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Acp 7 69 2007
Acp 7 69 2007
Abstract. A new method for the satellite remote sensing Therefore, the precise knowledge of the spatio-temporal vari-
of different types of vegetation and ocean colour is pre- ation of the biological activity is an important prerequisite for
sented. In contrast to existing algorithms relying on the the correct understanding and simulation of global trace gas
strong change of the reflectivity in the red and near infrared budgets and of the earth’s climate. Of special importance is
spectral region, our method analyses weak narrow-band (few the monitoring of the human-induced change of the global
nm) reflectance structures (i.e. “fingerprint” structures) of vegetation patterns, e.g. caused by biomass burning or cli-
vegetation in the red spectral range. It is based on differen- mate change.
tial optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS), which is usu- Algorithms for the remote sensing of vegetation have been
ally applied for the analysis of atmospheric trace gas absorp- developed and are successfully applied to satellite observa-
tions. Since the spectra of atmospheric absorption and veg- tions for a long time. Typically they are based on the mea-
etation reflectance are simultaneously included in the analy- sured radiance in the red and near-infrared part of the spec-
sis, the effects of atmospheric absorptions are automatically trum. Over this wavelength range, the reflectivity of vege-
corrected (in contrast to other algorithms). The inclusion of tation changes strongly (Fig. 1), caused by the absorption of
the vegetation spectra also significantly improves the results various kinds of chlorophyll and pigments. Thus a clear veg-
of the trace gas retrieval. The global maps of the results il- etation signal can be easily derived. Definitions of various
lustrate the seasonal cycles of different vegetation types. In kinds of vegetation indices based on intensity ratios can be
addition to the vegetation distribution on land, they also show found e.g. in Birth and McVey (1968), Jordan (1969), Rouse
patterns of biological activity in the oceans. Our results in- et al. (1974), Huete (1988), Gutman (1991), and Jensen
dicate that improved sets of vegetation spectra might lead to (2000).
more accurate and more specific identification of vegetation Here we present a new vegetation algorithm which can be
type in the future. applied to new satellite sensors with moderate spectral reso-
lution (but presently only coarse spatial resolution). A simi-
lar method was already applied to airborne measurements by
Clark et al. (1995). In contrast to the existing algorithms, our
1 Introduction
method exploits the narrow-band spectral information of the
vegetation reflectance, which allows in particular to discrim-
Vegetation has a strong influence on the cycles of trace gases
inate different types of vegetation. One additional advantage
and other important properties of the earth system, in par-
is that the influence of atmospheric absorption is automat-
ticular the earth’s energy budget. Vegetation modifies the
ically corrected. These findings are in agreement with the
ground albedo and thus has a strong impact on the amount
formulation of the forward model for the performed measure-
of backscattered solar energy. Vegetation also strongly influ-
ments; they are also confirmed by the analysis of simulated
ences the water cycle through its influence on evaporation;
spectra.
the release of latent heat is important for the latitudinal en-
ergy distribution. Plants are also sources and/or sinks for
many important trace gases, in particular greenhouse gases.
0.6 0.6 tre, and an east pixel. The Earth’s surface is entirely covered
Conifers within 3 days, and poleward from about 70◦ latitude within
0.4 Decidous 0.4 1 day.
Grass
0.2 0.2
3 Data analysis
0.0 0.0
600 650 700 750 800
3.1 Analysis of the measured spectra
0.08 0.08 (DOAS, see Platt, 1994). The DOAS method applies a high-
pass filtering to the measured spectra of (in our case: scat-
0.06 0.06
tered and reflected sun light) and thus enables the detection
0.04 0.04 of several weak atmospheric absorbers. Our DOAS anal-
ysis is performed in the wavelength interval 605–683 nm.
1.04 1.04 It is based on the algorithm developed for the analysis of
High pass filtered albedo the atmospheric absorptions of water vapour and the oxy-
gen molecule (O2 ) and dimer (O4 ) as described in detail in
1.00 1.00 Wagner et al. (2004, 2005). Using this algorithm, however,
it turned out that over the continents often strong spectral
structures appeared in the measured spectra, which could not
0.96 0.96
620 640 660 680
be accounted for by the atmospheric absorptions of O2 , O4 ,
Wavelength [nm] and H2 O. These spectral structures showed up in the resid-
ual of the DOAS analysis causing strong systematic errors of
Fig. 1. Top: Spectra of the reflectance over different kinds of veg- the trace gas retrievals. In particular the O4 absorptions are
etation, reproduced from the ASTER Spectral Library through the affected, which have a similar band width as the observed
courtesy of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of residual structure. In some cases, even apparent negative O4
Technology, Pasadena, California. ©1999, California Institute of absorptions were found (Figs. 2 and 3). In contrast, the ab-
Technology. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. The strong change of the sorptions of O2 and H2 O are only weakly affected.
reflectance between the red and infrared part of the spectrum is usu- After various putative instrumental and methodological
ally exploited for the remote sensing of vegetation. In the red part of
reasons for this structure were investigated and could be ex-
the spectrum the reflectance is small (middle), but contains charac-
cluded, we studied whether spectral structures caused by the
teristic spectral structures. These structures become more obvious
after high-pass filtering (division by a fitted polynomial of degree albedo of specific surface types might be responsible for the
4) (bottom). observed spectral residuals. Since the problems occurred
only over areas with vital vegetation, we took a closer look at
the spectral albedos of different kinds of vegetation (vegeta-
2 The instrument: GOME on ERS-2 tion reflectance spectra reproduced from the ASTER Spectral
Library through the courtesy of the Jet Propulsion Labora-
The Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME) is one tory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Califor-
of several instruments aboard the European research satellite nia, see also http://speclib.jpl.nasa.gov/).
ERS-2 (European Space Agency (ESA), 1995; Burrows et It soon turned out that the residual spectral structures were
al., 1999). It consists of a set of four spectrometers that si- similar to the high-pass-filtered reflectance spectra measured
multaneously measure sunlight reflected from the Earth’s at- over vegetation (Fig. 1). Moreover, if the (logarithm of the)
mosphere and surface in 4096 spectral channels covering the vegetation spectra were included in the spectral analysis, the
wavelength range between 240 and 790 nm with moderate residual structures and the errors for the retrieval of the at-
spectral resolution (full width at half maximum (FWHM): mospheric absorbers were strongly reduced (Fig. 2). In par-
0.2–0.4 nm). The satellite operates in a nearly polar, sun- ticular, the O4 absorptions retrieved in the red spectral range
synchronous orbit at an altitude of 780 km with an equator become very similar to those retrieved in the UV (Fig. 3).
crossing time of approximately 10:30 a.m. local time. While It is interesting to note that in the red spectral range not
the satellite orbits in an almost north-south direction, GOME only the absolute values of the albedo, but also the narrow-
scans the surface of earth in the perpendicular east-west di- band spectral structures (for the spectral resolution of up to
rection. During one scan, three individual ground pixels are 8 nm, see http://speclib.jpl.nasa.gov/) are very weak (<3%).
observed, each covering an area of 320 km east to west by For the corresponding weak variations of the observed ra-
40 km north to south. They lie side by side: a west, a cen- diance, it is thus possible to include the (logarithm of the)
Spectral fit without vegetation spectra Spectral fit with vegetation spectra
27.7.1998, 3:54 UTC, lat: 64.7°N, long: 117.5°E, SZA: 45.6° 27.7.1998, 3:54 UTC, lat: 64.7°N, long: 117.5°E, SZA: 45.6°
measured spectrum
29.5 29.5
29.1 29.1
28.7 28.7
0.00 0.00
-0.03 H2O -0.03
-0.06 -0.06
0.03 0.03
-0.02 -0.02
Optical depth
-0.07
O2
-0.07
-0.12 -0.12
0.04 0.04
0.01 0.01
-0.02 O4 -0.02
-0.05 -0.05
0.02
0.00
Vegetation
-0.02
0.03 0.03
residual
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.03 -0.03
600 620 640 660 680 600 620 640 660 680
Wavelength [nm] Wavelength [nm]
Fig. 2. Results of a spectral DOAS analysis of water vapor and the oxygen molecule (O2 ) and dimer (O4 ) without (left) and with (right)
inclusion of vegetation reflectance spectra. The red curves represent the trace gas cross sections and the vegetation spectra scaled to the
respective spectral structures detected in the satellite spectrum (black curves). For measurements over vital vegetation always strong and
systematic spectral residuals appear, if the reflectance spectra of vegetation are not included.
vegetation spectra (like the trace gas reference spectra) di- about 8 nm compared to about 0.4 nm). However, the resid-
rectly in the DOAS fitting procedure (for more details see ual structure did not substantially change. Thus, it is proba-
Sect. 3.2). One particular advantage of the simultaneous fit- ble that the coarse resolution of the vegetation spectra is not
ting of atmospheric trace gas absorptions and spectral albedo the sole reason for the remaining residual structures. In a
structures is that the correction of atmospheric absorption second modified DOAS analysis, we allowed spectral shift-
processes that is necessary (and often problematic) for con- ing of the vegetation spectra during the fitting procedure, but
ventional algorithms is automatically included in the retrieval the results did not change substantially. Part of these find-
of the vegetation results. ings are also confirmed by the results using synthetic spectra
It should be noted that even if the vegetation spectra were (Sect. 3.3).
included in the fitting procedure, still systematic spectral In addition to possible spectroscopic shortcomings, the
structures in the residual remained (Fig. 2). Also, the re- residual structures might be also partly caused by the fact
trieved values for the different kinds of vegetation are some- that the selected vegetation spectra are not fully representa-
times below zero (Fig. 3). These negative values and the re- tive for the measured spectral structures of vegetation (also
maining residual structures might be caused by several rea- non-vegetation surfaces might cause spectral structures). In-
sons, mainly by a possibly inappropriate spectral resolution dications for this possibility are also found from the compar-
and wavelength calibration of the vegetation spectra. We ison of the results for the different vegetation types. Espe-
investigated these potential error sources by modifying the cially, the observed interferences between the different veg-
DOAS analysis: if e.g. the spectral resolution of the GOME etation types and also with the ocean colour indicate that the
measurements and of the trace gas reference spectra were used vegetation spectra did not perfectly fit to the observed
mathematically reduced before the fitting process, the abso- spectral structures. We also found that the results are sensi-
lute values of the retrieved results for the different vegeta- tive to variations of the wavelength range under considera-
tion types became systematically smaller. In fact, the spec- tion. Such a dependence is a particular indicator for an im-
tral resolution of the vegetation spectra is much coarser than perfect agreement of the spectral structures of the measured
the spectral resolution of the GOME instrument (FWHM and the fitted spectra (see Sect. 3.3). Differences between
23.10.1998 (GOME orbit 81023092) the spectral structures in the observed light and also yields
direct information on the vegetation coverage of the observed
3E+23
H2O ground pixel. Moreover, our model also allows to determine
2E+23 (and correct for) the sensitivity of the method for various at-
mospheric conditions.
1E+23 The measured radiance is either reflected at the Earth’s
0 surface or scattered by molecules and particles (aerosols and
without vegetation
clouds). On its way through the atmosphere (before and after
0.8 with vegetation the reflection or scattering events) the radiance is also atten-
O2 uated by absorption (by molecules or aerosols).
0.6
0.4
I (λ) = I0 (λ) × e−τrefl (λ) × A (λ) + Iscatt (λ) × e−τscatt (λ) (1)
0.2
0.0
without vegetation Here I(λ) is the measured radiance, Io (λ) is the radiance
with vegetation which would be measured over a white surface without at-
O4 UV retrieval mospheric scattering and absorption, A(λ) is the surface
fit coefficient
Sensitivity to vegetation
grass
Ref_8
Inarrow (λ) I0 (λ) ×Abroad (λ) ×Anarrow (λ) +Iscatt (λ)
ln = ln (5) 0.6
Ibroad (λ) I0 (λ) ×Abroad (λ) +Iscatt (λ)
Since the variations of the narrow band albedo spectra are 0.4
weak (<3%), we can use the approximation:
0.2
ln(1 + x) ≈ x (6)
and derive: 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
SZA
A (λ)narrow ≈ ln Anarrow (λ) + 1 (7)
1
Sensitivity to vegetation
ln = (8) grass
Ref_8
Ibroad (λ)
0.6
I0 (λ) ×Abroad (λ) +Iscatt (λ) +I0 (λ) ×Abroad (λ) × ln Anarrow (λ)
ln
I0 (λ) ×Abroad (λ) +Iscatt (λ)
0.4
Since the term I0 (λ) ×Abroad (λ) × ln Anarrow (λ) is small
compared to I0 (λ) ×Abroad (λ) +Iscatt (λ) , we can approx-
0.2
imate Eq. (8) by:
I0 (λ) × Abroad (λ) 0
≈ × ln Anarrow (λ) (9) 0.1 1 10
I0 (λ) × Abroad (λ) + Iscatt (λ) Aerosol optical depth
excluded
included
included
excluded
excluded
included
included
3 1.2
trace gas fitting coefficient for
air m ass factors vegetation spectra
0.8
2
0.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-0.4
3 1.2
0.8
2
0.4
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 -0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 1.2
O4 conifers
O2 0.8 decidous
2 grass
0.4
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 -0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
605 - 683 nm, pol. 4
Fig. 6. Results for the DOAS analysis of modelled spectra using the original vegetation spectra (top), using vegetation spectra convoluted
by a Gaussian function of 4.6 nm FWHM (middle), or using vegetation spectra shifted by −1 nm (bottom). The spectra were modelled for
a SZA: 10◦ , without aerosols, and for a conifers spectrum as albedo. The different results in the individual graphs are retrieved for different
fitting parameters. If the original vegetation spectra are used in the DOAS retrieval, the DOAS results hardly depend on the fitting parameters
(top). They also fit the expected values (air mass factor of slightly lower than 2 for the trace gas absorptions; fitting coefficient of about 0.7
for the conifer spectrum, 0 for the other vegetation spectra). If smoothed or shifted vegetation spectra are used, the results differ from the
expected values and also strongly depend on the fitting parameters.
Our model results show that only if the vegetation spectra In the third exercise we investigated the sensitivity of the
are included, the O4 results match the expected values. If retrieved results on the quality of the vegetation spectra and
they are excluded, they strongly deviate from the expected the fitting parameters of the DOAS analysis. For that pur-
values and can become even negative, in agreement with the pose we modelled a synthetic spectrum for a SZA of 10◦
results of the real measurements (see Figs. 2 and 3). In con- without aerosols and including the conifers albedo spec-
trast, the O2 absorptions hardly depend on the inclusion of trum. The DOAS analysis of this spectrum was performed
the vegetation spectra, because the fine-structured absorption using different wavelength ranges and different degrees of
only weakly interferes with the vegetation spectra. This find- the polynomial. If the original vegetation spectra are used
ing is also in good agreement with the results of the real ob- in the DOAS analysis, the retrieved results match the ex-
servations. pected values (the AMF is about 2, the fitting coefficient for
Fig. 7. Global monthly mean results of the DOAS retrieved fitting coefficients for (the logarithms of the) different vegetation spectra (top:
conifers, centre: deciduous, bottom: grass). The results for deciduous trees and grass are very similar; those for conifers show different
spatial patterns. The effect of the seasonal cycle is clearly visible.
the conifers spectrum is about 0.7 and for the other vegeta- smaller, if (instead of the fitted vegetation spectra) the simu-
tion spectra it is about 0). In particular, the results depend lated spectra are smoothed, in agreement with the analysis of
only weakly on the fitting parameters (Fig. 6 top). In two the real measurements (it should be noted that the analysis of
additional analyses we used modified vegetation spectra in synthetic spectra can not correctly simulate the possible case
the DOAS analysis. First we convoluted them by a Gaus- that the true spectral resolution of the vegetation structures is
sian function with a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of higher than that of the available vegetation spectra; thus the
about 4.6 nm representing the case that the vegetation spectra results of the exercise with smoothed spectra can only give
were measured with an inappropriate low spectral resolution. hints on the true effect).
Second, we shifted the vegetation spectra by −1 nm repre- Our results indicate that especially an inaccurate wave-
senting the case that the vegetation spectra were sampled on length calibration can lead to large errors, both of the atmo-
a wrong wavelength grid. For both sets of manipulated veg- spheric trace gas absorptions and the vegetation spectra. To
etation spectra, the retrieved results become strongly depen- keep the errors of the results of the DOAS analysis <10%,
dent on the selected fitting parameters of the DOAS anal- the accuracy of the wavelength calibration should be better
yses. In addition for most cases, they also deviate from the than 0.2 nm (using modern instrumentation it should be no
expected values. It might be interesting to note that the fitting problem to achieve a better accuracy).
coefficients for the vegetation spectra become systematically
Fig. 8. The retrieved conifer spectral signatures (fitting coefficients for the logarithm of the conifer spectra) are also strongly influenced by
the ocean colour. Over areas with strong biological activity, high values are found.
The findings of our sensitivity study indicate that the re- Only measurements with an O2 absorption >80% of the
maining problems of the DOAS analysis of the satellite mea- maximum O2 absorption were selected to exclude mainly
surements (see Sect. 3.1) might be (at least partly) caused by cloudy skies (for details of the cloud-selection algorithm,
an inappropriate spectral resolution and wavelength calibra- see Wagner et al., 2005, 2006a). It should be noted that a
tion of the used vegetation spectra. more accurate cloud correction could probably be achieved
using the measured absolute radiance as an indicator for
cloud cover (see Sect. 3.3). However, for simplicity, in this
4 Results study we chose the O2 absorption as indicator for the cloud
cover, because the O2 absorption is retrieved simultaneously
In Fig. 7, monthly mean maps for the results of the different with the result for the vegetation spectra. In addition, we
vegetation spectra are shown for two selected months (March did not correct the DOAS results for the vegetation spec-
and September 1998). Three types of vegetation (conifers, tra for the SZA dependence of the sensitivity (see Fig. 4).
deciduous trees, grass and dry grass) were included in the For SZA >80◦ , the sensitivity decreases rapidly and our
spectral fitting procedure. data underestimate the true vegetation coverage significantly.
However, for the GOME observations during the selected to vegetation over the continents, but also to the biological
months SZA>80◦ occur only for latitudes north and south activity in the oceans. Especially in the mouths of big rivers
of 75◦ N and 75◦ S, respectively. and over areas with coral reefs strong vegetation signals can
The results for the three vegetation spectra show charac- be found. One particular advantage of our new vegetation
teristic spatio-temporal patterns. The relative patterns for de- analysis is that the correction of atmospheric absorption pro-
ciduous trees and grass are almost identical. This is an in- cesses is automatically included in the retrieval.
teresting finding, since both spectra show different narrow- Our results indicate that the currently available vegetation
band spectral structures (Fig. 1). It indicates that the ob- spectra are probably not of sufficient quality to obtain op-
served spectral structures of vegetation contain components timum DOAS fitting results, which is understandable since
of both vegetation spectra. For conifers, different patterns these spectra were of course taken for other purposes. Even
were found. Enhanced values are mainly located over the if the vegetation spectra are included in the DOAS analysis,
mid and high-latitude regions of the northern hemispheric the residual still shows remaining systematic structures (see
continents, in good agreement with the global distribution Fig. 2). From our sensitivity studies we conclude that par-
of boreal coniferous forest. It is interesting to note that es- ticularly the spectral resolution and the spectral calibration
pecially the results for conifers are also influenced by the should be improved (accuracy of the wavelength calibration
ocean colour. Enhanced values are found over regions with should be better than 0.2 nm and spectral resolution similar to
high biological activity, particularly close to the mouths of GOME). In addition, it seems that the selected spectra might
big rivers (see Fig. 8). In some of these regions, also coral not be fully representative for the spectral structures typically
reefs exist, which might have also contributed to the mea- observed by satellite sensors. We therefore strongly recom-
sured vegetation signal. It should be noted that in this study, mend the measurement of new vegetation spectra covering
no ocean spectra could be included in the analysis because of a larger variety of species including marine algae, different
the typically very low spectral resolution and/or sampling of kinds of phytoplankton and coral reefs with better spectral
available ocean spectra. quality. Our results indicate that using this new method it
From our satellite results of vegetation and ocean colour might be possible in the future to monitor the seasonal cycles
the seasonal cycle of the biological activity in different parts as well as short term variations of different types of vegeta-
of the world can be clearly followed and similar patterns are tion on a global scale.
found in different years. A comparison to other global data Our new vegetation algorithm can also be applied to
sets of vegetation coverage reveals a good agreement (see additional satellite sensors with sufficient coverage of the
e.g. the NOAA Global Vegetation Index Products, available red spectral region, namely the SCanning Imaging Absorp-
via http://www.osdpd.noaa.gov/PSB/IMAGES/gvi.html). A tion SpectroMeter for Atmospheric ChartographY (SCIA-
comprehensive validation is, however, out of scope of this MACHY) on ENVISAT in Bovensmann et al. (1999), as
prototype study and should be the subject of future investi- well as the three instruments of the GOME-II series (EU-
gations. METSAT, 2005) (the first instrument has been successfully
The vegetation results can in principle be retrieved on a launched in October 2006). Compared to the GOME-I in-
daily basis; averaging over longer periods of time leads to strument, the spatial resolution of these sensors is much bet-
more consistent patterns, mainly because then the masking ter (footprints of 30×60 km2 and 40×80 km2 , respectively)
due to clouds has a much weaker impact. allowing to retrieve much finer details of the vegetation pat-
terns.
5 Discussion and conclusions Acknowledgements. The spectra of the vegetation reflectance were
reproduced from the ASTER Spectral Library through the courtesy
We included spectra of the (logarithm of the) spectral re- of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,
flectance for different types of vegetation in the DOAS fitting Pasadena, California. ©1999, California Institute of Technology.
procedure for the analysis of atmospheric trace gases in the ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, see also http://speclib.jpl.nasa.gov/.
red part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Besides a signif- Special thanks are expressed to M. Bugert for helpful information
on chlorophyll spectra.
icant improvement of the fitting results for the atmospheric
trace gases, this inclusion enables also the retrieval of veg-
Edited by: S. Quegan
etation properties from satellite observations. In contrast to
the analysis of vegetation indices in the red and near-infrared
part of the spectrum (e.g. Jensen, 2000), here we made use of
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