Civil Engineering Department, GEC Bharuch

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, BHARUCH

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMRNT

Foundation Engineering Laboratory

Program: Civil Engineering
Course: Foundation Engineering
Course code: 3160613
2020-21

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 Civil Engineering Department, GEC Bharuch

List of Experiments

SR.No Name of Experiment Page No Date Sign

1 Direct shear test of soil

2 Unconfined compressive strength of soil

3 Vane Shear Test

4 Triaxial compression test

5 Standard Penetration test

6 Consolidation test

7 California bearing ratio test

8 Free swell test

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1. DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Aim:
To determine the shear strength of soil using the direct shear apparatus.

In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab bridges, pipes,
sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil involved are required for the
design. Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters quickly. The laboratory report covers the
laboratory procedures for determining these values for cohesion-less soils.

Specifications:
The test is conducted as per IS: 2720- 13 (1986), method of tests for soils. One kg of air dry
sample passing through 4.75mm IS sieve is required for this test.
Equipments Required:
Shear box apparatus consisting of

(a) Shear box 60 mm square and 50 mm deep,

(b) Grid plates, porous stones, etc.

(c) Loading device

(d) Other accessories.

Theory:
Box shear tests can be used for the following tests.
1. Quick and consolidated quick tests on clay soil samples.
2. Slow test on any type of soil.

Only using box shear test apparatus may carry the drained or slow shear tests on sand. As undisturbed
samples of sand is not practicable to obtain, the box is filled with the sand obtained from the field and
compacted to the required density and water content to stimulate field conditions as far as possible.

So far clay soil is concerned the undisturbed samples may be obtained from the field. The sample is cut
to the required size and thickness of box shear test apparatus and introduced into the apparatus. The end
surfaces are properly trimmed and leveled. I9f tests on remolded soils of clay samples are required; they are
compacted in the mould to the required density and moisture content.

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Equation:
Coulombs equation is used for computing the shear parameters.

For clay soils:

S=c+σtanϕ
For sand:
S= σtanϕ
2
Where, S = shear strength of soil in kg/cm
2
c=unit cohesion (kg/cm )
2
σ = normal load applied on the surface of the specimen (kg/cm )
ϕ = angle of shearing resistance (degrees)

In a Direct Shear test, the sample is sheared along a horizontal plane. This indicates that the failure plane is
horizontal. The normal stress (s) on this plane is the external vertical load divided by the area of the soil
sample. The shear stress at failure is the external lateral load divided by the corrected area of soil sample. The
main advantage of direct shear apparatus is its simplicity and smoothness of operation and the rapidity with
which testing programmes can be carried out. But this test has the disadvantage that lateral pressure and
stresses on planes other than the plane of shear are not known during the test.

Precautions:

1. The dimensions of the shear box should be measured accurately.

2. Before allowing the sample to shear, the screw joining the two halves of the box should be taken out.
3. Rate of strain or shear displacement rate should be constant throughout the test.
4. The spacing screws after creating required spacing between two halves of the shear box, should be
turned back to make them clear of the lower part.
5. For drained test, the porous stones should be saturated by boiling in water.
6. Add the self weight of the loading yoke in the vertical load.
7. Failure of the soil specimen is assumed when the proving ring dial gauge reading begins to recede after
reaching its maximum or at a 20% shear displacement of the specimen length.
8. One soil specimen should be tested with not more than three normal loading conditions as
beyond this, the particle size of soil sample may change due to application of shear and normal
load.

Procedure:

a) Place the sample of soil into the shear box, determine the water content and dry density of the soil
compacted.
b) Make all the necessary adjustments for applying vertical load, for measuring vertical and lateral
movements and measurement of shearing force, etc.
c) Apply a known load on the specimen and then keep it constant during the course of the test (for
consolidation keep it for a long time without shearing, and quick tests apply the shearing without
consolidation soon after placing the vertical load ). Adjust the rate of strain as required of the
specimen.
d) Shear the specimen till failure of the specimen is noticed or the shearing resistance decreases.
Take the readings of the gauges during the shearing operation.
e) Remove the specimen from the box at the end of the test, and determine the final water content.
f) Repeat the tests on three or four identical specimens.

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Table:
The test sample of cohesion less soil with a little cohesion is given in tabular form below.
(1) Soil density γd = 1.62 g/cm³

Data sheet for sample 1: (for sample 2, 3, and 4 similar data sheets are to be prepared)

Initial area = Ao = 6*6 = 36 cm². Initial thickness = 2.4 cm. σ = 0.5 kg/cm²

Table : Data Sheet for Direct Shear Test

Horizontal Horizontal Corrected Proving Forc τ Vertical Vertical Ht(c
2
dial displacem area(cm ) ring e Dial Displace m)
gauge ent (mm) reading (kg) (kg/ reading ment
2)
reading cm (mm)

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2
* Corrected area in cm is given by b (b-horizontal displacement)
b= width of shear box=6cm

From three samples the following results are obtained

Shear stress at
Normal stress
Test No failure
2
σ(kg/cm ) 2
τ(kg/cm )
1 0.5

2 1.0

3 1.5

From the results a graph of Horizontal displacement VS Shear stress is drawn.

Mohr’s circles are also plotted.

From Mohr’s circle the following details are obtained;

Major principal stress σ1=-----------kg/cm2
Minor principal stress σ2=----------kg/cm2
Inclination to major principal stress θ1=--------degrees
Inclination to minor principal stress θ2=--------degrees

Result:
Angle of internal friction Ǿ = -----
Unit cohesion C= -------kg/cm2

Verification and Validation:

The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of compaction, coarseness of grains, particle shape
o
and roughness of grain surface and grading. It varies between 28 (uniformly graded sands with round grains
o
in very loose state) to 46 (well graded sand with angular grains in dense state). The friction between sand
particles is due to sliding and rolling friction and interlocking action.

Conclusion:

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2. UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

Aim:
To determine the unconfined compression test of soil.

It is not always possible to conduct the bearing capacity test in the field. Sometimes it is cheaper to
take the undisturbed soil sample and test its strength in the laboratory. Also to choose the best material for
the embankment, one has to conduct strength tests on the samples selected. Under these conditions it is easy
to perform the unconfined compression test on undisturbed and remoulded soil sample.

Specifications:
The test is conducted as per IS 2720-10 (1991): Methods of test for soils, Part
10: Determination of unconfined compressive strength [CED 43: Soil and Foundation Engineering]. The
test is performed on a cylindrical sample with a height to diameter ratio of 2: 1. The sample is placed
between the plates of a mechanical load frame without any covering or lateral support. Load and
deformation readings are noted until the failure of the sample or a strain of 20%, whichever is smaller.

Equipment Required:
1. Loading frame of capacity of 2 t, with constant rate of movement. What is the least count of the dial
gauge attached to the proving ring!
2. Proving ring of 0.01 kg sensitivity for soft soils; 0.05 kg for stiff soils.
3. Soil trimmer.
4. Frictionless end plates of 75 mm diameter (Perspex plate with silicon grease coating).
5. Evaporating dish (Aluminum container).
6. Soil sample of 75 mm length.
7. Dial gauge (0.01 mm accuracy).
8. Balance of capacity 200 g and sensitivity to weigh 0.01 g.
9. Oven thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material to maintain the temperature at
the desired level.
10. Sample extractor and split sampler.
11. Dial gauge (sensitivity 0.01mm).

Theory:
The unconfined compression test is by far the most popular method of soil shear testing because it is one of
the fastest and cheapest methods of measuring shear strength. The method is used primarily for saturated,
cohesive soils recovered from thin-walled sampling tubes. The unconfined compression test is in appropriate
for dry sands or crumbly clays because the materials would fall apart without some land of lateral
confinement.
In the unconfined compression test, we assume that no pore water is lost from the sample during set-up or
during the shearing process. A saturated sample will thus remain saturated during the test with no change in
the sample volume, water content, or void ratio. More significantly, the sample is held together by an
effective confining stress that results from negative pore water pressures (generated by menisci forming
between particles on the sample surface). Pore pressures are not measured in an unconfined compression test;
consequently, the effective stress is unknown. Hence, the undrained shear strength measured in an
unconfined test is expressed in terms of the total stress.
Precautions:

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1. Both the ends of the sample are shaped so that it should sit properly on the bottom plate of the
loading frame.
2. Rate of loading of the sample should be constant.

Procedure:

a) The sample is prepared in the same way as for a triaxial test. Its natural water content and dry
density are determined prior to the testing. The length (Lo) and diameter (do) are also measured.
b) Set the sample on the pedestal of the equipment and complete all the necessary adjustments for
applying on axial loads.
c) Apply the axial load at a strain of about 0.5 to 2 % per minute and continue the load till the sample
fails OR the deformation reaches 20 % of axial strain.
d) Sketch the failure pattern and measure the angle of failure if possible.
e) Take a small sample of soil from the failure zone for water content determination.
Calculations:

a) The axial strain, Є% = (δL/Lo)*100

Where, δL = change in length of specimen.
Lo = Initial length of specimen.
b) Corrected area Ac, Ac = Ao/(1-
Є)
Where, Ao = initial sectional area op the specimen.
c) Compressive stress, σ1, (which is the principal stress) is σ1= P/A where P = axial load.
A plot of 1versus  gives the maximum stress, which is the unconfined compressive strength of
the soil specimen.

Observations and tabulation:

Initial data available
a) Do = cm, L = cm, Ao = cm²
b) Initial bulk density, γt = gm/cm³
c) Initial water content, w = %

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Table : Data Sheet for Sample 1

Proving Stress
Strain Axial Correcte ring Axial
dial ΔL(mm) d area, reading Load σ=P/A
Strain % 2
2
reading A(cm ) (PR) P(kg) (kg/cm )

Note: Plot a graph of Compressive stress as ordinate and Axial Strain as abscissa.

Result:

Average unconfined compressive stress qu = _______

Angle of internal friction = __________
Undrained cohesive strength= ________

Conclusion:

Unconfined compressive strength, qu = ______.

Shear strength, S = qu/2 = ______.

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3. VANE SHEAR TEST
Aim:

To determine Cohesion or Shear Strength of Soil.

The structural strength of soil is basically a problem of shear strength. Vane shear test is a
useful method of measuring the shear strength of clay. It is a cheaper and quicker method. The test can
also be conducted in the laboratory. The laboratory vane shear test for the measurement of shear
strength of cohesive soils, is useful for soils of low shear strength (less than 0.3 kg/cm2) for which
triaxial or unconfined tests cannot be performed. The test gives the undrained strength of the soil. The
undisturbed and remoulded strength obtained are useful for evaluating the sensitivity of soil.

Specifications:
The test is conducted as per IS 4434 (1978). This test is useful when the soil is soft and its water
content is nearer to liquid limit.

Equipment Required:
1. Vane shear test apparatus with accessories
2. The soil sample
Theory:
The vane shear test apparatus consists of four stainless steel blades fixed at right angle to each other
and firmly attached to a high tensile steel rod. The length of the vane is usually kept equal to twice its
overall width. The diameters and length of the stainless steel rod were limited to 2.5mm and 60mm
respectively. At this time, the soil fails in shear on a cylindrical surface around the vane. The rotation is
usually continued after shearing and the torque is measured to estimate the remoulded shear strength.
Vane shear test can be used as a reliable in-situ test for determining the shear strength of soft-sensitive
clays. The vane may be regarded as a method to be used under the following conditions.

1. Where the clay is deep, normally consolidated and sensitive.

2. Where only the undrained shear strength is required.

It has been found that the vane gives results similar to that as obtained from unconfined compression
tests on undisturbed samples.

Procedure:
1. A posthole borer is first employed to bore a hole up to a point just above the required
depth

2. The rod is pushed or driven carefully until the vanes are embedded at the required depth.
3. At the other end of the rod just above the surface of the ground a torsion head is used to apply a
horizontal torque and this is applied at a uniform speed of about 0.1 degree per second until the
soil fails, thus generating a cylinder of soil
4. The area consists of the peripheral surface of the cylinder and the two round ends.

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5. The first moment of these areas divided by the applied moment gives the unit shear value.

Observations:
T = Torque
D = Diameter of the vane
H = Height of the vane

Calculations:

Undrained Shear strength of Clay, S = T / πD2 *(H/2 + D/6)

Result:
2
Undrained Shear strength of Clay Cu= ________ kg/cm

Conclusions:

The vane shear strength of soil is ____________.

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4. TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Aim: To find the shear parameters of the soil by undrained Triaxial test.

Need and scope:

The standard consolidated undrained test is compression test, in which the soil specimen is first
consolidated under all round pressure in the triaxial cell before failure is brought about by increasing
the major principal stress. It may be performing with or without measurement of pore pressure although
for most applications the measurement of pore pressure is desirable.

Knowledge of equipment:
A constant rate of strain compression machine of which the following is a brief description of one is in
common use.
a) A loading frame in which the load is applied by yoke acting through an elastic dynamometer, more
commonly called a proving ring which used to measure the load. The frame is operated at a constant
rate by a geared screw jack. It is preferable for the machine to be motor driven, by a small electric
motor.
b) A hydraulic pressure apparatus including an air compressor and water reservoir in which air under
pressure acting on the water raises it to the required pressure, together with the necessary control valves
and pressure dials.
A tri axial cell is to take 3.8 cm dia and 7.6 cm long samples, in which the sample can be subjected to
an all round hydrostatic pressure, together with a vertical compression load acting through a piston. The
vertical load from the piston acts on a pressure cap. The cell is usually designed with a non-ferrous
metal top and base connected by tension rods and with walls formed of Perspex.

Apparatus for preparation of the sample:

a) 3.8 cm (1.5 inch) internal diameter 12.5 cm (5 inches) long sample tubes.
b) Rubber ring.
c) An open ended cylindrical section former, 3.8 cm inside dia, fitted with a small rubber tube in its
side.
d) Stop clock.
e) Moisture content test apparatus. f) A balance of 250 gm capacity and accurate to 0.01 gm.

Procedure:
1. The sample is placed in the compression machine and a pressure plate is placed on the top. Care must
be taken to prevent any part of the machine or cell from jogging the sample while it is being setup, for
example, by knocking against this bottom of the loading piston. The probable strength of the sample is
estimated and a suitable proving ring selected and fitted to the machine.

2. The cell must be properly set up and uniformly clamped down to prevent leakage of pressure during
the test, making sure first that the sample is properly sealed with its end caps and rings (rubber) in
position and that the sealing rings for the cell are also correctly placed.

3. When the sample is setup water is admitted and the cell is fitted under water escapes from the beed
valve, at the top, which is closed. If the sample is to be tested at zero lateral pressure water is not
required.

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4. The air pressure in the reservoir is then increased to raise the hydrostatic pressure in the required
amount. The pressure gauge must be watched during the test and any necessary adjustments must be
made to keep the pressure constant.
5. The handle wheel of the screw jack is rotated until the underside of the hemispherical seating of the
proving ring, through which the loading is applied, just touches the cell piston.

6. The piston is then removed down by handle until it is just in touch with the pressure plate on the top
of the sample, and the proving ring seating is again brought into contact for the begging of the test.

Observations:
1. The machine is set in motion (or if hand operated the hand wheel is turned at a constant rate) to give
a rate of strain 2% per minute.
2. The strain dial gauge reading is then taken and the corresponding proving ring reading is taken the
corresponding proving ring chart. The load applied is known.
3. The experiment is stopped at the strain dial gauge reading for 15% length of the sample or 15%
strain.
Unconsolidated Undrained test data:
1. Diameter of the sample (Do) =
2. Height of soil sample (Lo) =
3. Weight of sample before test =
4. Dry weight of sample (Wd) =
5. Water content (w) =
6. Proving ring constant =
7. L.C of deformation dial gauge =
8. Rate of strain =
9. Confining pressure during testing (σ3)=

Observation table:
DDGR PDGR Strain Strain in % Shear load Corrected Deviator Major
in kpa area in mm2 stress in kpa principal
stress

Result:
Conclusion:

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5. STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

Aim:
To determine penetration resistance (N-value) along the depth at a given site.

Apparatus
 Tripod (to give a clear height of about 4 m; one of the legs of the tripod should have ladder to
facilitate a person to reach tripod head.)
 Tripod head with hook
 Pulley
 1Guide pipe assembly
 Standard split spoon sampler
 A drill rod for extending the test to deeper depths
 Heavy duty post hole auger (100 mm to 150 mm diameter)
 Heavy duty helical auger
 Heavy duty auger extension rods
 Sand bailer
 Rope (about 15 m long & strong enough to lift 63.5 kg load repeatedly)
 A light duty rope to operate sand bailer
 Chain pulley block
 Casing pipes
 Casing couplings
 Casing clamps
 Measuring tapes
 A straight edge (50 cm)
 Tool box

Procedure
1. Identify the location of testing in the field
2. Erect the tripod such that the top of the tripod head is centrally located over the testing spot. This can
be reasonably ensured by passing a rope over the pulley connected to the tripod head and making the
free end of the rope to come down and adjusting the tripod legs such that the rope end is at the testing
spot. While erecting and adjusting the tripod legs, care should be taken to see that the load is uniformly
distributed over the three legs. This can be achieved by ensuring the lines joining the tips of the tripod
legs on the ground forms an equilateral triangle. Further, it should be ensured that the three legs of the
tripod are firmly supported on the ground (i.e. the soil below the legs should not be loose and they
should not be supported on a sloping rock surface or on a small boulder which may tilt during testing.)
3. Advance the bore hole, at the test location, using the auger. To start with advance the bore hole for a
depth of 0.5 m and clear the loose soil from the bore hole.
4. Clean the split spoon sampler and apply a thin film of oil to the inside face of the sampler. Connect
an A-drill extension rod to the split spoon sampler.
5. Slip the 63.6 kg weight on to the guide pipe assembly and connect the guide pipe assembly to the
other end of the A-drill rod.
6. The chain connected to the driving weight is tied to the rope passing over the pulley at the tripod
head. The other end of the rope is pulled down manually or with help of mechanical winch. By pulling

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the rope down, the drive weight, guide pipe assembly, A-drill rod and the split spoon sampler will get
vertically erected.
7. A person should hold the guide pipe assembly split spoon sampler to be vertical with the falling
weight lowered to the bottom of the guide assembly.
8. Now place a straight edge across the bore touching the A-drill rod. Mark the straight edge level all
round the A-drill rod with the help of a chalk or any other marker. From this mark, measure up along
the A-drill rod and mark 15 cm, 30 cm and 45 cm above the straight edge level. Lift the driving weight
to reach the top of the guide pipe assembly travel and allow it to fall freely. The fall of driving weight
will transfer the impact load to the split spoon sampler, which drive the split spoon sampler into the
ground. Again lift the drive weight to the top of travel and allow it to fall freely under its own weight
from a height of 75 cm. as the number of blows are applied, the split spoon sampler will penetrate into
the ground and the first mark (15 cm mark) on the drill rod approaches the straight edge.
9. Count the number of blows required for the first 15 cm, second 15 cm and the third 15 cm mark to
cross down the straight edge.
10. The penetration of the first 15 cm is considered as the seating drive and the number of blows
required for this penetration is noted but not accounted in computing penetration resistance value. The
total number of blows required for the penetration of the split spoon sampler by 2nd and 3rd 15 cm is
recorded as the penetration resistance or N-value.
11. After the completion of the split spoon sampler by 45 cm, pull out the whole assembly. Detach the
split sampler from A-drill rod and open it out. Collect the soil sample from the split spoon sampler into
a sampling bag. Store the sampling bag safely with an identification tag for laboratory investigation.
12. Advance the bore hole by another 1 m or till a change of soil strata whichever is early.
13. The test is repeated with advancement of bore hole till the required depth of exploration is reached
or till a refusal condition is encountered. Refusal condition is said to exist if the number of blows
required for the last 30 cm of penetration is more than 100.
14. The test will be repeated in number of bore holes covering the site depending on the building area,
importance of the structure and the variation of the soil properties across the site.
15. The SPT values are presented either in the form of a table or in the form of bore log data.

Result:
The SPT Value N = _________

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6. CONSOLIDATION TEST

Aim:
Determine the settlements due to primary consolidation of soil by conducting one dimensional test.

Need and scope:

The test is conducted to determine the settlement due to primary consolidation. To determine the
following
1. Rate of consolidation under normal load.
2. Degree of consolidation at any time.
3. Pressure-void ratio relationship.
4. Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures.
5. Compression index.

From the above information it will be possible for us to predict the time rate and extent of settlement of
structures founded on fine-grained soils. It is also helpful in analyzing the stress history of soil. Since
the settlement analysis of the foundation depends mainly on the values determined by the test, this test
is very important for foundation design.

Theory:
When a compressive load is applied to soil mass, a decrease in its volume takes place, the decrease in
volume of soil mass under stress is known as compression and the property of soil mass pertaining to its
tendency to decrease in volume under pressure is known as compressibility. In a saturated soil mass
having its void filled with incompressible water, decrease in volume or compression can take place
when water is expelled out of the voids. Such a compression resulting from a long time static load and
the consequent escape of pore water is termed as consolidation. Then the load is applied on the
saturated soil mass, the entire load is carried by pore water in the beginning. As the water starts
escaping from the voids, the hydrostatic pressure in water gets gradually dissipated and the load is
shifted to the soil solids which increases effective on them, as a result the soil mass decrease in volume.
The rate of escape of water depends on the permeability of the soil. 1) From the sample tube, eject the
sample into the consolidation ring. The sample should project about one cm from outer ring. Trim the
sample smooth and flush with top and bottom of the ring by using a knife. Clean the ring from outside
and keep it ready from weighing. 2) Remolded sample: a) Choose the density and water content at
which sample has to be compacted from the moisture density relationship. b) Calculate the quantity of
soil and water required to mix and compact. c) Compact the specimen in compaction mould in three
layers using the standard rammers. d) Eject the specimen from the mould using the sample extractor.

Procedure
1. Saturate two porous stones either by boiling in distilled water about 15 minute or by keeping them
submerged in the distilled water for 4 to 8 hrs. Wipe away excess water. Fittings of the consolidometer
which is to be enclosed shall be moistened.
2. Assemble the consolidometer, with the soil specimen and porous stones at top and bottom of
specimen, providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and porous stone. Position the pressure
pad centrally on the top porous stone.
3. Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame, and center it such that the load applied is axial.
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4. Position the dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the specimen. The dial gauge holder
should be set so that the dial gauge is in the begging of its releases run, allowing sufficient margin for
the swelling of the soil, if any.

5. Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir and the sample is allowed to saturate. The level of
the water in the reservoir should be at about the same level as the soil specimen.
6. Apply an initial load to the assembly. The magnitude of this load should be chosen by trial, such that
there is no swelling. It should be not less than 50 g/cm3 for ordinary soils & 25 g/cm2 for very soft
soils. The load should be allowed to stand until there is no change in dial gauge readings for two
consecutive hours or for a maximum of 24 hours.
7. Note the final dial reading under the initial load. Apply first load of intensity 0.1 kg/cm2 start the
stop watch simultaneously. Record the dial gauge readings at various time intervals. The dial gauge
readings are taken until 90% consolidation is reached. Primary consolidation is gradually reached
within 24 hrs.
8. At the end of the period, specified above take the dial reading and time reading. Double the load
intensity and take the dial readings at various time intervals. Repeat this procedure fir successive load
increments. The usual loading intensity as follows: as 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 kg/cm2.
9. After the last loading is completed, reduce the load to the value of the last load and allow it to stand
for 24 hrs. Reduce the load further in steps of the previous intensity till an intensity of 0.1 kg/cm2 is
reached. Take the final reading of the dial gauge.
10. Reduce the load to the initial load, keep it for 24 hrs and note the final readings of the dial gauge.
11. Quickly dismantle the specimen assembly and remove the excess water on the soil specimen in
oven, note the dry weight of it.

Observation and Reading:

Depth of the sample:

Description of soil:
Empty weight of ring:
Diameter of ring:
Area of ring:
Volume of ring:
Height of ring:
Specific gravity of soil sample:
Dial Gauge (least count):

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Table I: Observation sheet for time- pressure of consolidation test

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Table II: Observation Sheet for Consolidation Test: Pressure Voids Ratio

Calculation:

1. Height of solids (HS) is calculated from the equation HS = WS/G * A

2. Void ratio. Voids ratio at the end of various pressures are calculated from equation e = (H - HS)/HS
3. Coefficient of consolidation. The Coefficient of consolidation at each pressures increment is
calculated by using the following equations:
i. Cv = 0.197 d2/t50 (Log fitting method)
ii. Cv = 0.848 d2/t90 (Square fitting method)
In the log fitting method, a plot is made between dial readings and logarithmic of time, the time
corresponding to 50% consolidation is determined. In the square root fitting method, a plot is made

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between dial readings and square root of time and the time corresponding to 90% consolidation is
determined. The values of Cv are recorded in table II.
4. Compression Index. To determine the compression index, a plot of voids ratio (e) V s logt is made. The
initial compression curve would be a straight line and the slope of this line would give the compression
index Cc.
5. Coefficient of compressibility. It is calculated as follows av = 0.435 Cc/Avg. pressure for the increment
where Cc = Coefficient of compressibility
6. Coefficient of permeability. It is calculated as follows K = C v.av *(unit weight of water)/(1+e).

Conclusion:

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7. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

Aim:
Determine the California bearing ratio by conducting a load penetration test in the laboratory.

Need and scope:

The California bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of sub grade strength of
roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the empirical curves to
determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely used method for
the design of flexible pavement. This instruction sheet covers the laboratory method for the
determination of CBR of undisturbed and remolded /compacted soil specimens, both in soaked as well
as unsoaked state.

Equipments and tool required:

1. Cylindrical mould with inside dia 150 mm and height 175 mm, provided with a detachable extension
collar 50 mm height and a detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick.
2. Spacer disc 148 mm in dia and 47.7 mm in height along with handle.
3. Metal rammers. Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight 4.89 kg a drop 450 mm.
4. Weights. One annular metal weight and several slotted weights weighing 2.5 kg each, 147 mm in dia,
with a central hole 53 mm in diameter.
5. Loading machine. With a capacity of at least 5000 kg and equipped with a movable head or base that
travels at an uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min. Complete with load indicating device.
6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm dia and minimum of 100 mm in length.
7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
8. Sieves. 4.75 mm and 20 mm i.s. Sieves.
9. Miscellaneous apparatus, such as a mixing bowl, straight edge, scales soaking tank or pan, drying
oven, filter paper and containers.

Theory:
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular piston at the
rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a standard material.
C.B.R. = (Test load/Standard load) * 100
The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the standard material
with a C.B.R. value of 100%.

Table: values of Penetration vs Standard load

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 Civil Engineering Department, GEC Bharuch

Preparation of Test Specimen

(A) Undisturbed specimen
Attach the cutting edge to the mould and push it gently into the ground. Remove the soil from the
outside of the mould which is pushed in. When the mould is full of soil, remove it from weighing the
soil with the mould or by any field method near the spot. Determine the density
(B) Remolded specimen
Prepare the remolded specimen at Proctor’s maximum dry density or any other density at which C.B.R.
is required. Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture content or the field moisture as required. The
material used should pass 20 mm I.S. sieve but it should be retained on 4.75 mm I.S. sieve. Prepare the
specimen either by dynamic compaction or by static compaction.

Dynamic Compaction
1. Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water.
2. Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the base (See
Fig.38). Place the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
3. Compact the mix soil in the mould using either light compaction or heavy compaction. For light
compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 55 blows by the 2.6 kg rammer.
For heavy compaction compact the soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to each layer by the 4.89 kg rammer.
4. Remove the collar and trim off soil.
5. Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc.
6. Weigh the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry density.
7. Put filter paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the perforated base plate on
to it.

Static compaction
1. Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give the desired density when
occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould from the expression.
W =desired dry density * (1+w) V
2. Where W = Weight of the wet soil
3. w = desired water content
4. V = volume of the specimen in the mould = 2250 cm3 (as per the mould available in laboratory)
5. Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and place it in the mould.
6. Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of soil.
7. Keep the mould assembly in static loading frame and compact by pressing the displacer disc till the
level of disc reaches the top of the mould.
8. Keep the load for some time and then release the load. Remove the displacer disc.
9. The test may be conducted for both soaked as well as unsoaked conditions.
10. If the sample is to be soaked, in both cases of compaction, put a filter paper on the top of the soil
and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper.
11. Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base material and pavement expected
in actual construction. Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm construction. A minimum of two
weights should be put.
12. Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours. Remove the
mould from tank.
13. Note the consolidation of the specimen.
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 Civil Engineering Department, GEC Bharuch

Procedure:
1. Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test machine.
2. Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible load, but in no
case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample is established.
3. Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that the penetration
rate is about 1.25 mm/min.
4. Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mm.
Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a penetration less than 12.5 mm.
5. Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from the top 3 cm layer
and determine the moisture content.

Observations:

For Dynamic Compaction

Optimum water content (%) :
Weight of mould + compacted specimen g :
Weight of empty mould g :
Weight of compacted specimen g :
Volume of specimen cm3 :
Bulk density g/cc :
Dry density g/cc :

For static compaction

Dry density g/cc:
Moulding water content %:
Wet weight of the compacted soil, (W)g :
Period of soaking, 96 hrs (4days):

Observation table:
Penetration in PDGR (div) Load on Corrected load Standard load CBR in %
mm plunger (kg) (kg) (kg)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5

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 Civil Engineering Department, GEC Bharuch

General Remarks
The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm. Generally the C.B.R.
value at 2.5 mm will be greater than value at 5 mm and in such a case/the former shall be taken as
C.B.R. for design purpose. If C.B.R. for 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be repeated. If
identical results follow, the C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be taken for design.

Result:

CBR at 2.5mm penetration = (corrected load at 2.5 mm)/1370*100

CBR at 5.0mm penetration = (corrected load at 5.0 mm)2055*100

Conclusion:

Foundation Engineering
 Civil Engineering Department, GEC Bharuch
8. FREE SWELL TESTS

Aim: To determine the swell potential of fine-grained soil and its dominant clay
mineralogical composition.

Theory: Free swell tests: Free swell index, free swell ratio of fine-grained soils-
Definitions and their significance.

Useful Information
Table 1: Expansive soil classification based on IS: 1498 (1970)
Degree of expansivity / Swell Potential FSI (%)
Low < 50
Medium/Marginal 50 – 100
High 100 – 200
Very High > 200

Table 2: Expansive soil classification based on FSR (Sridharan and Prakash 2000)
Free swell Degree of soil
Clay type Dominant clay mineral
ratio expansivity type
≤ 1.0 Non-swelling Negligible Kaolinitic
1.0 – 1.5 Mixture of swelling Low Mixture of Kaolinitic and
and non-swelling Montmorillonitic
1.5 – 2.0 Swelling Moderate Montmorillonitic
2.0 – 4.0 Swelling High Montmorillonitic
> 4.0 Swelling Very High Montmorillonitic

Apparatus
1. 425 m IS sieve
2. Measuring jars of capacity 100 ml (2 nos.)
3. Distilled water and kerosene

Procedure
 Take two samples of 10 g each of oven dried soil passing 425 m IS sieve in two
100 ml measuring jars separately.
 Add distilled water to one of these two jars to make up the volume to 100 ml and
add kerosene to the other jar to make up the volume 100 ml.
 Mix the contents in the two jars separately & thoroughly and keep them undisturbed
for the soil samples in them to settle freely.
 After 24 hours, note down the equilibrium sediment volumes of the soils in the jars
containing distilled water (Vd) and kerosene (Vk).
 Calculate the free swell index and free swell ratio of the given fine-grained soil.
 Classify the swell potential of the given fine-grained soil and predict its dominant
clay mineralogical composition.

Foundation Engineering
 Civil Engineering Department, GEC Bharuch

Observations and Calculations

1. Soil:
2. Dry weight of the soil taken =
3. Equilibrium sediment volume in distilled water (Vd) =
4. Equilibrium sediment volume in kerosene (Vk) =
5. Free swell index (FSI) = (Vd - Vk) / Vk =
6. Free swell ratio (FSR) = Vd/Vk =

Based on FSI Based on FSR

Swell potential
Dominant soil clay
---
mineralogy

References
 IS: 1498 (1970)
 IS: 2720 – Part 40 (1977)
 Sridharan, A., and Prakash K. (2000), “Classification procedures for expansive soils”,
Proceedings of ICE: Geotechnical Engineering, 143, pp. 235-240.

Foundation Engineering