NEBOSH International Diploma in Occupational

Health & Safety

Unit IC
INTERNATIONAL WORKPLACE AND WORK
EQUIPMENT SAFETY
element IC3 WORKPLACE FIRE RISK ASSESSMENT
Sample material
(Material correct at 1/11/2011)

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 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment

Fire Detection and Alarm Systems and Procedures

Key Information

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• All buildings should have provision for detecting fire and sounding an alarm in the event of fire.

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• The type of detection/alarm system used will be determined by the type of occupancy and escape strategy.
• A fire detector identifies physical changes in the protected environment indicative of the development of a fire
condition such as combustion products, visible smoke, flame/illumination or temperature rise.

ER
• The types of detector designed to identify these conditions are:
–– Ionisation smoke detectors.
–– Optical detectors.
–– Radiation detectors.
–– Heat detectors.

AT
• Manual alarm systems are suitable for small workplaces and include rotary gongs, hand strikers, handbells,
whistles, air-horns.
• An automatic fire alarm system may be designed to respond to heat, smoke and the products of combustion
and flames and may incorporate a facility for additional functions, such as closing down ventilation or air
conditioning plant, or activating automatic door releases.
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E
Common Fire Detection and Alarm In order to determine the most suitable type of
detection/alarm system for a particular building, it is
Systems and Procedures necessary to establish the type of occupancy and escape
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strategy:
• If the escape strategy is based on simultaneous
evacuation then activation of a manual call point
or detector should cause all fire alarm sounders to
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operate.
• If the escape strategy is based on phased evacuation
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(large organisations such as college and university

campuses where full evacuation is often not
necessary) a staged alarm system might be more
appropriate (one tone for alert, another for
evacuate).
Fire Warning Signal The provision for detecting fire will depend on the
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nature of the building, use and occupants and should be

Design and Application of Fire Detection and considered in the fire risk assessment.
Alarm Systems
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• In simple cases detection might be by people either

As a basic provision, workplaces should have observing or smelling the fire and verbal warning of
arrangements for: fire sufficient to raise the alarm or a rotary gong.
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• Sounding an alarm in the event of fire. • In more extensive premises buildings would need
electrically operated fire alarms and a fire-warning
• Evacuating staff to safe fire assembly points using
signal distinct from other signals in use. Regular tests
means of escape routes.
of an alarm system will check the circuits and help
• Fighting the fire. staff to identify the alarm tone.

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 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment
Principal Components of Alarm Systems –
Detection and Signalling
A fire detector identifies one or more physical changes
in the protected environment which indicate the
development of a fire condition.
Detectors can be activated by smoke or heat/light

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radiation arising:
• After ignition has occurred and the invisible products

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of combustion are released.
• When visible smoke is produced.
• When the fire produces flame and a degree of

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illumination.
• When the temperature in the vicinity of the fire rises
rapidly or reaches a predetermined value.

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E
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Smoke Detector

The types of detector designed to operate in this way

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are:
• Ionisation smoke detectors.
• Optical detectors.
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• Radiation detectors.
• Heat detectors.
The final choice depends on the risk to be protected
and the individual circumstances of each case (see the
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following table).
R
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Unit IC – Element IC3 | 3-6 © RRC Training

 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment
Automatic Fire Detectors

Type Suitability
Smoke
Ionisation
Sensitive in the early stages of a fire when smoke Areas having a controlled environment, i.e. free from airborne
particles are small. Sensitivity tends to drop as dust, etc., and generally housing complex equipment of a high

L
particles grow in size. intrinsic value, e.g. computer installations.

IA
Optical
Most effective in situations where the protected Normally used as point detectors but have been developed to
risk is likely to give rise to dense smoke (i.e. large form zone sampling systems by monitoring air samples drawn
particles). through tubes.

ER
Radiation
Infra-red
Rapid detection because of almost instantaneous Warehouses or storage areas, etc. Detectors are available which
transmission of radiation to the detector head. can scan large open areas and will respond only to the distinctive

AT
This is dependent, however, on the detector having flame flicker. Can be used to detect certain chemical fires.
a clear ‘view’ of all parts of the protected area.
Ultra-violet
As for infra-red. The ultra-violet detector tends to be used mainly for specialised
purposes.
Heat
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Fusible alloys
Alloys will need replacing each time detector Areas of general risk where vapour and particles are normally
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operates. present. Cost is relatively low compared to other types of
detectors.
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Expansion of metal, air and liquid

Generally self-resetting. Both ‘fixed-temp’ and ‘rate-of-rise’ are equally efficient but ‘fixed-
temperature’ types are preferred in areas where a rapid rise in
temperature is a likely result of the normal work processes.
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Electrical effect
Not widely installed. Some specialist use.
Note for all types of heat detectors
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May be used as point or line detectors and are ‘Rate-of-rise’ types will compensate for gradual rises in ambient
designed to operate at a pre-selected temperature temperature and are more efficient than the ‘fixed-temperature’
(‘fixed-temperature’ type) or on a rapid rise in type in low-temperature situations. (‘Rate-of-rise’ detectors
temperature (‘rate-of-rise’ type) or both. With generally incorporate a fixed-temperature device.)
all heat detectors (particularly fixed-temp types),
‘thermal lag’ needs to be considered when
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choosing the operating temperature.

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Detectors vary in suitability and a combination of Selection will also need to consider the nature of the risk
different detectors may be required: to be protected in order to establish:
• Reliability required (a more robust detector is
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• Smoke and heat detectors are suitable for most

buildings.
• Radiation detectors are particularly useful for high-
roofed buildings, e.g. warehouses, and situations in
which clean-burning flammable liquids are kept.
• Laser infra-red beam detectors appear to have
advantages where there are tall compartments or
long cable tunnels, for example.
necessary in an industrial setting than is required for
hotel purposes, since dusty or damp atmospheres will
affect some detectors more than others).
• The sensitivity required.
• The location of detectors in the best possible place
to perform their function.

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 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment
Manual and Automatic Systems
Manual Systems
Manual systems are suitable for small workplaces. They
involve the use of the following basic devices:
• Rotary gongs sounded by turning a handle around
the rim of the gong.

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• Hand strikers such as iron triangles suspended from

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a wall accompanied by a metal bar which is used to
strike the triangle.
• Handbells.

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• Whistles.
• Air-horns.
They are normally found on the walls of corridors,
entrance halls and staircase landings, in a situation where

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they are readily available to anyone who may need to
raise an alarm.
Such systems give an alarm over a limited area, and are
inadequate for giving a general alarm throughout the
premises.
As a person is required to operate manual systems a
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continuous alarm cannot be guaranteed for as long as
may be necessary.
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Manual/Electric Systems
These systems are set in motion manually but operate as
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part of an electrical alarm circuit.

Call points in a manual/electric system are usually small
wall-mounted boxes designed to operate either:
• Automatically, when the glass front is broken, or
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• When the glass front is broken and the button

pressed in.
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Automatic Systems
Automatic systems may be designed to alarm on
detection of:
• Heat.
• Smoke.
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• Products of combustion and flames. Revision Questions

They may incorporate automatic facilities to:
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• Close down ventilation or air conditioning plant. 3. Name the four types of detector commonly
used in buildings.
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• Activate automatic door releases.

All alarm systems should be maintained and tested
regularly and the results recorded. Any faults discovered
should be corrected and the system rechecked. Staff
should know how to raise the alarm and what to do
when the fire alarm sounds.
4. Explain the benefits of regular testing of fire
alarms.
5. For what types of workplaces are manual alarm
systems suitable?

(Suggested Answers are at the end of Unit IC.)

Unit IC – Element IC3 | 3-8 © RRC Training

 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment

Fire-Fighting Equipment

Key Information

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• Fixed (‘passive’) fire-fighting systems fall into four main categories: sprinklers, drenchers, total flood systems and
deluge systems.

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• The main types of extinguishing agent used in fixed installations are: water, foam, carbon dioxide, halon and dry
powder.
• Fires are classified as follows:

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–– Class A - Solid materials
–– Class B - Flammable liquids and liquefied solids
–– Class C - Gases and liquefied gases
–– Class D - Flammable metals

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–– Class F - High temperature cooking oils
Each class has can be extinguished using different agents.
• Extinguishing a fire is based on removing one or more sides of the fire triangle:
–– Removing the fuel by starvation. M
–– Removing the oxygen by smothering.
–– Removing the heat by cooling.
• Fire-fighting equipment should be sited in an easily seen and reached position, regularly inspected and
maintained, and persons required to use it suitably trained.
E
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Design and Application of Fixed Fire- • Deluge Systems

Fighting Systems and Equipment –– All the discharge heads open but the flow of
extinguishing agent is controlled by a single
Fixed fire-fighting systems fall into four main deluge valve (which may be activated by a pilot
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categories. sprinkler system).

• Sprinklers –– Often used for high risk cases such as flammable
–– Independent, sealed sprinkler heads which liquid storage tanks.
SA

rupture in the immediate vicinity of the fire Fixed fire-fighting systems consist of pipework which
(limiting water damage). delivers and releases an extinguishing medium when
–– Have a rating ranging from LH (light hazard) activated directly by heat or indirectly by the warning/
through OH (ordinary hazard) to HH (high alarm system.
hazard). Systems are likely to be installed in large buildings where:
• Drenchers
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• There is a high risk.

–– Designed to protect adjacent buildings or
facilities from the effects of radiated heat. • Access is difficult.
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–– Provide a curtain of water over parts of a building • Equipment or stock is valuable.

(or openings). The main types of extinguishing agent used in fixed
–– Commonly used to protect large gas storage installations are:
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tanks.
• Total Flood Systems
–– Render the atmosphere inert by dilution or flame
interference (CO2 or halon).
–– Dangerous to occupants and therefore a safe
system (manual lock off) must be employed.
–– Danger of re-ignition when protected area is
opened up.
• Water
Generally used in sprinkler systems.
• Foam
–– Low expansion foam is suitable for flammable
liquid fires.
–– High expansion foam is useful in inaccessible
areas such as cable tunnels and basements.

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 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment
• Carbon Dioxide
Suitable for hazardous or valuable plant such as
electrical equipment, computer areas, control rooms
and sensitive materials.
• Halon
Used in similar situations to carbon dioxide (but its

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use is strictly controlled for environmental reasons -
alternatives to the use of halon include water mist).

IA
• Dry Powder
Suitable for:
–– Flammable liquids.

ER
–– Electrical equipment.
–– Situations where water damage must be kept to a
minimum.
Not suitable where re-ignition may occur.

AT
For water-based systems the supply of water is from
two basic systems:
• Wet riser systems:
–– These remain filled with water at fire mains
pressure.
–– They are subject to frost damage in unprotected
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areas and/or water leaks.
• Dry riser systems:
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–– Water is only available at the outlets when the
system is connected to the fire mains or to a
pumped reservoir or supply.
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–– The system is not subject to frost damage, and

may be used in cold stores.
Wet and dry riser sprinkler systems have independent,
sealed sprinkler heads designed to open under fire
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conditions (through fusible solder links).

• Water is only directed to those heads which have
been activated, since they are all independent.
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• Deluge systems are designed for high-risk areas:

–– They consist of pipework with open heads, the
water being held back by a deluge valve.
–– A fire-detection device trips the deluge valve and
water is discharged from every head.
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Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment

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Classification of Fires
Provision of portable fire-fighting equipment should
be matched to the nature of the risk. The table below
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shows the types of extinguishing agent that would be

suitable for various fire situations.

Unit IC – Element IC3 | 3-10 © RRC Training

 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment
Nature of Risk

Class Description Examples Extinguishing Agent

Water
Solid materials usually of organic
Wood, paper, fibres,
A origin (containing carbon based Foam
rubber, etc.
compounds)
Dry powder (ABC)

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Dry powder
Miscible with
Alcohol, acetone,

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water (capable of Specialist foam
Flammable methyl acetate, etc.
being mixed).
B liquids and CO2
liquefied solids
Immiscible with Petrol, diesel, oil, fats Dry powder

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water. and waxes Foam

Natural gas, liquefied Turn off the supply

C Gases and liquefied gases petroleum gases Liquid spills may be controlled by dry
(butane, propane) powder

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Special powders (m28 or l2)

Potassium, sodium, Dry sand or earth

D Flammable metals
magnesium, titanium
M Graphite powder
Sodium carbonate and salt and/or talc
Specialist ‘wet chemical’
F High temperature cooking oils -
Fire blanket (minor fire only)
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Gas fires can be difficult to deal with; whilst dry powder Types of Extinguishing Media
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and carbon dioxide may be used to knock the flame • Water

down there is a risk of build up of gas if it cannot be
–– Applied as a pressurised jet or a spray.
turned off. In some situations it may be better to allow
the fire to continue and to call the fire services. –– Most effective means of extinguishing Class A
fires.
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Extinguishing Media and Mode of Action –– May also be used, as a spray, on Class B fires
involving liquids and liquefied solids which
Extinguishing a fire is based on removing one or more
are capable of mixing with water (methanol,
sides of the fire triangle:
acetone).
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• Removing the Fuel - Starvation. –– May be used to cool leaking gas containers.
Achieved by: –– Should never be used on:
–– Taking the fuel away from the fire. –– Fires involving electricity.
–– Taking the fire away from the fuel. –– Non-miscible liquid fires.
–– Reducing the quantity or bulk of fuel available. • Foam
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• Removing the Oxygen – Smothering. –– A special mixture that forms a smothering blanket
Achieved by: over the fire, cutting off the supply of oxygen.
–– Can be used:
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–– Allowing the fire to consume all the available

oxygen. –– On Class A and B fires (some restrictions
regarding Class B fires since certain types of
–– Preventing the inward flow of any more oxygen.
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foam break down on contact with alcohols).

–– Adding an inert gas to the mixture.
• Dry Chemical Powder
–– Most usual method - use of a blanket of foam or
a fire blanket.
• Removing the Heat – Cooling.
Achieved by:
–– Cooling with water (absorbs heat thereby
reducing the heat input into the fire).
–– Sprayed as a cloud over the fire.
–– Acts to smother the supply of oxygen.
–– Can be used on Class B fires and on small
liquefied gas fires (within Class C).
–– Specialised dry powders using inert substances
are also used on Class D fires, where they form

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 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment
a crust over the burning metal and exclude the
oxygen.
–– Also effective on fires involving electricity.
• Carbon Dioxide Gas
–– Smothers the supply of oxygen.
–– Effective on:

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–– Class B fires.
–– Electrical fires.

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• Vaporising Liquids
–– Produce a heavy vapour which extinguishes the
fire by excluding oxygen.
–– Safe to use on Class A and B fires.

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–– Effective on fires involving live electrical
equipment.
–– Halons, widely used in portable fire-fighting
equipment, have been banned in many countries
since 1994, and are being phased out in others.

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Identification of Fire Extinguishers
It is important to be able to identify the different types
of fire extinguisher in use and colour coding is widely
used to indicate the type of extinguishing agent inside.
In Europe the harmonised standard BS EN3: 1996
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specifies that all fire extinguishers should be red in colour
but a zone of up to 5% of the external area may be
coloured to indicate the type of extinguishing medium.
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The following table illustrates this colour coding system:
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Colour Coding for Fire Extinguishants

Fire extinguisher Colour of body or

content label/band
Water Red
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Foam Cream
Dry Powder Blue
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Carbon Dioxide Black

Wet Chemical Yellow

Siting of Extinguishers
The correct type of extinguisher should be available for
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the risk it is going to protect against. The fire-fighting

equipment should be sited in an easily seen and reached
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position, usually by an escape route. The location

should be marked and should not be further than 30
metres from an alternative equipment location (see the
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following figure).

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 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment

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M
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M
SA
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Siting of Extinguishers

The location should be: Maintenance

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• Conspicuous. Regular inspections and examinations should be

carried out on fire extinguishers by a suitably qualified
• Readily visible on escape routes. technician. These will vary for different types of
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• Properly mounted. extinguisher but best practice is indicated below.

• Accessible (less than 30 metres from any fire). Water Extinguishers

• Special extinguishers close (but not too close) to risk. • Stored-Pressure
• Sited to avoid temperatures beyond the operating Check that:
range and corrosive environments. –– Pressure is correct.
–– Hoses and nozzles are not blocked.
–– There is no corrosion.

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 Element IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment
Discharge annually and check: Training Requirements
–– Internally for corrosion. It is very important that all personnel are familiar with
–– Free working of operating mechanism. the fire-fighting equipment and are able to use it
• Gas-Cartridge correctly.
–– Open annually: The following points form a general scheme for training
–– Check the working parts and contents. in the use of fire-fighting equipment:

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–– Weigh the gas cartridge to check for losses. • General understanding of how extinguishers operate.
–– Discharge every five years.
• The importance of using the correct extinguisher for

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• Foam Extinguishers different classes of fire.
–– Open annually and check that:
• Recognition of whether the extinguisher has to be
–– No clogging has occurred. used in the upright position or in the upside-down

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–– All the working parts are in good order. position.
–– Weight of gas cartridge - loss in excess of 10%
requires replacement. • Practice in the use of different extinguishers (with or
without a practice fire).
–– Discharge every two years.
• Dry Powder Extinguishers • Understanding that evacuating the building must

AT
take precedence over fighting a fire if the condition
–– Annual examination.
demands immediate evacuation.
–– Discharge every five years.
• Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers • When, and when not, to tackle a fire (if the fire is
small and has not involved the building structure,
–– Annual examination: then portable extinguishers can generally be used but
–– Check contents by weighing.
M always see that a means of escape is maintained).
–– Examine working parts and check horn for
freedom of movement. • When to leave a fire that has not been extinguished
(as a general rule, once two extinguishers have been
• Vaporising Liquid Extinguishers
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discharged, the fire requires specialist assistance).
–– Annual working order check by weighing the
contents. • When leaving an unextinguished fire, try to close all
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–– Check by discharge every five years. doors and windows to help contain the fire.
• Wet Chemical Extinguishers
–– Same maintenance requirements and procedures
as for foam extinguishers.
M
SA
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Revision Questions
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6. Describe the five basic classes of fire.

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7. With reference to fire extinction describe what

is meant by starvation.

8. Explain why gas fires may be difficult to deal

with.

(Suggested Answers are at the end of Unit IC.)

Unit IC – Element IC3 | 3-14 © RRC Training