Avocado

 Avocado or butter fruit (Persea americana) and commonly known as Criollo

sometimes called as avocado pear or alligator pear (due to rough green skin and pear
shape) is a subtropical, evergreen fruit tree.

 Its trees are short, spreading and either bushy or grow erect to a height of 20m or
more.

 In India, it is grown as a backyard tree and is found in small pockets on hill slopes of
South India.

 It is consumed primarily as fresh or dessert in salads and is neither sweet nor acidic
with a buttery texture.

 Its energy value is twice as much as banana fruit. Avocado is eaten fresh on bread or
in salads, ice creams and milk shakes. In India people prefer to eat it after mixing the pulp
with sugar.
 Avocado is one of the most nutritious fruits rich in fat, protein and minerals and low
in carbohydrates. Contains 2.1% protein, 1.32% minerals, 24–26% fat and sugar is less
than 1.0 %. It is also a good source of potassium, iron and vitamin B.
 It can be safely eaten by diabetics.
 Immature fruits may have a bitter flavour that may reduce on ripening; peel of
avocado has 3 antifungal compounds.
 Avocado oil is used in preparation of cosmetics.

Classification
Family : Lauraceae
Genus : Persea
Sp. : americana
Botanical name : Persea americana Mill. Syn: Persea gratissima
Chromosome No : 2n = 24

Origin and distribution

Avocado was originated in the state of Puebla in Mexico, Central America. The evidence of
avocado was also found in a cave located in coxcatlan, maxico dates back to 10000 years BC.
The earliest known written account of avocado is found in the book of Martin Fernandez de
Enciso written in 1528. The first written record in English word avocado was found in Index
of Jamaican plants written in 1696. The plant was introduced to Indonesia in 1750, to Brazil
in 1809 and to South Africa and Australlia in the late nineteenth century.
It might have been introduced into India from Srilanka in early part of the twentieth century.
It is being grown in hill slopes of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Maharashtra in the
South, Sikkim in the Eastern Himalayan states.
Leading producers of avocado are Mexico, USA, Dominican Republic, Brazil, Columbia,
Indonesia, Venezuela and South Africa.
Soil and climate
Prefers well drained and well aerated acidic soils of sandy to clay loams with high organic
matter and deep (1.0 m depth) are suitable.
The optimum pH is 5-7 depending upon the variety and race.
West Indian race can tolerate pH of 7.6 to 7.9.
Uniformity of the subsoil texture is very important. Cannot tolerate any water logging and
saline conditions.
Climate requirements vary depending upon the race of Avocado.

Avocado comes up well in tropical and subtropical climate with a mild winter at an elevation
of 600–1,500m and an annual rainfall of 125–180cm. However, it can be grown even in areas
with low or ill-distributed rainfall, if the irrigation facility is assured. Cool moist subtropics
are best for maximum production.

High humidity during flowering and fruit set is necessary to secure a good crop. Generally
areas without frost and with little wind are suitable. High wind velocity dehydrate the flower
and affect pollination. Frost can cause premature fruit drop, however, Hass variety can
tolerate temperature as low as -1ºC. Strong winds are very dangerous as the wood is soft and
brittle and easily damaged.
It grows well in altitude 800-1600 m amsl. in hilly slopes in Nilgiri hills where average
maximum temperature is 27.2 to 33.9ºC and minimum is 14.9 to 22.2ºC, whereasin Sikkin it
is grown in temperature rabge of 12 to 30ºC with average annual rainfall of 2000 mm.
Mexican is more cold tolerant. Guatemalan is intermediate and West Indian is most tropically
adopted.
Fruits are very sensitive to freezing temperature; flowering is very much influenced by
temperature, optimum being 28-310C.

Because of the differences in adaptation, avocado offers good opportunity for selecting an
appropriate variety for a given climate. Thus, it is presently grown on a commercial scale in
different parts of the world having extremely different environment. The climatic extremes
range from almost desert condition (Israel) to high land tropics (Mexico) to cool mist belt
conditions (Queensland).

Species and varieties

More than 400 varieties are known in avocado and they are classified into 3 distinct
horticultural or ecological races: Mexican, West Indian and Guatemalan. They may be
recognized as subtropical, semi-tropical and tropical. Each race is identifiable by their unique
characteristics like fruit size, peel, and texture and maturity date.

The varieties of Mexican race are characterized by scented leaves, small fruits, thin glossy
skin, high oil percentage and large seeds. Fruits mature in 6 months and contain large seed
with loose cavity,

West Indian races lack leaf scent and bear moderate to large fruits. fruits mature in 6 months
and contain large seed with loose cavity, generally fruits with smooth leathery skin
Guatemalan lack leaf scent and bear moderate to large fruits which mature in 9 months and
have smaller seed and tight cavity. Fruits possess coarsely granular skin.

In India different varieties of all three races have been tried and Fuerte, Hass and Green have
performed well at different places. In parts of south India and Maharashtra where avocado is
successfully grown, 2 varieties; Purple (West Indian race) and Green (Guatemalan race) are
popular. Purple variety bears pear-shaped fruits with a long neck weighing about 450g. The
fruits have smooth, moderately thick, leathery skin and the pulp is firm, deep yellow, fine in
texture with a rich and nutty flavour. The fruits of Green variety are oval to obovate, large
(450–680g) with a rough, moderately thick, brittle skin. The flesh is soft, greenish-yellow
with a mild nutty flavour. Single trees of avocado are not productive at times. For want of
pollination, hence, while raising a plantation in new area, mixed planting of cultivars is
desired instead of mono-clonal stands.

Some of the well-known cultivars of these 3 races are as follows:

 Mexican—Gottfried, Maxicola, Duke, Pernod and Zutano.

 West Indian— Pollock, Simmond, Black Prince, Peterson, Waldin, Purple green,
Fuchsia, Butler.

 Guatemalan—Taylor, Linda, Queen, Itsamma, Benik.

Many cultivars of commercial significance are hybrids of these races. They are Fuerte,
Collinson, Winslowson, Fair child and Long. The most leading avocado cultivar in the world
Fuerte, a Mexican × Guatemalan hybrid, bears pear-shaped fruits each weighing on an
average of 400g with a smooth, thin, dull green skin and a tendency towards alternate
bearing. The pulp has a buttery texture, a rich nutty flavour and contains oil up to 26%.

In California and the coastal Florida important cultivars are Nabal, Hass, Lyson, Dickinson,
Linda, Pollock and Waldin however in Sri Lanka Trapp, Pollock, Dickinson, Duttan, Lyon,
Mayapah and Gottfried are major varieties.

Propagation
Avocado is propogated by grafting. Mexican race can be propagated by cuttings of young
plants also.

Seed propagation is sometimes practiced, in Sikkim all plantations are seedling origin.
Asexual propagation is achieved by cuttings, layering, budding and grafting. Budding and
grafting are most popular.

Generally, vigorously growing seedlings irrespective of source are used as rootstocks.

However, cultivars have also been recognized with specific objectives for using as rootstocks.
Mexican stocks are best and dwarfing in effect. Persea schiediana is a vigorous stock. Popular
Root stock selections are duke-6, Duke-7, G-6, Huntalas, Dusa and Latas. Duke rootstocks
are resistant to root rot and cold hardiness and Pollock stock can overcome salinity problem.
Similarly, Green and Purple also do well as rootstocks. Green imparts more vigour to the
scion than Purple.
Seeds quickly lose their viability, and hence should be sown soon after extraction from the
fruit. Soaking of the seed in water for about 8hr or removing the seed coat and a thin slice at
top and bottom may accelerate germination. Seeds are placed in beds at a spacing of 30cm ×
60cm and then transplanted to polybags when they have putforth 4–5 leaves. When seedlings
reach 80–90cm in height, they can be transplanted to their permanent location.

One year old seedlings are ready for grafting. Side, veneer, cleft grafting or shield
budding generally practised. Grafted plants are kept in the nursery for 6-12 months before
their sale or transplanting to the orchard.

Planting

Before establishing a plantation, the field should be well ploughed, harrowed and leveled.

The commonly recommended spacing is 7m × 7m, but it may vary from 6–12m depending
upon the vigour of the variety and growth habit. The spacing is determined by the crown size
of the variety and soil type. Trees in deep soils with a high percentage of organic matter need
more space, because they grow taller and larger under these conditions. In new rectangular
plantings 10 X 5 m spacing is kept and rows are run in in north-south direction to allow
bwtter interception of the light into tree canopy.

Pits of 60cm × 60cm × 60cm are dug and left open to sun for about 10 days. These are then
filled with top soil mixed with approximately 30kg of well-decomposed farmyard manure or
leaf mould. Add 20 g of superphosphate at the base of the pit for good root growth. Planting
can be carried out anytime during the year, but when adequate irrigation facilities are lacking,
monsoon is the appropriate time for planting. While planting grafts, it is important to keep the
graft-joint well above the ground. Once planting is done, regular watering is essential till the
plants establish.

Manuring

Nutrient requirements of avocado vary according to variety, spacing and soil type. Nutrition
is based on critical leaf levels to predict the requirement for following season. Fully matured
leaves from middle of current season non fruiting shoots are collected at the end of summer
i.e. August-September.

The optimum rage of leaf nutrient levels is:

Nutrient Per cent Nutrient ppm

N 2.4-2.8 Mn 30-500
P 0.08-0.25 Fe 50-200
K 0.75-2.00 Cu 5-15
Ca 1.0-3.0 Zn 40-80
Mg 0.25-0.80 B 40-60
S 0.20-0.60
Na <0.25
Cl <0.25
Normally avocado requires heavy manuring. To non bearing trees NPK is applied in the ratio
of 1:1:1 and to bearing trees this ratio is kept 2:1:2.Bearing trees of 10 years may be given
200 g N, 45 g P and 165 g K in addition to 50 kg FYM.

In alkaline soils Fe deficiency is common and can be corrected by application of 35g

Chelated Fe/tree. Zn and B are also important micro nutrient for avocado. Zn is applied to
the soil @ 10g/tree in sandy soil to 25g/tree in clay soils. B is recommended @ 0.1% as foliar
application. In Sikkim. Soils are deficient in N, Zn and B. The recommended fertilizers dose
in Sikkim is

Fertilizers 1 year 2 year 7 year or above Time of

application
Urea 100 150 400 March-April
Urea 100 150 400 Sept-Oct.
Bone meal 300 400 1000 March-April
MOP 100 200 700 March-April
FYM - 10 60 Feb-March

Graded doses can be given from early stages depending upon the growth of the plant
especially just before and after the onset of rainy season. Fertilizer should be broadcasted in
the basin 30cm away from the trunk only. Before fertilizer application, the basin should be
weeded and after applying fertilizer, light irrigation is useful if soil moisture is not adequate.

Irrigation

Commercial avocado is successful if trees are regularly irrigated and the frequency should be
adjusted depending on soil and weather conditions. Avocado is sensitive to moisture stress
during flowering, fruit set and fruit development and irrigation during these stages is
considered essential. The avocado trees show water stress suddenly by shedding fruits and
leaves or by wilting as they have shallow root system. Loose and sandy soils require larger
quantities of water than heavy soils. Generally in summer, trees should receive irrigation
once in 10 days and adequate soil moisture after fruit set is necessary to sustain fruit growth,
because any setback in growth is irreversible.

Sprinkler irrigation is found suitable for avocado and this system improves fruit size and fat
content. Flood irrigation is undesirable as it can cause rootrot. To avoid water stress during
winter months mulching with dry grass can be practiced.

Training & Pruning

Being evergreen tree, Like most tropical trees, avocado has a good natural shape and need
very little or no pruning. Little pruning is required during initial years after planting. For first
two yers after planting vigorously growing shoots are pinched off to promote side or lateral
shoot development and to develop a bushier and compact tree. Trees are preferably trained to
Pyramide shape. Shoots arising from below graft union and overcrowded are removed.
Sometimes mechanical hedging is also done.
When a tree is well established in bearing stage and become overcrowded, selective limb
removal is practiced to open up the tree canopy.
Pruning in India is mostly required in upright varieties like Pollock tocontrol the height and
form a spreading spreading. In spreading varieties like Fuerte branches are mostly thinned
and some times headed back slightly to open up the canopy. This practice of reducing the
length of the branches results in bigger size fruitswithout affecting the tree yield.
Regular pruning is restricted to remove overcrowding, damaged & unproductive branches
only. Beside this selective and mild pruning of dead wood, basal branches touching the
ground and very old devitalized branches which have seized to produce fruits may be headed
back after harvesting. Severe or unnecessary pruning lowers yield by eliminating potential
flowers produced on young branches at the periphery of the tree.

Flowering Physiology

A mature tree may produce millions flowers during period. Flowers occur in panicles and
hundreds of flowers borne on in an inflorescence. There are two types of inflorescences a)
determinate b) indeterminate

In the determinate inflorescence, the tip of the flower bearing shoot will end in a flower bud,
however, in indeterminate inflorescence terminate with a vegetative bud and this is more
common in our environmental conditions.

Avocado cultivars are polygamous and dichogamous. Avocado flower carry both functionally
male and female reproductive organs. An indivisual flower open twice over aperiod of two
days with distinct timing of male and female phase under normal temperature. The first day
in female phase and stigma is receptive. This phase lasts for 4 hours and flower will close.
On the second day same flower reopen in male phase and shed its pollens. Opening and
closing of the flower is regulated by air temperature. On the basis of flower types, avocado
varieties can be classified in two groups i.e. A flower types and B flower types

A - Flowers open as functionally female in the morning of 1st day close in the afternoon and
reopen as male in the afternoon of 2nd day.
B - Flowers open as functionally female in the afternoon of the first day close in late
afternoon and reopen as male in the next morning.
A varieties: Hass, Gwen, Lamb Hass, Pinkerton, Reed, Anaheim, Hazard, Rincon and Wurtz.
B varieties: Fuerte, Sharwil, Zutano, Bacon, Ettinger, Sir Prize, Drano, Lianos Hass, Nabal,
Ryan, Shepard and Walter Hole.
This flowering behaviour of the avocado flower believed to promote cross pollination. The
inter planting of complementary flower types can boost fruit set.

The studies conducted in Australia under controlled conditions revealed that unser certain
environmental conditions flower phase may overlap and allow close pollination within a
single variety.

The flowering lasts for three to four weeks which may be longer in cooler growing areas.
Avocado flowers are entomophilies. A successful fruit set involve 3 requirement i)
overlapping of the flowering stage ii) significant insect activity including bee and iii)
temperature above 10ºC during flowering and following 3 days. Higher relative humidity
may help in prolonging receptivity of stigma and retain viability of pollen. Temperature,
rainfall, humidity, nutrition (N,ca) and hormone levels in the plant affect fruit growth and
development. In adverse conditions fruits can form without pollination. Such fruits are small
and cigar shaped and known as cukes or cocktails.
Crop load influenced the proportion of determinate and indeterminate flower shoots and
vegetative shoots produced during spring bloom.

Role of Plant Bioregulators

Application of Accel (cytokinin 1.8% +GA4+7) during flowering and fruit set results in
improvement of fruit size. Application of 6-BA @ 25ppm after fruit set on 20 mm sized fruits
increased fruit size and total yield.

ProGibb (contains GA3@4%) is known to promote cell enlargement. Its application in March
improves fruit set and fruit size. It is also helpful to overcome alternate bearing habbit in
avocado. GA3 application @25 ppm in June July significantly increased fruit size and total
yield.

Prohexadion is used to inhibit the growth of vegetative shoot of indeterminate inflorescence

and to reduce the competition between fruit set and developing flushes.

Application of Paclobutrazole at fruit set reduces vegetative growth and increase the total
yield and proportion of exportable sized fruits. Similarly application of TIBA as foliar spray
results in increased return bloom and yield thus overcome alternate bearing.

Maturity and yield

Fruit does not ripe on the tree. But fruit need to be harvested at correct maturity stage as
fruits picked at early stage shrivels and lack quality and if fruits are retained for longer
periods, they drop before softening. Picking poles (with a net or cloth bag at the end) can be
used for harvesting the fruits. Although. Some of the fruit characters used for determining
maturity includes change in colour and size of fruit and reduction in glossy shine of the fruit.
At harvesting fruits should be still hard and should have minimum 12% oil content.
Colour of the fruit is changed. In Purple variety, fruits are plucked when they show a purplish
blush, and in Green when they develop yellow tinge and once the glossy shine diminishes.
If the fruit is cut and seed is removed the seed is dry and not stick to the pulp.
Seed is dark brown in colour.
A sample fruit is harvested and kept indoor if fruit ripens in 7-10 days without wilting it
should be considered right stage of maturity.
Since flowering and fruit setting period is long 4-6 weeks all fruits do not mature at once and
require no. of pickings. Large size fruits are picked first. Traditionally, fruits are clipped from
the tree with a short stem (3 mm) attached to the fruit.
The regular harvesting commences from fourth year. Harvesting season in India is from July
to September. Harvesting should be avoided in wet weather and harvested fruits are placed in
shade before their packing. The yield varies with the tree age and canopy volume, Average
yield of a 10-15 year tree is 300-350 fruits.

Ripening and storage

Mature harvested fruits are allowed to ripen during transportation and a transportation time
upto 14 days is consideration considered satisfactory. Normally fruits ripen in about 5-10
days. Ripening can be accelerated by ethylene (10 ppm) treatment. Ripening takes place
satisfactorily at 15°–21°C and is hampered above 30°C. Mature fruits can be held for a month
at 6°–9°C coupled with 80–90% humidity. The shelf-life can be extended by storing at low
temperature after enclosing the fruits in polyethylene bags. Fruits can be stored in controlled
atmosphere with 9 % Co2 & 1 % 02 at 100C for 60 days, however Hass variety can be stored
at 4-5ºC.
Anthracnose and stem end rot are twomajor post harvest diseases that can be controlled by
treated fruits with fungicide within 24 hours after harvesting. Avocado fruits are packed in
two quality grades based on fruit size and count and 12-28 fruits are packed per tray. The
smaller fruits are bulk packed in 10 kg capacity cartons.

Physiological Disorders

Excessive flower and fruit drop: It can be due to fluctuating temperature and drying winds
along with inadequate moisture in the soil. Protection against the winds and maintenance of
proper soil moisture is helpful in controlling this drop.

Normal bloom but poor or no fruit set: Cause is poor pollination. Can be controlled by
proper proportion of pollinizing varieties or topworking a branch with pollinizing variety.
Placement of be hives is also helpful.

Tip burn:- Chloride toxicity in saline soils or use of saline irrigation water. Inadequate soil
moisture and drying winds are also a possible cause. There is necrosis of leaf edges and fall.
Heavy irrigation at end of winter, deep ploughing, addition of organic matter may control the
problem by leaching the salts and maintain the moisture.

Gray Pulp: Pulp of the fruit becomes greyish in colour and deteriorate the quality of the
fruit. Mainly due to warmer temperatures which reduce the moisture content of the fruit
below 80%.

Fizzles: Leaves are very small in size and pale in colour accomplished by multiple buds and
bloom. Problem is more in light gravelly soils due to poor moisture retention. Mulching and
frequent light irrigations are helpful.

Brown spot disorder: This is a disorder of Fuerte variety in which small bright brown spots
at the peel of the fruit at the time of picking and becomes dark brown during storage covering
about 25% of surface area creating problems in marketing of the fruits. The damage is
correlated with the lenticels intensity on the surface and size of the fruit. The severity of the
damage varies from season to season and location to location and affected by scion-stock
combination. Bruising during handling and storage of fruits accelerate the damage. Foliar
application of NPK, dipping of fruits in GA3 and in antitranspirants controls the disorder to
some extent.

Development of finger shaped fruits: such fruits are called cukes and cocktail avocado. It is
due to ssudden change in the temperature and dry winds. Such fruits are developed without
fertilization due to adverse weather conditions. The fruits are seedless and still consumeable
inspite of irregular shape and small size. The problem can be overcome by proper site
selection and maintenance of proper moisture and humidity during flowering.