are rare. Other skills much less frequently reported
include map memorizing, visual measurement, extrasensory perception, unusual
sensory discrimination such as enhanced sense of touch & smell, and perfect
appreciation passing time without knowledge of a clock face. The most common
savant skill is musical ability. A regularly reoccurring triad of musical genius,
blindness and autism is particularly striking in the world literature on this topic.
Theories to explain Savant Syndrome include eidetic imagery, inherited skills,
concrete thinking and inability to think abstractly, compensation and
reinforcement, and left brain injury with right brain compensation. Newer findings
on cerebral lateralization show left hemisphere damage in savants suggesting that
the most plausible explanation for Savant Syndrome to be left brain damage from
prenatal, peri-natal or postnatal CNS damage with migratory, right brain
compensation. Along with this is corresponding damage to higher level, cognitive
(cortico-limbic) memory circuitry with compensatory take over of lower level, habit
(cortical-striatal) memory. This accounts for the linking of predominately right brain
skills with habit memory so characteristic of Savant Syndrome.
There are probably fewer than 25 prodigious savants living at the present time.
Some of those include Leslie Lemke (music), Alonzo Clemens (sculpting), Richard
Wawro (painting), Stephen Wiltshire (drawing), Tony DeBlois (music) to name
some. Other prodigious savants more recently described are in England, Austrailia
and Japan.
Coordination
Based loosely on the discussion in  Mintzberg's Structure in Fives: Designing
Effective Organizations.
Any collection of people that is faced with accomplishing some complex task faces
two issues: how to divide up the labor, and how to coordinate their efforts. How
this is done is the heart of what we mean by organizational structure.
Division of Labor
There are two aspects of this issue. First, there are technical aspects of the task
which determine in what way and to what extent you can break up the task into
subtasks that can be performed by a single person. This often determines what jobs
or positions may exist in the organization. There is some discretion here, but in
general there is not a lot that an organization can do to change how this is done
short of adopting a different technology altogether.
Second, there is the allocation of people to jobs. People have different
competencies, and are better placed in certain jobs rather than others. They also
have different interests, and so have different levels of motivation for different jobs.
Placing people in the right jobs is a crucial strategic issue. Misusing talent, such as
promoting the best engineer in the company to a pure management job that he or
she has no interest or competence in, is a waste at best and dangerous at worst.
As organizations enter the 21st century, the source of competitive advantage is
increasingly human resources. This may sound strange in a technological age where
machines do more and more of the work, but it is precisely technology that creates
this dependence on human resources. This is because technology is knowledge-
driven. It is all about understanding how things work and being able to exploit that
knowledge to solve client problems. The most important resource most
organizations have is human smarts (exceptions are oil companies and other natural
resource exploiters).  with the first original, unstaples it, then makes one Xeroxed copy, then staples that.
Given that the key problem in division of labor is the assignment of people with
certain competencies and interests to tasks, part and parcel of the division of labor
is the notion of specialization. Suppose you are xeroxing a set of student papers.
Let's say there are 21 people in the class and each one has written a 5-page paper
which has been stapled together. Now you want to make a copy of every paper to
give to every other student and the professor so that everyone can critique
everyone's paper (what a nightmare!). That's 21 copies of 21 5-page papers that
have to xeroxed and then stapled together (because the stapler built into the copy
machine never works).
Note that one of the reasons why the second method works better is that there was
only one Xerox machine. What if there had been three Xerox machines? Well, then
there wouldn't be so much difference between the two methods of dividing up the
labor, though it is probable that the second method would still be a bit faster. One
reason is that by restricting each person's job to just one task which is performed
repetitively, you eliminate switching time (finding the unstapler, then moving the
stuff over to the Xerox, then moving it all back, etc.). Another reason is that when
people do one thing over and over again, they get really good at it. They have a
chance to develop job competency. In combination with pairing up people who
have certain talents with the jobs that need those talents, this can really result in
productivity gains.
Notice that I haven't even mentioned the really slow way to do this task: each
person takes each copy all the way through the process. In other words, she starts
Then she makes another copy, then staples that, and so on twenty-one times. Then
starts with the second original. Nobody would do it this way because we
automatically group similar tasks together to be done consecutively.
Coordination
There are three basic coordinating mechanisms: mutual adjustment, direct
supervision, and standardization (of which there are three types: of work processes,
of work outputs, and of worker skills).

Suppose you have two assistants (so there's three of you doing this). There are two
obvious ways to divide up the labor. One is to give each person seven of the papers
and then have them each do three steps on their seven papers: 1) unstaple the
originals; 2) make 21 copies; 3) staple each of the copies. Assume that you have
only one Xerox machine. So everyone starts unstapling their originals. Then, one
person gets to use the Xerox while the others wait. When she's through, she starts
stapling the copies while another person starts Xeroxing. This could take quite
awhile.

The other way to divide up the labor is to have everyone unstaple, then one person
starts xeroxing, another person starts stapling a moment later, and the third person
ferries new copies from the Xerox to the stapler. This could be done much faster
than the other way. This is the method of specialization into jobs or roles.

(At this point, you might want to look at the handout on departmentation. You'll
see that these two ways of dividing the labor correspond to departmentation by
product/market (the first one) and by function (the second one).)
….
Mutual Adjustment
This mechanism is based on the simple process of informal communication. It is
used in very small companies, such as a 5-person software shop, or for very, very
complicated tasks, such as putting the first person on the moon. Mutual adjustment
is the same mechanism used by furniture movers to maneuver through a house, or
paddlers to take a canoe downriver, or jazz musicians playing a live engagement. It's
especially useful when nobody really knows ahead of time how to do what they're
doing.
Direct Supervision
Achieves coordination by having one person take responsibility for the work of
others, issuing instructions and monitoring their actions. An example is the
offensive unit of a football team. Here, there is marked division of labor and
specialization, and the efforts of the players are coordinating by a quarterback
calling specific plays.
If the organization is large enough, one person cannot handle all the members, so
multiple leaders or managers must be used, then the efforts of these people (the
managers) are coordinated by a manager of managers, and so on.
Standardization
A third mechanism of coordination is standardization. Here, the coordination is
achieved "on the drawing board", so to speak, or "at compile-time" if you like, not
during the action or "run-time". The coordination is pre-programmed in one of
three ways:
Work Processes. An example is the set of assembly instructions that come with a
child's toy. Here, the manufacturer standardizes the work process of the parent.
Often, the machinery in a factory effectively standardizes work by automatically
providing only, say, blue paint when blue paint is needed, and only red paint when
red paint is needed.
Outputs. Standardized outputs means that there are specifications that the product
or work output must meet, but aside from that the worker is free to do as they
wish. Stereo equipment manufacturers have a lot of freedom in designing their
products, but the interface portions of the product (the connections to other stereo
devices like CD's, speakers, tape-recorders, etc.) must be the same as everyone
else's, or else it would be hard to put together a complete system.
Worker Skills. Professional schools, like medical schools, law school, business
school, produce workers that do stuff exactly the same way. How do you treat a
staphyloccocus infection? You use one of the following antibiotics. It's a series of
recipes that are memorized. Employers (e.g., hospitals) can rely on these employees
(physicians) to do things the standard way, which allows other employees (e.g.,
nurses) to coordinate smoothly with them. When a surgeon and an anesthesiologist
meet for the first time in the operating room, they have no problem working
together because by virtue of their training they know exactly what to expect from
each other.
Fitting Coordinating Mechanisms to Tasks
Simple tasks are easily coordinated by mutual adjustment. As organizational work
becomes more complicated, direct supervision tends to be added and takes over as
the primary means of coordination. When things get even more complicated,
standardization of work processes (or, to a lesser extent, of outputs, or of skills)
takes over as primary, but in combination with the other two. Then when things
become really complicated, mutual adjustment tends to become primary again, but
in combination with the others.
A Coordination Theory Approach to Organizational Process Design
Abstract
An important practical problem for many managers is finding alternative processes
for performing a desired task, for example, one that is more efficient, cheaper, or
that is automated or enhanced by the use of information technology. Improving
processes also poses theoretical challenges. Coordination theory provides an
approach to the study of processes. In this view, the design of a process depends on
the coordination mechanisms chosen to manage dependencies among tasks and
resources involved in the process.
In this paper, I use coordination theory to analyze the software change process of a
large mini-computer manufacturer. Mechanisms analyzed include those for task
assignment, resource sharing, and managing dependencies between modules of
source code. For each, I suggest alternative mechanisms and thus alternative
designs for the process. The organization assigned problem reports to engineers
based on the module that appeared to be in error, since engineers only worked on
particular modules. Alternative task assignment mechanisms include assignment to
engineers based on workload or market-like bids. Modules of source code were not
shared, but rather “owned” by one engineer, thus reducing the need for
coordination. An alternative resource sharing mechanism would be needed to
manage source code if multiple engineers could work on the same modules. Finally,
engineers managed dependencies between modules informally, relying on their
personal knowledge of which other engineers used their code; alternatives include
formally defining the interfaces between modules and tracking their users.
Software bug fixing provides a microcosm of coordination problems and solutions.
Similar coordination problems arise in most processes and are managed by a similar
range of mechanisms. For example, diagnosing bug reports and assigning them to
engineers may have interesting parallels to diagnosing patients and assigning them
to specialists.
While the case presented does not formally test coordination theory, it does
illustrate the potential of coordination theory for exploring the space of
organizational processes. Future work includes developing more rigorous
techniques for such analyses, applying the techniques to a broader range of
processes, identifying additional coordination problems and mechanisms and
developing tools for collecting and comparing processes and automatically
suggesting potential alternatives.
Keywords : organization theory ; coordination theory ; organizational processes ;
process redesign ; process reengineering
In the hierarchical business organization of some time in the past it was not
uncommon to see average spans of 1 to 4 or even less. That is, one manager
supervised four employees on average. In the 1980s corporate leaders flattened
many organizational structures causing average spans to move closer to 1 to 10.
That was made possible primarily by the development of inexpensive information
technology. As information technology was developed capable of easing many
middle manager tasks – tasks like collecting, manipulating and presenting
operational information – upper managers found they could hire fewer middle
managers to do more work managing more subordinates for less money.
The current shift to self-directed cross-functional teams and other forms of non-
hierarchical structures, have made the concept of span of control less salient.
Theories about the optimum span of control go back to V. A. Graicunas. In 1933 he
used assumptions about mental capacity and attention span to develop a set of
practical heuristics. Lyndall Urwick (1956) developed a theory based on
geographical dispersion and the need for face to face meetings. In spite of
numerous attempts since then, no convincing theories have been presented. This is
because the optimum span of control depends on numerous variables including
organizational structure, available technology, the functions being performed, and
the competencies of the manager as well as staff. An alternative view is proposed
by Elliott Jaques (1988) that a manager may have up to as many immediate
subordinates that they can know personally in the sense that they can assess
personal effectiveness.
Factors affecting span of control
These are the factors affecting span of control:
1. Geographical dispersion, if the branches of a business are widely
dispersed, then the manager will find it difficult to supervise each of them,
as such the span of control will be smaller.
2. Capability of workers, if workers are highly capable, need little supervision,
and can be left on their own, e.g.: Theory Y type of people, they need not
be supervised much as they are motivated and take initiative to work; as
such the span of control will be wider.
3. Capability of boss, an experienced boss with good understanding of the
tasks, good knowledge of the workers and good relationships with the
workers, will be able to supervise more workers
4. Value-add of the boss, a boss that is adding value by training and
developing new skills in the workers will need a narrow span of control
than one who is focused only on performance management (this is the
reverse of the capability of workers point above)
5. Similarity of task, if the tasks that the subordinates are performing are
similar, then the span of control can be wider, as the manager can
supervise them all at the same time.
6. Volume of other tasks, if the boss has other responsibilities, such as
membership of committees, involvement in other projects, liaising with
stakeholders, the number of direct reports will need to be smaller
7. Required administrative tasks, if the boss is required to have regular face
to face meetings, complete appraisal and development plans, discuss
remuneration benefits, write job descriptions and employment contracts,
explain employment policy changes and other administrative tasks then
the span of control is reduced
Theoretical considerations
The first to develop a more general theory of management was Henri Fayol, who
had gathered empirical experience during his time as general manager of a coal and
steel company, the Commentary-Fourchambault Company. He was first to add a
managerial perspective to the problem of organizational governance. The rationale
for defining a strict hierarchy of communication channels is found in the need for
vertical integration of activities, imposed by management's need for control and
information.
However, exercising control over activities performed by subordinates and
monitoring their communication, the nodes at the upper hierarchical levels would
be suffering from information overload, since all communication to other branches
of the organizational structure would be routed through them. In addition, a larger
number of subordinates also requires supervisors to monitor a high number of
interactions below their own level, i.e. that information overload and span of
control are positively correlated.
Graicunas (Gulick and Urwick, 1937) distinguished three types of interactions –
direct single relationships, cross-relationships, and direct group relationships – each
of them contributing to the total amount of interactions within the organization.
According to Graicunas, the number of possible interactions can be computed in the
following way. Let n be the number of subordinates reporting to a supervisor. Then,
the number of relationships of direct single type the supervisor could possibly
engage into is
The number of interactions between subordinates (cross relationships) he has to
monitor is
and the number of direct group relationships is
The sum of these three types of interactions is the number of potential
relationships of a supervisor. Graicunas showed with these formulas, that each
additional subordinate increases the number of potential interactions significantly.
It appears natural, that no organization can afford to maintain a control structure of
a dimension being required for implementing a scalar chain under the unity of
command condition. Therefore, other mechanisms had to be found for dealing with
the dilemma of maintaining managerial control, while keeping cost and time at a
reasonable level, thus making the span of control a critical figure for the
organization. Consequently, for a long time, finding the optimum span of control
has been a major challenge to organization design. As Mackenzie (1978, p 121)
describes it:
”One could argue that with larger spans, the costs of supervision would tend to be
reduced, because a smaller percentage of the members of the organization are
supervisors. On the other hand, if the span of control is too large, the supervisor
may not have the capacity to supervise effectively such large numbers of immediate
subordinates. Thus, there is a possible trade-off to be made in an attempt to
balance these possibly opposing tendencies.”
Fayol proposed that subordinate employees should be allowed to communicate
directly with each other, given that their superiors had agreed upon this procedure.
This principle became known under the name of Fayol's bridge.
The use of Fayol’s bridge resulted in a number of other aspects needing to be taken
into consideration. In order to put this system to work, Taylor’s functional
foremanship has to be abandoned, and unity of command needs to be established.
At the same time, decision power is distributed to individuals on lower levels in the
organization, and only decisions that exceed the pre-defined decision scope of an
employee are referred upwards. This, in turn, strengthens the co-equality of
authority and responsibility. Since a Fayol bridge is not limited to a certain
functional area within the organization, but can span over functional boundaries,
e.g. from purchasing to manufacturing, it can be considered as a first attempt to
create a horizontal integration of related activities under a certain level of self-
management, an early business process.
Mackenzie and others (Massie 1965, Pugh et al., 1972) also noted that there is no
generally applicable optimum span of control. There are instead several factors
influencing the balance between the desired level of control, and the manageability
of the organization.
Firstly, it depends on the capabilities of the organizational members, managers and
workers. It was assumed, that no manager would be capable of supervising more
than 5-6 direct subordinates. However, this conclusion built on the assumption, that
the superior must actively monitor the work of all subordinates. Later on, this
statement was diversified, and Davis (1951) divided managerial work into two
categories, one requiring the attention to physical work, the other one requiring
mental activity. Depending on the type of supervision, a span of 3-8 subordinates
for managers at higher levels was considered adequate, while first level supervisors,
i.e. those supervising shop floor personnel could have up to 30 subordinates.
Organizational structure
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  (Redirected from Organizational design)
An organizational structure defines how activities such as task allocation,
coordination and supervision are directed towards the achievement of
organizational aims.[1] It can also be considered as the viewing glass or perspective
through which individuals see their organization and its environment. [2]
Organizations are a variant of clustered entities.[citation needed]
An organization can be structured in many different ways, depending on their
objectives. The structure of an organization will determine the modes in which it
operates and performs.
Organizational structure allows the expressed allocation of responsibilities for
different functions and processes to different entities such as the branch,
department, workgroup and individual.
Organizational structure affects organizational action in two big ways :
 First, it provides the foundation on which standard operating procedures
and routines rest.
 Second, it determines which individuals get to participate in which
decision-making processes, and thus to what extent their views shape the
organization’s actions.[2]
History
Organizational structures developed from the ancient times of hunters and
collectors in tribal organizations through highly royal and clerical power structures
to industrial structures and today's post-industrial structures.

The neoclassical theorists have developed a different solution. They assumed that a
considerable amount of decisions could be delegated to organizational members at
lower organizational levels. This solution would be equivalent to the application of
Fayol's bridge combined with the principle of employee initiative that he proposed.
As a result, the need for supervision would be reduced from direct control to
exception handling. According to this assumption, they considered the opportunity
of having access to a supervising manager would be sufficient to satisfy the need for
control in standard situations. Peter Drucker (1954) refers to this principle as the
span of managerial responsibility.
As pointed out by Lawrence B. Mohr, [3] the early theorists of organizational
structure, Taylor, Fayol, and Weber "saw the importance of structure for
effectiveness and efficiency and assumed without the slightest question that
whatever structure was needed, people could fashion accordingly. Organizational
structure was considered a matter of choice... When in the 1930s, the rebellion
began that came to be known as human relations theory, there was still not a denial
of the idea of structure as an artifact, but rather an advocacy of the creation of a
different sort of structure, one in which the needs, knowledge, and opinions of
employees might be given greater recognition." However, a different view arose in
the 1960s, suggesting that the organizational structure is "an externally caused
phenomenon, an outcome rather than an artifact." [4]
In the 21st century, organizational theorists such as Lim, Griffiths, and Sambrook
(2010) are once again proposing that organizational structure development is very
much dependent on the expression of the strategies and behavior of the
management and the workers as constrained by the power distribution between
them, and influenced by their environment and the outcome. [5]
Operational organizations and informal organizations
See also: Informal organization and Formal organization
The set organizational structure may not coincide with facts, evolving in operational
action. Such divergence decreases performance, when growing. E.g., a wrong
organizational structure may hamper cooperation and thus hinder the completion
of orders in due time and within limits of resources and budgets. Organizational
structures shall be adaptive to process requirements, aiming to optimize the ratio of
effort and input to output.
Types
Pre-bureaucratic structures
Pre-bureaucratic (entrepreneurial) structures lack standardization of tasks. This
structure is most common in smaller organizations and is best used to solve simple
tasks. The structure is totally centralized. The strategic leader makes all key
decisions and most communication is done by one on one conversations. It is
particularly useful for new (entrepreneurial) business as it enables the founder to
control growth and development.
They are usually based on traditional domination or charismatic domination in the
sense of Max Weber's tripartite classification of authority.
Bureaucratic structures
Weber (1948, p. 214) gives the analogy that “the fully developed bureaucratic
mechanism compares with other organizations exactly as does the machine
compare with the non-mechanical modes of production. Precision, speed,
unambiguity, … strict subordination, reduction of friction and of material and
personal costs- these are raised to the optimum point in the strictly bureaucratic
administration.”[6] Bureaucratic structures have a certain degree of standardization.
They are better suited for more complex or larger scale organizations, usually
adopting a tall structure. The tension between bureaucratic structures and non-
bureaucratic is echoed in Burns and Stalker's[7] distinction between mechanistic and
organic structures.
The Weberian characteristics of bureaucracy are:
 Clear defined roles and responsibilities
 A hierarchical structure
 Respect for merit
Bureaucratic Structures have many levels of management ranging from senior
executives to regional managers, all the way to department store managers. Since
there are many levels, decision-making authority has to pass through more layers
than flatter organizations. Bureaucratic organization has rigid and tight procedures,
policies and constraints. These kind of structure is reluctant to adapt or change
what they have been doing since the company started. Organizational charts exist
for every department, and everyone understands who is in charge and what their
responsibilities are for every situation. Decisions are made through an organized
process, and a strict command and control structure is present at all times.In
bureaucratic structures, the authority is at the top and information is then flowed
from top to bottom. This causes for more rules and standards for the company
which operational process is watched with close supervision. Some advantages for
bureaucratic structures for top-level managers are they have a tremendous control
over organizational structure decisions. This works best for managers who have a
command and control style of managing. Strategic-decision making is also faster
because there are fewer people it has to go through to approve. Some
disadvantages in bureaucratic structures are it can discourage creativity and
innovation in the organization. This can make it hard for a company to adapt to
changing conditions in the marketplace.
Post-bureaucratic
The term of post bureaucratic is used in two senses in the organizational literature:
one generic and one much more specific.[8] In the generic sense the term post
bureaucratic is often used to describe a range of ideas developed since the 1980s
that specifically contrast themselves with Weber's ideal type bureaucracy. This may
include total quality management, culture management and matrix management,
amongst others. None of these however has left behind the core tenets of
Bureaucracy. Hierarchies still exist, authority is still Weber's rational, legal type, and
the organization is still rule bound. Heckscher, arguing along these lines, describes
them as cleaned up bureaucracies,[9] rather than a fundamental shift away from
bureaucracy. Gideon Kunda, in his classic study of culture management at 'Tech'
argued that 'the essence of bureaucratic control - the formalisation, codification
and enforcement of rules and regulations - does not change in principle.....it shifts
focus from organizational structure to the organization's culture'.
Another smaller group of theorists have developed the theory of the Post-
Bureaucratic Organization.,[9] provide a detailed discussion which attempts to
describe an organization that is fundamentally not bureaucratic. Charles Heckscher
has developed an ideal type, the post-bureaucratic organization, in which decisions
are based on dialogue and consensus rather than authority and command, the
organization is a network rather than a hierarchy, open at the boundaries (in direct
contrast to culture management); there is an emphasis on meta-decision making
rules rather than decision making rules. This sort of horizontal decision making by
consensus model is often used in housing cooperatives, other cooperatives and
when running a non-profit or community organization. It is used in order to
encourage participation and help to empower people who normally experience
oppression in groups.
Still other theorists are developing a resurgence of interest in complexity theory
and organizations, and have focused on how simple structures can be used to
engender organizational adaptations. For instance, Miner et al. (2000) studied how
simple structures could be used to generate improvisational outcomes in product
development. Their study makes links to simple structures and improviser learning.
Other scholars such as Jan Rivkin and Sigglekow, [10] and Nelson Repenning [11] revive
an older interest in how structure and strategy relate in dynamic environments.
Functional structure
A functional organizational structure is a structure that consists of activities such as
coordination, supervision and task allocation. The organizational structure
determines how the organization performs or operates. The term organizational
structure refers to how the people in an organization are grouped and to whom
they report. One traditional way of organizing people is by function. Some common
functions within an organization include production, marketing, human resources,
and accounting.
This organizing of specialization leads to operational efficiency where employees
become specialists within their own realm of expertise. The most typical problem
with a functional organizational structure is however that communication within
the company can be rather rigid, making the organization slow and inflexible.
Therefore, lateral communication between functions become very important, so
that information is disseminated, not only vertically, but also horizontally within the
organization. Communication in organizations with functional organizational
structures can be rigid because of the standardized ways of operation and the high
degree of formalization.
As a whole, a functional organization is best suited as a producer of standardized
goods and services at large volume and low cost. Coordination and specialization of
tasks are centralized in a functional structure, which makes producing a limited
amount of products or services efficient and predictable. Moreover, efficiencies can
further be realized as functional organizations integrate their activities vertically so
that products are sold and distributed quickly and at low cost. [12] For instance, a
small business could make components used in production of its products instead
of buying them.
Even though functional units often perform with a high level of efficiency, their level
of cooperation with each other is sometimes compromised. Such groups may have
difficulty working well with each other as they may be territorial and unwilling to
cooperate. The occurrence of infighting among units may cause delays, reduced
commitment due to competing interests, and wasted time, making projects fall
behind schedule. This ultimately can bring down production levels overall, and the
company-wide employee commitment toward meeting organizational goals.
Divisional structure
The divisional structure or product structure consists of self-contained divisions. A
division is a collection of functions which produce a product. It also utilizes a plan to
compete and operate as a separate business or profit center. According to
Zainbooks.com, divisional structure in America is seen as the second most common
structure for organization today.[citation needed]
Employees who are responsible for certain market services or types of products are
placed in divisional structure in order to increase their flexibility. Examples of
divisions include regional (a U.S Division and an EU division), consumer type (a
division for companies and one for households), and product type (a division for
trucks, another for SUVS, and another for cars). The divisions may also have their
own departments such as marketing, sales, and engineering.
The advantage of divisional structure is that it uses delegated authority so the
performance can be directly measured with each group. This results in managers
performing better and high employee morale.[citation needed] Another advantage of using
divisional structure is that it is more efficient in coordinating work between
different divisions, and there is more flexibility to respond when there is a change in
the market. Also, a company will have a simpler process if they need to change the
size of the business by either adding or removing divisions. When divisional
structure is utilized more specialization can occur within the groups. When
divisional structure is organized by product, the customer has their own advantages
especially when only a few services or products are offered which differ greatly.
When using divisional structures that are organized by either markets or geographic
areas they generally have similar function and are located in different regions or
markets. This allows business decisions and activities coordinated locally.
The disadvantages of the divisional structure is that it can support unhealthy
rivalries among divisions. This type of structure may increase costs by requiring
more qualified managers for each division. Also, there is usually an over-emphasis
on divisional more than organizational goals which results in duplication of
resources and efforts like staff services, facilities, and personnel.
Matrix structure
The matrix structure groups employees by both function and product. This structure
can combine the best of both separate structures. A matrix organization frequently
uses teams of employees to accomplish work, in order to take advantage of the
strengths, as well as make up for the weaknesses, of functional and decentralized
forms. An example would be a company that produces two products, "product a"
and "product b". Using the matrix structure, this company would organize functions
within the company as follows: "product a" sales department, "product a" customer
service department, "product a" accounting, "product b" sales department,
"product b" customer service department, "product b" accounting department.
Matrix structure is amongst the purest of organizational structures, a simple lattice
emulating order and regularity demonstrated in nature.
 Weak/Functional Matrix: A project manager with only limited authority is
assigned to oversee the cross- functional aspects of the project. The
functional managers maintain control over their resources and project
areas.
 Balanced/Functional Matrix: A project manager is assigned to oversee the
project. Power is shared equally between the project manager and the
functional managers. It brings the best aspects of functional and
projectized organizations. However, this is the most difficult system to
maintain as the sharing of power is a delicate proposition.
 Strong/Project Matrix: A project manager is primarily responsible for the
project. Functional managers provide technical expertise and assign
resources as needed.
Matrix structure is only one of the three major structures. The other two are
Functional and Project structure. Matrix management is more dynamic than
functional management in that it is a combination of all the other structures and
allows team members to share information more readily across task boundaries. It
also allows for specialization that can increase depth of knowledge in a specific
sector or segment.
There are both advantages and disadvantages of the matrix structure; some of the
disadvantages are an increase in the complexity of the chain of command. This
occurs because of the differentiation between functional managers and project
managers, which can be confusing for employees to understand who is next in the
chain of command. An additional disadvantage of the matrix structure is higher
manager to worker ratio that results in conflicting loyalties of employees. However
the matrix structure also has significant advantages that make it valuable for
companies to use. The matrix structure improves upon the “silo” critique of
functional management in that it diminishes the vertical structure of functional and
creates a more horizontal structure which allows the spread of information across
task boundaries to happen much quicker. Moreover matrix structure allows for
specialization that can increase depth of knowledge & allows individuals to be
chosen according to project needs. This correlation between individuals and project
needs is what produces the concept of maximizing strengths and minimizing
weaknesses.
Organizational circle: moving back to flat
The flat structure is common in small companies (entrepreneurial start-ups,
university spin offs). As companies grow they tend to become more complex and
hierarchical, which leads to an expanded structure, with more levels and
departments.
However, in rare cases, such as the examples of Valve Corporation, GitHub, Inc. and
37signals, the organization remains very flat as it grows, eschewing middle
managers.[13] All of the aforementioned organizations operate in the field of
technology, which may be significant, as software developers are highly skilled
professionals, much like lawyers. Senior lawyers also enjoy a relatively high degree
of autonomy within a typical law firm, which is typically structured as a partnership
rather than a hierarchical bureaucracy. Some other types of professional
organisations are also commonly structured as partnerships, such as accountancy
companies and GP surgeries.
Often, growth would result in bureaucracy, the most prevalent structure in the past.
It is still, however, relevant in former Soviet Republics, China, and most
governmental organizations all over the world. Shell Group used to represent the
typical bureaucracy: top-heavy and hierarchical. It featured multiple levels of
command and duplicate service companies existing in different regions. All this
made Shell apprehensive to market changes,[14] leading to its incapacity to grow and
develop further. The failure of this structure became the main reason for the
company restructuring into a matrix.
Starbucks is one of the numerous large organizations that successfully developed which are based in low-cost Asian countries. Not owning any factories, H&M can be
the matrix structure supporting their focused strategy. Its design combines more flexible than many other retailers in lowering its costs, which aligns with its
functional and product based divisions, with employees reporting to two heads. [15] low-cost strategy.[21] The potential management opportunities offered by recent
Creating a team spirit, the company empowers employees to make their own advances in complex networks theory have been demonstrated [22] including
decisions and trains them to develop both hard and soft skills. applications to product design and development,[23] and innovation problem in
markets and industries.[24]
Some experts also mention the multinational design,[16] common in global
companies, such as Procter & Gamble, Toyota and Unilever. This structure can be Virtual
seen as a complex form of the matrix, as it maintains coordination among products,
functions and geographic areas. Virtual organization is defined as being closely coupled upstream with its suppliers
and downstream with its customers such that where one begins and the other ends
With the growth of the internet, and the associated access that gives all levels of an means little to those who manage the business processes within the entire
organization to information and communication via digital means, power structures organization. A special form of boundaryless organization is virtual. Hedberg,
have begun to align more as a wirearchy, enabling the flow of power and authority Dahlgren, Hansson, and Olve (1999) consider the virtual organization as not
to be based not on hierarchical levels, but on information, trust, credibility, and a physically existing as such, but enabled by software to exist. [25] The virtual
focus on results. organization exists within a network of alliances, using the Internet. This means
while the core of the organization can be small but still the company can operate
In general, over the last decade, it has become increasingly clear that through the globally be a market leader in its niche. According to Anderson, because of the
forces of globalization, competition and more demanding customers, the structure unlimited shelf space of the Web, the cost of reaching niche goods is falling
of many companies has become flatter, less hierarchical, more fluid and even dramatically. Although none sell in huge numbers, there are so many niche
virtual.[17] products that collectively they make a significant profit, and that is what made
highly innovative Amazon.com so successful.[26]
Team
Hierarchy-Community Phenotype Model of Organizational Structure
One of the newest organizational structures developed in the 20th century is team
and the related concept of team development or team building. In small businesses,
the team structure can define the entire organization. [16] Teams can be both
horizontal and vertical.[18] While an organization is constituted as a set of people
who synergize individual competencies to achieve newer dimensions, the quality of
organizational structure revolves around the competencies of teams in totality. [19]
For example, every one of the Whole Foods Market stores, the largest natural-foods
grocer in the US developing a focused strategy, is an autonomous profit centre
composed of an average of 10 self-managed teams, while team leaders in each
store and each region are also a team. Larger bureaucratic organizations can benefit
from the flexibility of teams as well. Xerox, Motorola, and DaimlerChrysler are all
among the companies that actively use teams to perform tasks.

Network

Another modern structure is network. While business giants risk becoming too
clumsy to proact (such as), act and react efficiently,[20] the new network
organizations contract out any business function, that can be done better or more
Hierarchy-Community Phenotype Model of Organizational Structure
cheaply. In essence, managers in network structures spend most of their time
coordinating and controlling external relations, usually by electronic means. H&M is
outsourcing its clothing to a network of 700 suppliers, more than two-thirds of
In the 21st century, even though most, if not all, organizations are not of a pure management (people) applied to architecture. This perspective on organizational
hierarchical structure, many managers are still blind to the existence of the flat architecture is elaborated in organizational space.
community structure within their organizations.[27]
Organization design or architecture of an organization as a metaphor provides the
The business is no longer just a place where people come to work. For most of the framework through which an organization aims to realize its core qualities as
employees, the firm confers on them that sense of belonging and identity –– the specified in its vision statement. It provides the infrastructure into which business
firm has become their “village”, their community. [28] The firm of the 21st century is processes are deployed and ensures that the organization's core qualities are
not just a hierarchy which ensures maximum efficiency and profit; it is also the realized across the business processes deployed within the organization. In this way
community where people belong to and grow together, where their affective and organizations aim to consistently realize their core qualities across the services they
innovative needs are met.[5] offer to their clients. This perspective on organizational architecture is elaborated
below.
Lim, Griffiths, and Sambrook (2010) developed the Hierarchy-Community
Phenotype Model of Organizational Structure borrowing from the concept of According to most authors organizational architecture is a metaphor, like traditional
Phenotype from genetics. "A phenotype refers to the observable characteristics of architecture it shapes the organizational (some authors would say the
an organism. It results from the expression of an organism’s genes and the informational) space where life will take place. It also represents a concept which
influence of the environment. The expression of an organism’s genes is usually implies a connection between the organizational structure with other systems
determined by pairs of alleles. Alleles are different forms of a gene. In our model, inside the organization in order to create a unique synergistic system which will be
each employee’s formal, hierarchical participation and informal, community more than just the sum of its parts.
participation within the organization, as influenced by his or her environment,
contributes to the overall observable characteristics (phenotype) of the Conventionally organizational architecture consists of the formal organization
organization. In other words, just as all the pair of alleles within the genetic material (organizational structure), informal organization (organizational culture), business
of an organism determines the physical characteristics of the organism, the processes, strategy and the most important human resources because what is an
combined expressions of all the employees’ formal hierarchical and informal organization if not a system of people. The table shows some approaches to
community participation within an organization give rise to the organizational organizational architecture.[1]
structure. Due to the vast potentially different combination of the employees’
formal hierarchical and informal community participation, each organization is Corporate
Nadler &
therefore a unique phenotype along a spectrum between a pure hierarchy and a Merron Galbraith Henning(1997 Churchill Transitions
Tushman
pure community (flat) organizational structure." (1995) (1995) ) (1997) International
(1997)
(2004)
Organizational architecture has two very different meanings. In one sense it literally
refers to the organization its built environment and in another sense it refers to Vision,
architecture metaphorically, as a structure which fleshes out the organizations. strategic The role of
goals and Strategy the Strategy
 Organizational architecture or organizational space: the influence of the strategic organization
spatial environment on humans in and around organizations. management

 Organizational architecture or organization design: the creation of roles, Informal

Organization Reward Reward Organization Organizational
processes, and formal reporting relationships in an organization. organizatio
al culture systems systems al culture culture
n
Organizational space describes the influence of the spatial environment on the
health, the mind, and the behavior of humans in and around organizations.[2] It is an Formal
area of research in which interdisciplinarity is a central perspective. It draws from Organization Organization Organization Organizational
organizatio Groupings
management, organization and architecture[3] added with knowledge from, for al structure al structure al structure structure
n
instance, environmental psychology, social medicine, or spatial science. In essence,
it may be regarded as a special field of expertise of organization studies and change
 Business years of work by Galbraith) that attention to all of these organizational elements is
Processes
Business processes necessary to create new capabilities to compete in a given market. This systemic
and lateral
processes and work view, often referred to as the "star model" approach, is more likely to lead to better
links
design performance.

Human Organization design may involve strategic decisions, but is properly viewed as a
Human Human Communicatio path to effective strategy execution. The design process nearly always entails
resource
resources resources n making trade-offs of one set of structural benefits against another. Many
development
companies fall into the trap of making repeated changes in organization structure,
The goal of organizational architecture is to create an organization which will be with little benefit to the business. This often occurs because changes in structure
able to continuously create value for present and future customers, optimizing and are relatively easy to execute while creating the impression that something
organizing itself. substantial is happening. This often leads to cynicism and confusion within the
organization. More powerful change happens when there are clear design
Some under organizational architecture understand building blocks which are objectives driven by a new business strategy or forces in the market that require a
mandatory for the growth of the organization. To design an organization means to different approach to organizing resources.
set up a stage where the drama of life will take place.
The organization design process is often defined in phases. Phase one is the
Design definition of a business case, including a clear picture of strategy and design
objectives. This step is typically followed by "strategic grouping" decisions, which
Reshaping organization structure will define the fundamental architecture of the organization - essentially deciding
which major roles will report at the top of the organization. The classic options for
strategic grouping are to organize by:

 Behavior

 Function

 Product or category

 Customer or market

 Geography

 Matrix

Galbraith's Star Model of organizational design
Organization design can be defined narrowly, as the process of reshaping
organization structure and roles, or it can more effectively be defined as the
alignment of structure, process, rewards, metrics and talent with the strategy of the
business. Jay Galbraith and Amy Kates have made the case persuasively (building on
Each of the basic building block options for strategic grouping brings a set of
benefits and drawbacks. Such generic pros and cons, however, are not the basis for
choosing the best strategic grouping. An analysis must be done completed relative
to a specific business strategy.
Subsequent phases of organization design include operational design of processes,
roles, measures and reward systems, followed by staffing and other
implementation tasks.
The field is somewhat specialized in nature and many large and small consulting
firms offer organization design assistance to executives. Some companies attempt
to establish internal staff resources aimed at supporting organization design
initiatives. There is a substantial body of literature in the field, arguably starting
with the work of Peter Drucker in his examination of General Motors decades ago.
Other key thinkers built on Drucker's thinking, including Galbraith (1973), Nadler, et
al. (1992) and Lawrence & Lorsch (1967).
Organization design can be considered a subset of the broader field of organization
effectiveness and organization development, both of which may entail more
behaviorally focused solutions to effectiveness, such as leadership behaviors, team
effectiveness and the like. Many organizational experts argue for an integrated
approach to these disciplines, including effective talent management practices.
Various approaches
There are various approaches to organizational architecture including
 (1986, 1991, 2004) - Kenneth D. Mackenzie
 (1992, 1993) - David A. Nadler & Michael L. Tushman.
 Organizational Architecture - by David A. Nadler, Marc S. Gerstein and
Robert B. Shaw.
 (1993, 1995) - Designing organizations using the STAR Model as developed
by Jay Galbraith
 Benjamin's Layered Model of organizations.
 The Organizational Adaption Model by Raymond E. Miles and Charles C.
Snow.
 (1995) - Richard M. Burton & Børge Obel
 (2001) - Ralph Kilmann
 (2004) - Richard L. Daft
Characteristics of effective organizational design
Some systems are effective and efficient whereas others are not. Successful systems
may be attributable to the skill exercised in designing the system or to the quality of
management practised during operations, or both. Successful systems are
characterized by their simplicity, flexibility, reliability, economy, and acceptability. [4]
Simplicity, flexibility, and reliability tend to be a function of design, whereas
economy and acceptability pertain to both design and operations. Numerous
relationships exist among these characteristics; for example, simplicity will affect
economy and possibly reliability. Moreover, management must reach a compromise
between economy and reliability, and between technical efficiency and
organizational climate. The balance reached will determine whether short- or long-
run objectives are optimized.
 Simplicity
An effective organizational system need not be complex. On the contrary, simplicity
in design is an extremely desirable quality. Consider the task of communicating
information about the operation of a system and the allocation of its inputs. The
task is not difficult when components are few and the relationships among them
are straightforward. However, the problems of communication multiply with each
successive stage of complexity.
The proper method for maintaining simplicity is to use precise definitions and to
outline the specific task for each subsystem. Total systems often become complex
because of the sheer size and nature of operations, but effectiveness and efficiency
may still be achieved if each subsystem maintains its simplicity.
 Flexibility
Conditions change and managers should be prepared to adjust operations
accordingly. There are two ways to adjust to a changing operating environment: to
design new systems or to modify operating systems. An existing system should not
be modified to accommodate a change in objectives, but every system should be
sufficiently flexible to integrate changes that may occur either in the environment
or in the nature of the inputs. For example, a company should not use the same
system to build missiles as it uses to build airplanes, nor the same system to sell
insurance as the one originally designed to sell magazines. However, it should be
possible to modify an existing system to produce different sizes, varieties, or types
of the same product or service.
A practical system must be well designed but it cannot be entirely rigid. There will
always be minor variations from the general plan, and a system should be able to
adapt to such changes without excessive confusion. The advantages associated with
having a flexible system will become more apparent when we consider the difficulty
of administering change.
 Reliability
System reliability is an important factor in organizations. Reliability is the
consistency with which operations are maintained, and may vary from zero output
(a complete breakdown or work stoppage) to a constant or predictable output. The
typical system operates somewhere between these two extremes. The
characteristics of reliability can be designed into the system by carefully selecting
and arranging the operating components; the system is no more reliable than its
weakest segment. When the requirements for a particular component — such as an
operator having unique skills — are critical, it may be worthwhile to maintain a
standby operator. In all situations, provisions should be made for quick repair or
replacement when failure occurs. One valid approach to the reliability-maintenance
relationship is to use a form of construction that permits repair by replacing a
complete unit. In some television sets, for example, it is common practice to replace
an entire section of the network rather than try to find the faulty component.
Reliability is not as critical an issue when prompt repair and recovery can be
instituted.
 Economy
An effective system is not necessarily an economical (efficient) system. For example,
the postal service may keep on schedule with mail deliveries but only by hiring a
large number of additional workers. In this case, the efficiency of the postal system
would be reduced. In another example, inventories may be controlled by using a
comprehensive system of storekeeping. However, if the cost of the storekeeping
were greater than the potential savings from this degree of control, the system
would not be efficient. It is often dysfunctional and expensive to develop much
greater capacity for one segment of a system than for some other part. Building in
redundancy or providing for every contingency usually neutralizes the operating
efficiency of the system. When a system's objectives include achieving a particular
task at the lowest possible cost, there must be some degree of trade-off between
effectiveness and efficiency. When a system's objective is to perform a certain
mission regardless of cost, there can be no trade-off.
 Acceptability
Any system, no matter how well designed, will not function properly unless it is
accepted by the people who operate it. If the participants do not believe it will
benefit them, are opposed to it, are pressured into using it, or think it is not a good
system, it will not work properly. If a system is not accepted, two things can
happen:(1) the system will be modified gradually by the people who are using it, or
(2) the system will be used ineffectively and ultimately fail. Unplanned alterations in
an elaborate system can nullify advantages associated with using the system.
Differentiation and Integration
A basic consideration in the design of organizations is dividing work into reasonable
tasks (differentiation) while giving simultaneous attention to coordinating these
activities and unifying their results into a meaningful whole (integration). Two
guidelines may be followed in grouping activities:
1. Units that have similar orientations and tasks should be grouped together.
(They can reinforce each other's common concern and the arrangement
will simplify the coordinating task of a common manager).
2. Units required to integrate their activities closely should be grouped
together. (The common manager can coordinate them through the formal
hierarchy).[5]
When units neither have similar orientations nor share their activities, the task of
grouping becomes more difficult. For example, when units are similar in nature and
function but are also relatively independent, the manager must base his decision on
the most appropriate way to group activities according to his past experience. [5]
A difficult task associated with system-subsystem determination is to establish
proper boundaries of operations. The more specific and distinct the goals of the
operation, the easier it is to set boundaries. Other factors such as the influence of
the environment, the availability of men and machines, the time schedule for
design and operation, the cost of alternative designs, and the particular biases of
the designers must be considered when establishing boundaries. [5]
The role of management
Designers with imagination have the best chance to group people and machines
into workable combinations having the greatest efficiency and effectiveness within
the recognized constraints. Certain characteristics should be designed into an
effective and efficient system — simplicity, flexibility, reliability, economy, and
acceptability.[6]
At this point, the designer must determine what has to be done to achieve the
stated objective(s) and how the total task can be divided into meaningful units. Of
the many possible combinations, one must be selected as that which satisfies the
decision criteria better than the other alternatives. Of course, the balance between
technical efficiency and the human factors that determine organizational climate
should be included in making this decision. The eventual success or failure of the
project is somewhat predetermined by management's attitude and the relationship
between the designers and those who must implement the process. [6]
The systems approach suggests a new role for management. In the traditional view,
the manager operated in a highly structured, rigid system having well-defined goals,
clear-cut relationships, tight controls, and hierarchical information flows. In the
flexible (or open) systems view, the organization is not static but is continually
evolving to meet both external and internal changes. The manager's role is to
develop a viable organization, cope with change, and help participants establish a
dynamic equilibrium. Leonard Sayles has expressed the manager's problem as
follows:
“The one enduring objective is the effort to build and maintain a predictable,
reciprocating system of relationships, the behavioral patterns of which stay within
reasonable physical limits. But this is seeking a moving equilibrium, since the
parameters of the system (the division of labor and the controls) are evolving and
changing. Thus, the manager endeavors to introduce regularity in a world that will
never allow him to achieve the ideal”.[7]
probability of success in implementation is enhanced considerably if management is
vitally interested in the project, technical expertise and motivation for change are
more likely to be found in staff groups. The solution to the apparent dichotomy
would seem to be a team approach,[8] with specialists supporting operating
managers who are responsible for the project's success. A manager might devote
either part-time to such an effort or full-time temporarily, if the task requires it.

The systems approach does not offer a prescription for making a manager's difficult
and complex job easier. Rather it helps him understand and operate more
effectively within the reality of complex systems. The systems approach suggests
that operations cannot be neatly departmentalized but must be viewed as
overlapping subsystems. In addition, it suggests that leadership patterns must be
modified, particularly when dealing with professionals and highly trained specialists,
and motivation must take the form of active, willing participation rather than
forceful subjugation.[7]
A project involving an integrated system for the entire company might well require
years to complete. If operating people are delegated responsibility and authority for
such a project, particularly if they are delegated the authority to outline
specifications, they should also maintain sufficient contact with the day-to-day
operations and its attendant information flow to retain their expertise for decision
making. If the environment is dynamic or internal capabilities undergo change, it
might be wise to rotate people from operations to systems design periodically, so
that operating expertise is updated continually.

Systems design involves establishing project and facilitating subsystems to

accomplish certain tasks or programs. In this approach, the network of human
independence required to accomplish a given task is based on the shared
responsibility of all members of the subsystem. In contrast, the traditional
organization is geared to functional performance and the integrating force is
authority. Instead of gearing participant activities to obedience to rules and closely
structured behavior, the systems approach provides a basis for active cooperation
in meeting task requirements. The manager is looked upon as a resource person
who can help the group meet its goals and also as a source of authority and control.
Thus, systems theory lends a structure by which the concepts of motivation,
leadership, and participation can be applied effectively within the organization. [7]

Implementation is, of course, implicit in the connotation of systems design;

otherwise it would be nothing more than an empty exercise. It follows that the
interface between managers and systems designers is critical, and mutual
understanding must be fostered to maximize returns from design efforts. The
system must be tailored to the needs of the organization and adapted continually as
circumstances change. In a general sense, managers engage in systems design on a
day-to-day basis when they plan activities and organize systems to accomplish
objectives. Specialized staff groups have evolved to perform tasks such as long-
range planning, organizational studies, and systems design. However, since
managers are ultimately responsible for organizational endeavors, they should
make a special effort to help ensure the development of useful systems and to
make design activities an extension of the manager's role rather than a separate
function.[6]

Operating managers need to understand the organizational decision-making

requirements and the information needed to support the system. Although the