Chapter 1

Geographical, Geological and

Hydrogeological setting

1.1 Precipitation sampling stations

Considering previous studies [Rozanski et al., 1993; Gonfiantini et al., 2001;
Gat et al., 2003; Celle-Jeanton et al., 2004] precipitation sampled at different
time scales were considered.
The purpose of this project is to characterise the isotopic ( 18 O and 2 H) and
chemical signature of precipitation in central Italy, as a means of investigating
the extent to which the conditions of origin and formation and air circulation
patterns could affect their isotopic behavior.
Precipitation samples were collected from five sampling stations, set along a
NS – EW transect, from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Apennine range (Simbruini
mountains) outcropping around 120 km from the coast (see tab.1.1 and fig.1.1).
The stations were set up considering the elevation and the distance from the
coast of the different sites.
Since regular visit to all of the stations was logistically impossible, there is
a varibility in sampling intervall from site to site.

- Monthly sampling: from all of the stations

- Daily sampling: from the Fogliano and Santa Scolastica stations

- Sequential sampling: from the Rome-DST station

1
 1.1 Precipitation sampling stations

Table 1.1: Names and locations of the five precipitation sampling stations.

Station Longitude (λ) Latitude (θ) Elevation Distance

from the coast
oE oN (m) (Km)
Zannone Island 13.05 40.97 119 0
Fogliano 12.92 41.38 5 0
Rome - DST 12.50 41.90 66 25
Santa Scolastica 13.10 41.92 511 65
Campo Staffi 13.32 41.90 1750 80

Zannone station is located on the homonym Island, 30 Km from the Circeo

Promontory. This is the only Pontine Island on which outcropping deposits
are represented by Triassic to Miocene sedimentary rocks and a metamorphic
series [Accordi, 1966]. The climate is mediterranean. The Fogliano monitor-
ing station is located close to Lake Fogliano on the Pontina Plain, nera the
Thyrrenian coast. The instrumentation is within the rural district of the Pon-
tina Plain and the climate is mediterranean. The Pontina Plain extends be-
tween the Thyrrenian coast and the Lepini karstik range; it is characterzed by
recent deposits which cover Pliocene sediments, that are in turn ingressive on
a tectonically Meso-Cainozoic substratum [Parotto and Praturlon, 1975]. Both
of the stations lie within the Circeo National Park and are managed by the
“Corpo Forestale dello Stato”(Forest Ranger). The remaining three monitor-
ing sites where set up by the Hydrogeologic Lab, Rome – DST station is located
on the roof of the Earth Sciences Department of University “La Sapienza ” -
Rome, close to downtown. The Santa Scolastica station is located within the
homonym abbey (Subiaco, Simbruini Mountains), the surrounding setting is
rural and the climate is between the mediterranean and the mountain types.
Its management is devolved upon the Benedectine munk Don Romano. The
higher precipitation monitoring station (1750 m asl) is located at the ski re-
sort of Campo Staffi (Filettino, Frosinone district); climate and setting are
mountain type.

2
 1.2 The Simbruini karstic range

Campo Staffi

N W (1750 m asl)
Filettino

S Rome - DST
S. Scolastica
(511 m asl) E
(66 m asl) Subiaco 5
Zannone Island Earth Sc. Dept.
(119 m asl)
Circeo National Park
Fogliano
(5 m asl) 4
Circeo National Park
3
1
2

40 Km 30 Km 60 Km 15 Km

Figure 1.1: Precipitation sampling stations

1.2 The Simbruini karstic range

The Central Apennines are geologically located between the Northern and the
Southern Apennines from which it is separated by two major N-S trending tec-
tonic lineaments, (1) the Olevano-Antrodoco Line, constituting the outcropping
southern portion of the so called Ancona-Anzio Line [Castellarin et al., 1978]
and (2) the Ortona-Roccamonfina (or Volturno-Sangro Line) [Sani et al., 2004].
This work is mainly focused on the internal portion of the Central Apennines in
the Simbruini Mountains, whereas the western limit of the study area roughly
corresponds to the Olevano-Antrodoco Line (see fig.1.2).
The Simbruini Mountains (Latium Region) are a deeply karstified Mesozoic
carbonatic range . Carbonate sediments are interpreted as shelf - depositional
environment of neritic platform [Accordi et al., 1969; Devoto, 1970; Parotto and
Praturlon, 1975]. This carbonate platform, referred to the Latium - Abruzzi
platform, comprises a thick, noncontinuous, succession of approximately 5000 m
of limestones and, subordinately, dolostones developed between the late Triassic
and the late Miocene [Corda and Brandano, 2003].
The Aniene valley is a morphological connection element between different
lithostratigraphic units. It crosses the Simbruini-Ernici carbonate range from
the higher mountain springs to Subiaco village, therefore the turbidites deposits
(Tortonian) outcropping up to Marano Equo village and in the end the calcareus
- marly reliefs of the Sabini Mountains (in the North) and Ruffi Mountains (in

3
 1.2 The Simbruini karstic range

doco
ntro
-A
ano
Olev

a
onfin
cam
c
a-Ro
n
Orto

Figure 1.2: Geological setting of Central Appennine (modified from Eberli et al.
1993)

the South)[Percopo, 1998].

1.2.1 Lithostratigraphic units

The Simbruini Mountains, togheter with the Ernci Mountains and Mt Cairo,
belong to the western part of the Central Appennines.
The Dolomites of Filettino and Vallepietra are the oldest Mesozoic strata
outcropping (Norian - Rhaetian) and are characterised by microcrystalline and
saccaroide textures. Gyroporella, Megalodon, Isognomon, fishes and plants
characterise the biota association. Upward they pass in to cherty dolomites
and shales with ammonites (Lower Lias) [Parotto and Praturlon, 1975].
The dolomites are overlaied by more calcareous facies (Middle - Upper Lias),

4
 1.2 The Simbruini karstic range

with local intercalatios of grey crystalline dolomites. Macrofossils are rare how-
ever microfloristic and microfaunistic associations allow us to define two princi-
pal biostratigraphic zones: (I) Paleodasycladus mediterraneus, (II) Orbitopsella
praecursor ; on the top the “Lithiotis Facies” is distinguished.
The Middle and Upper Jurassic outcrops extensively in the Simbruini range.
The lithofacies is similar to the previous one, the macrofauna is represented by
hydrozoan and brachiopods. The Upper Jurassic ends with micritic limestones
with Charophyta and ostracods.
The Lower Cretaceous is characterised by well bedded micritic limestones,
alternating with gray dolomites locally with chert and thin levels of green clays.
The Upper Cretaceous has a very large exposure in the Simbruini Mountains.
Lithofacies include nut brown and white micritic limestones with rare dolomitic
episodes and clay intercalations. The Cenomanian is recognized by the presence
of Alveolinide microfaunas and Requienie (Caprina adversa and Sauvagesia
nicasei). The Turonian is characterised by rudists such as Radiolites prae-
sauvagesi, while the Senonian comprises rudist associations and foraminifera
assemblages (Cuvillierinella salentina and Accordiella conica).
Miocene limestones overlie the Jurassic, Lower or Upper Cretaceous and
they are know as “Calcari a Briozoi e Litotamni ” (bryozoan and lithotamnium
limestones). These limestones pass upward to marly limestones and shales
characterised by Robulus. In the NE part of the Simbruini range the Upper
Miocene succession is represented by breccia deposits (“Brecce della Renga”),
directly transgressive on the Mesozoic eroded substrate.
Transitional shelf to basin facies are only recognizable north of Marano
Equo, in Upper Cretaceous deposits [Parotto and Praturlon, 1975].

1.2.2 Hydrogeology
The Simbruini Mountains are widely karstified and host one of the most impor-
tant aquifers in Central Italy. The quality of its water has been famous since
ancient times: Plinio the Old proclamied the health of this resource and during
Praetor Quinto Marcio Re in 144 B.C. this area was chosen for a portion of the
water supply of Rome via the Aqua Marcia Aqueduct [Bono and Boni, 2004].
This important aquifer depends on the geological, structural, hydrological and
hydrogeological characteristics of the central Appennines.
The hydrogeological behavior of different deposits depends on several com-

5
 1.2 The Simbruini karstic range

ponents. For example the carbonate shelf was involved in orogenic movement,
that generated a secondary permeability comprised of fissures and fractures.
This is much higher the primary permeability of the basin sediments. The fol-
lowing is a summary of the most important characteristics of the hydrgeological
complexes and are also summarises shown the most important springs of the
studied area.
Dolomites have the hydrogeological characteristic of terrains with inter-
stitial permeability, including a sizable storage capacity. They are saturated
by aquifers up to an elevation of 1000 meters and their hydraulic gradient is
often more than 20%. The estimated effective infiltration is about 200 - 400
mm/year (with precipitation from 1000 to 1500 mm/year)[Boni et al., 1986].
Their primary permeability is generally fairly good, however it decreases where
the dolomites are stressed by tectonic and cataclasitic processes.
The carbonate shelf complex consists of limestones and dolomitic lime-
stones. This thick homogeneous sequence acted as a rigid and fragile mass dur-
ing tectonic movements which partitioned the platform in to several carbonates
structure, surrounded by terrigenous terrains. The partitioned structures be-
have as independent hydrogeological systems. Orogenic movements generated
extensive fracturing, which resulted in a network of fissures and fractures giv-
ing the carbonates a homogeneous permeability. The high infiltratation feeds
immense aquifers which in turn fill the bottom of the carbonate structures.
Groundwater flows toward the larger springs located at the limits of each hy-
drogeological system. The discharge regime of the main springs is very regular
and highly predictable, if compared with that of classic karstic springs. Surface
runoff is negligible (less than 1% of total precipitation) and ephemeral. The
drainage network is still immature and the thalweg have not yet cut into the
saturation zone of the karstic aquifers. Streams fed by these karstic aquifers are
an exception in platform carbonates (Aniene River). Mean annual ”effective”
infiltration is 886 mm (max 1000, min 800 mm, according to local precipita-
tions).
The Complex of arenaceous flysch consists of marls, shales, clay and
sandstones. This complex has low permeability, moderate storage capacity and
diffuse but limited percolation. Local aquifers occur inside the weathered zone
and where sandstones are more fractured. Ground water feeds small springs
and the discharge of temporary streams. This complex acts as an ”aquiclude”

6
 1.2 The Simbruini karstic range

where it is in contact with karstic aquifers.

Figure 1.3: Hydrogeological setting of Simbruni - Ernici - Mt. Cairo range

(modified from Boni et al. 1988)

Triassic dolostones outcrop in the Vallepietra - Filettino domain (NE Sim-

bruini), at an altitude of 1000 - 1200 m asl. They are in contact with basal
dolostones and limestones with several springs located at the contact, these
feed the Simbrivio river (western side) and the Upper Liri river (eastern side)
[Boni and Mattioli, 1969]. The low permeability basal dolonstones behave as
an underground watershed, directing water toward the northern and southern
parts of the Simbruini regional hydrostructure. This model explain the large
basal springs of the Gari group (18 mc/s) in the SE sector and Agosta group
(5,5 mc/s) in the NW sector [Boni and Bono, 1973; Boni et al., 1988]. At the
same time, the lower altitude of the terrigenous sediments (Upper Miocene)
and of the continental deposits (Pliocene - Quaternary) with low permeability,
in the Latina Valley when compared with those of the Roveto Valley, set the

7
 1.2 The Simbruini karstic range

higher discharge of the springs located in the western side of the range [Celico,
1990].
The Liri, Pertuso, Ceraso, Tufano, Gari group, Simbrivio group and Agosta
group are the main springs of the Simbruini-Ernici karstic hydrostructure. Sev-
eral springs in the plain between Marano and Anticoli are characterised by deep
fluids enriched by CO2 and H2 S, because of the Olevano-Antrodoco tectonic
lineament [Percopo, 1998](see fig.1.3).
The Simbruini - Ernici carbonate hydrostructure is deeply influenced by
karst processes that controll the infiltration rate dynamics all over the area.
Macroshapes as “karstic fields” are the most common evidence of this phe-
nomena (Campo dell’Osso, Campo Secco, Arcinazzo plateau). These areas are
located at an altitude higher than 1000 m asl and are rich of dolines, uvala
and poljie. The area is also characterised by a significant number of caves,
associated with the network of fissures and fractures. Pertuso and Inferniglio
springs represent the end-part of long subterranean systems.

1.2.3 Hydrography

The catchment area of the upper Aniene River has a mean altitude of 1.140
m and an area over 23 km q [Bono et al., 2001]. The middle Aniene basin is
represented by the alluvional part of the Aniene river and the sub-basin of La
Cona ditch. It has a mean altitude of 709 m asl and an area of 95 km q (see
fig.1.4)
The upper Aniene basin is hydrogeologicly multiform. This is due to the
diversity of lithologies, the tectonic events and climatic aspects of the area. The
underground circulation is made by different overlapping aquifers; the basal
aquifer dosen’t have later permeability limits and it’s sustained at the bottom
by the Triassic dolomitic basement [Percopo, 1998]. Mount Viglio (2156 m asl)
is the pinnacle of the watershed. Karst processes created macroconduits and
underground caves that are related to karstic springs, located along the Aniene
river. Upsteram of Subiaco, the end point of his upper basin, the Aniene river
receives the Simbrivio river, from the right side, and Fosso Campo and Fosso
dell’Obaco in left side.
The middle Aniene basin includes the alluvional river plain. The La Cona
ditch merges into the Aniene river at an altitude of 339 m asl, a few km after
Subiaco. The La Cona sub-basin is the wider of the middle Aniene basin, but

8
 1.2 The Simbruini karstic range

Mt. Aguzzo (1060 m) Upper Aniene Basin

Middle Aniene Basin

Bagn
M.S.Fabrizio (1015 m)

atore Rio
Roviano
Village

Mountain
Mt. Galluccio (850 m) Marano Equo
Agosta
Mt. Autore (1855 m)

Mt. Cerasolo (1070m) Mt. Tarino (1939 m)

Mt. Viperella (1836 m)
Vallepietra

La

Simbrivio Riv
C
ona Mt. Viglio (2156 m)
Jenne Filettino
Affile

er
Trevi
ni

A
en
e R
iver
Pt. Della Valle (1778 m)
Mt. Retafani(1155 m)

Figure 1.4: The upper and middle Aniene basins

it has an ephemeral regime, active from autumn to spring. After La Cona the
Aniene river receives other linear spring and ditches; at an altitude of 320 m
asl and a discharge of 250 l/s the Bagnatore Rio is the northern limit of the
Simbruini basal aquifer.