GEOGRAPHY

Earth

The earth appears to be flat, but in reality it is more less sphere i.e. it is little sphere at
poles and bulges out at the equator. The proof of it is round ship are as follows:

1. If we see a ship coming from sea to shore, we cannot see the whole ship all at
once. First of all we will see its mast and other upper parts then gradually we will see its
lower parts as it will come nearer to the coast.

2. Sun rises in the east then in the west. The sun rises early in the areas in east
like at Dhaka first then at Lahore that is in west. If the earth were flat, the sun rises at
same time all over the world.

3. Altitude of midday sun is different at different places. For example at noon the
height of sun at Multan and Karachi is different, if the earth were flat, the sun altitude all
places will be equal.

4. All the planets appear to revolve around the earth.

Solar system: The system of spherical heavenly bodies with the sun as its center
is called solar system.

Axis: An imaginary line round which the earth rotates is called axis.

Poles: The northern extremity of the axis is called north pole while the southern
extremity of the axis is call South Pole.

Motions of the earth: Two motions of the earth are as follows:

1. Rotation or daily motion.

2. Revolution of annul motion.

Rotation: The earth rotates around its axis once in 24 hours from west to east this is
called rotation.

Days and nights are caused, this the most important effect.

Moon sun and other heavenly bodies appear to revolve around the earth from east to
west.

Winds and currents change their direction.

Different places have different local time.

Revolution of the earth The earth revolves round the sun once in approximately 24
½ hours. This is called revolution of the earth.

Effect: Change in seasons caused by the revolution of the earth.

Day and nights: Days and nights are caused by the rotation of the earth. The sun is
stationary and the earth rotates in front of sun around its axis. Thus one half of the
earth always faces the sun and one half always away from it. Moreover every part
faces the sun in for some time and then goes to darkness. The part facing the sun is

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called day and the other in darkness is called night. Thus the earth rotation caused
days and nights.

The following phenomena are due obliquity of the earth:

Days & nights are of unequal length
The altitude of sun at different period of time is different

The above two bring change in season

Different places have different season

Why day and night are equal on equator? Days and nights are equal at the
equator throughout the year, that is both days and nights are of 12 hours duration at the
equator.
The reason for this is that due to course of the earth’s revaluation round the sun, one
half of the equator always in light and other always in dark, that is circle of illumination
cuts the equator in two equal parts. Hence both days and nights are equal at all point of
the equator.

Atmosphere: The earth is surrounded by a covering of air which extends to a

height of 320 km, is called atmosphere.

How will you find the cardinal point of a place? In order to find the cardinal point
of a place first of all we should find the north. Than if we stand with our face to north, on
our right it is east and on left it is west and behind it is south.

With the help of pole star: Pole star always points to the north. To find the pole
star find the great bear at the sky, which is constellation of seven stars upper two are
called pointers join the pointers and draw a straight line which will pass through a bright
star at some distance is called pole star. This pole star is only appears in northern
hemisphere and this method can only be used in this hemisphere.

By mariner’s compass: It is watch like box fitted with magnetic needle. This needle
always points to the north. However, it does not give true north because it is often
different with the change of time and at different places.

By means of vertical rod: It always shows true north.

Shape of the earth: The earth appears to be flat, but it is less or more sphere i.e.
less or more round like ball. It is little flattened at the poles and bulges out at the
equator. The proofs of its rotundity are as follows:

Inability to see a ship form shore: If we stand at sea shore and watch a ship
approaching towards us, we will first of all see her mast and upper parts. After interval
of time we will able to see her lower parts. This is the proof of its rotundity.

If a sailor sail form a certain port in a direction he will reach at the same port. This is
proof of its rotundity.

Different altitude of sun at noon at different places: At noon the height of sun is different
at places north and south. For example height of sun at noon at Peshawar and Multan
is different, this is because of its rotundity, if the earth is flattened the height of sun at
both places will be equal.

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Cyclones Sometimes it is so happened that a certain region has low pressure on
account of hear or some other causes, while the pressure in outer region is high. Since
the wind always blow from high pressure regions to low pressure regions, hence the
winds blow form outer high pressure region to central low pressure regions.

Importance of Suez and Panama canals Suez Canal was constructed in 1869.
Its designed was prepared by a French engineer. It is 160 NM long and 90 meters wide
its minimum depth is 10.6m. It is between Red sea and Meditation oceans. Speed limit
in this canal is 6 knots so a ship crossing it will take 15 hours to pass through it.
All the countries of the world with the exception of Australia are benefiting from it. But
the countries Pakistan, India, China, and Sri Lanka are taking much benefit from this.

The government of Egypt is also getting tax by ships crossing it, which is increasing
their volume of money.

Before the opening of Suez Canal the mariners would use the cape route which is too
long than passing through this canal.

Panama Canal was constructed in 1914. it is situated in America. It is between Atlantic

Ocean and pacific oceans. The countries benefiting from it are USA Japan etc

The Suez Canal The Sues canal, the biggest canal within the territory of Egypt and
was dug across the Isthmus which connects Asia with Africa. It is about 160 km long.
Its average width is 90m and minimum depth is 10.8m. This canal passes through three
lakes. The speed of ships crossing the canal is limited to 6 knots, so the ships take 15
hours to cross it. This canal connects meditation and red seas. On the northern bank
Port Said lies.
Almost all countries of world are benefiting by this canal, but Pakistan, India,
Bangladesh, other countries of Asia, East African countries are much benefiting from
this canal. This canal is chief highway of commerce connecting these countries.

Before the opening of Suez Canal, the steamer would use the Cape Town route.

Means of communication: The efficiency by means of communication is very

important for the economic development of a country. The quick and cheap means of
communication add to national unity, administrative efficiency, development of trade
and industry, efficient control of floods and other emergencies. The most important
means of communication in Pakistan are roads, railway, airways, sea ways and rivers
etc.

Isotherm: Iso: Equal, Therm: Heat

Isotherms are lines joining all places having same average pressure.

The solar system: The system of spherical heavenly bodies with the sun as its
center is solar system.

The sun: The sun is a fixed star like myriads of other stars. It is 148,400,000 km far
from earth.

The planets: The planets are the heavenly bodies which revolve round the sun in
their orbits.

The satellites: The earth has only one satellite that is moon; some other planets
have more number of satellites like the Jupiter has 12 satellites revolving round it.

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The Moon: The moon is a sphere like the earth and is about a little more than a
quarter of the earth.

Stars: The stars are fixed heavenly bodies. Their number is estimated at
30,000,000,000,000.

River’s Stage: The course of an ordinary river which rise from mountain and fall
into sea, have three stages e.g. Mountain Stage, Plain Stage and Delta Stage.

Mountain Stage: In this stage the slope of land is very steep and the river flow very
fast. Here it makes cataracts and water falls, at some places it is used to generate
electricity. Since the river flow very fast it is not all useful for navigation. Several small
streams fall into it and increase its volume of its water. The mountain stage of River
Indus is from its source to Kalabagh.

Plain Stage: In this stage the slope is land is gradual. The river flows slow than
in mountain stage. Here river is useful for navigation as well as irrigation. The river
deposits most of the mud which it brought with it from mountain stage. Several towns
are set up on the bank of river. The plain stage of River Indus is from Kalabagh to
Hyderabad.

Delta Stage: This is the last stage of river. Here flow of river is very slow. The
beds of water rise up. Now it branches off into several small channels along the sea
shore from a triangular piece of land known as Delta. This is called delta stage. Near
Hyderabad delta stage of river Indus starts.

Mineral products of Pakistan:

Although Pakistan is rich in mineral products, but the production of most minerals at
present is small and falls very short of the country’s requirements. Foreign Geological
experts are now helping the Geology Survey Department of Pakistan (GSDP) in their
searching.

Three regions are especially rich in mineral wealth:

The salt range, Chitraal and north east Baluchistan.

Coal Padhrar (Khushab), Lakhra (Dadu District) Cheerat,

Surgarb range, Kotli (Mirpure)
(Import because our coal is not of a good quality)

Salt Dadot and Pidh in eastern salt range and Makarwal in

western salt range and with sea water.
(we export it all over the world)

Iron Kalabagh, Makawal, Hazara District & Citral District

(Cannot fulfill the requirement)

Mineral oil or petroleum Rawalpindi Division, Sindh

(Cannot fulfill the requirement)
Refineries Multan, Korangi (Karachi) & Morgah (Rawalpindi)

Natural gas Sui, Dulian can fulfill the requirement

Gypsum Found in Dandot, Khewara and Kohat districts

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 Used in cement and plaster of Paris

Rock salt Khewara, Warcha, Tharparkar & Kohat District

Limestone Used in cement, found in northern and western mount

Marble Found near Taxila, in mountains and used in floor and

in graveyard yards for making grave

Antimony found in Chitral district and used as gunpowder.

Earthquake

The sudden violent shaking of a part of the earth is called an earthquake. An

earthquake is generally accompanied by rumbling sound and tremors.

The chief causes of earthquakes are as follows:

a. When a dormant volcano erupts into activity or an active volcano discharges

matter with greater violence, the surrounding areas tremors or earthquakes.

b. When the interior of the earth cools and contracts, the outer crust in some
places cracks or some part of it actually drops down. This also causes an earthquake.

c. Sometimes water percolates so deep down into the earth that it turns into
steam on account of internal heat. This steam expands and tries to force it way out.
This also causes an earthquake.

d. When the rivers carry a large amount of mud to the sea, the pressure on the
part of the earth where they flow is considerably reduced. The internal matter of the
earth melts (by the reduction of pressure) and tries to find a way out. This also causes
an earthquake.

Their harms:

a. Many towns are destroyed and there is considerable loss of life and property.
b. Some places are submerged under the sea
c. Big cracks and fissures are formed on the surface of the earth which
interrupts communication.
d. Sometimes rivers disappear or change their course.

Their uses:

a. Precious metals and minerals come up to the surface for the use of man.
b. New lands for habitation appear above the surface of the sea.
c. Sometimes new springs are formed.

Weather & Climate

Weather means the conditions of atmosphere of a place with respect to its temperature,
pressure & humidity of a place for a considerable period of time like a day, two days or
a week. Weather always changes some time cloudy, some time rainy, some time clear,
some time wet & some time dry.

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Climate means the average conditions of weather of atmosphere for a considerable
period of time. Climate does not change it remain same throughout.

Factors depends upon climate

1. Distance from equator

2. Distance from sea
3. Direction of winds
4. Direction of mountains
5. Currents
6. Height above sea level
7. Slope of lands
8. Nature of soil

Different regions

1. Equatorial region
2. Tropical region
3. Hot Deserts
4. Tundra
5. China type region

Tundra This is the extreme north part of Asia, Europe and north America, there
snow fall all of the year. The climate remains cold for maximum period of year and little
warm.

Fog When hot moist air comes in contact with cold water of cold air it is cold and
some of water vapor on the dust particles condense in the atmosphere. It is called fog.
It should borne in mind that presence of dust particles are necessary for the formation of
fog.

Mist Mist and fog are identical and formed alike. The only difference is that in mist
water particles are bigger than fog. Mist often found in mountains.

Clouds Clouds and fog are identical and formed alike. The only difference is that
clouds formed in upper regions of atmosphere. Dust particles are necessary for the
formation of clouds.

Hail When rain drops on their way to the earth pass through a region of intensely cold
they freeze and become too heavy to remain suspended in the atmosphere and fall in
shape of hail.

Dew At night every thing radiates heat which it have been absorbed during day.
Leaves, flowers & grass radiate more heat than other things and become cold. When
moisture laden touches them it is also cool, when it is further cooled, it deposit the water
drops on these things. This is called dew.

Snow When clouds are ascends to intensely cold region of atmosphere the
freeze without passing through liquid form and fall on the earth in the shape of snow.
Snow is like pieces of wool or cotton. It often falls on high mountains and very cold
places.

Rain When hot moist air rises high up condensation takes places and become clouds.
If the clouds are further cooled more condensation will take place. The water drops

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become too heavy to remain suspended in the air and fall as rain to the earth. Three
things are necessary for the formation of rain:

1. Evaporation
2. Condensation
3. Dust particles

Factors

Nearness to the equator

Nearness to the sea
Direction of mountains
Warm currents
Winds
Forests

Type

Equatorial rains
Relief rains
Cyclonic rains

Near the equator in Torrid Zone the temperature is always high and air there is also hot,
this hot air pick up great deal of moisture and rises up in upper regions condensation
takes and this cause heavy rain fall. Such type of rains called equatorial rains.

When winds strike the mountains, they rise up and condensation takes place and cause
heavy rain falls. Such types of rains those are caused by striking of winds with
mountains are called relief rains.

Rains caused by cyclones are called cyclonic rains.

Rains are measured by means of an instrument called rain gauge.

Rains represent on maps by means of lines joining all places having same average rain
fall.

Cyclones

Wind blow from outer high pressure area to inner low pressure area to equalize the
pressure. On account of rotation of the earth they form spirally form. Such types of
winds those blow towards the center of the earth in spirally form are called cyclones.
In the northern hemisphere their direction is clockwise and in southern hemisphere
there direction is anti clockwise.
Hence they blow from outer high pressure areas they bring heavy rain fall and make the
weather pleasant.

Anti Cyclones

Wind blow from inner high pressure region to outer low pressure region to equalize the
pressure. On account of rotation of the earth they form spirally form. Such types of
winds those blow towards the outer region of the earth in spirally form are called anti
cyclones.

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In the northern hemisphere their direction is anti clockwise and in southern hemisphere
there direction is clockwise.

Hence they blow from central high pressure areas they bring minor or no rain but they
make the weather agreeable.

Geography

1. Cardinal Points and direction findings

2. Shape of the earth with its proofs.
3. What is solar system?
4. What are the satellites, moon, phases of the moon, asteroid or planetoids,
meteors, comets, stars etc?
5. Earth’s axis, poles, motions of earth and its effects
6. How days and nights are caused.
7. Phenomenon due to obliquity of the earth’s axis.
8. Opposite seasons in Australia and Pakistan
9. Effects of sun’s rays on the surface of the earth
10. Atmosphere, composition of air, pressure, measurement.
11. Factors on which pressure depends
12. Cause of winds, kind of winds,
13. Trade winds & Anti Trade winds
14. Ferrell’s law
15. Monsoons
16. Cyclone and anti Cyclones
17. Equator, Meridian, Prime Meridian, Latitude, Longitude, some important latitude
18. Local time and standard time
19. Rocks
20. Classification of agents of change
21. Earthquakes
22. Fog, clouds, snow, dew
23. Rain and factors which cause rain
24. Weather and climate
25. Mineral products of Pakistan.
26. Chief crops of Pakistan.
27. Mountain of Pakistan.
28. Rivers of Pakistan
29. Importance of Suez and Panama Canals.
30. Means of communication in Pakistan.
31. Means of irrigation in Pakistan.
32. Power resources in Pakistan.

The time by means of sun or moon is called local time. When the sun at his its full
height at noon, it is considered 12 O clock and watch are set accordingly.

The time at Greenwich (England) is called Standard time of that place.

Monsoons

Monsoons are periodical winds; they blow from sea to shore for six months i.e. from
March to September and from shore to sea for six months i.e. September to March.
There are two types of monsoons winds:

1. Summer monsoons
2. Winter monsoons

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Summer monsoons are those winds which blow from sea to land in summer i.e. from
mar to sep. Sun shine for more time on both the land and sea but land becomes hot
more quickly than sea. Hence in these months the temperature over the lands is
greater then at sea or oceans. The air is hot and have less pressure while over
pressure is high. Since the wind blow from region of high pressure to low pressure
regions to equalize the pressure of these areas. Thus the winds blow from sea to shore
to equalize its pressure.

Winter monsoons

Winter monsoons are those winds which blow from land to sea in winter i.e. from Sep to
mar. In this sun shine for short time on both sea and land, but the lands become cold
quickly than sea, hence the pressure of air
The major portion of Pakistan consists of plain, which is drained by Indus River and its
tributaries. Mountains on its north and west those are drained through rains. We can
divide Pakistan in two six physical regions, those are as follows:

1. Northern mountains.
2. Western mountains.
3. Potowar plateau and.
4. Upper Indus plain.
5. Lower Indus plain.
6. Baluchistan plateau.

Winds of are three kinds

Constant winds
Periodic winds
Variable winds

Constant winds are those winds which blow always in one direction like trade and anti
trade.

Periodic winds are those winds which blow in a direction for a considerable period of
time and in another direction for next period such as moon soon and land and sea
breezes.

Variable winds are irregular winds such as cyclones and anti cyclones

Trade winds

Trade winds are permanent winds which blow towards the equator. Generally they blow
from 30 norths and 30 souths to the equator. In the northern hemisphere their direction
is north east and southern hemisphere their direction is southeast.

Trade winds are called trade winds because in innocent era when steam ships were not
available, sail ship travel with the help of these winds. Another cause is that word
comes from word tread which means trade, for these reasons these are called trade
winds.

Winds are caused due to unbalanced pressure of air. Near the 30 north and south the
pressure is always high but at equator the pressure is low due to heat. Hence winds
are setup to blow from these cold regions towards the equator.

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Change in direction

Due to rotation of the earth around its axis, winds bend to their right in northern
hemisphere and to their left in southern hemisphere. Hence their direction is north east
in northern and south east in southern hemisphere.

Anti trade winds

Anti trade winds are permanent winds which blow from 30 N and 30 S towards the 90 N
and S. Generally they blow from 30 norths and 30 souths to the poles. In the northern
hemisphere their direction is south west and southern hemisphere their direction is
north-west.

Anti Trade winds are called anti trade winds because in innocent era when steam ships
were not available, sail ship travel with the help of these winds. Another cause is that
word comes from word tread which means trade, for these reasons these are called
trade winds.

Winds are caused due to unbalanced pressure of air. Near the 30 north and south the
pressure is always high but at equator the pressure is low due to heat. Hence winds
are setup to blow from these cold regions towards the equator.

Change in direction

Due to rotation of the earth around its axis, winds bend to their right in northern
hemisphere and to their left in southern hemisphere. Hence their direction is south west
in northern and north west in southern hemisphere.

Land breeze and sea breeze

During day time the sun shine both on earth and sea. The earth heat and cool more
quickly than sea, thus winds are set up to blow from high pressure region to low
pressure region. During day time the pressure of earth is low then pressure of sea.
Thus winds blow from sea to earth during day time. These winds are called sea breeze.

As we know that earth heat and cool more quickly than sea, hence during night the
surface of the earth become cool quickly then sea. Thus winds are set up to blow from
high pressure region to low pressure region. The winds blow to sea from earth to sea
during night. Such winds are called land breeze.

Sea and lands breeze only the coastal areas, and bring weather in fine in these areas.

Moon soon winds

Moon soon are periodic winds which blow from sea to land for six months in summer
and from land to sea for six months in winter.

Movements of ocean

The ocean water is never at rest. Following are the motion of the ocean:

Waves

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Currents
Tides

Waves are undulation of water on the surface of the ocean and are caused by the
winds. The particles of water move to and fro and up and down but never move
forward.

Currents

Currents are so to say, rivers of warm and cold water flowing in an ocean. Their banks
and beds also consist of water.

Winds
Unequal distribution of heat
Unequal evaporation

When winds blow in a direction for a considerable period of time, they part of the sea
water will also flow in the same direction and a system of current produced.

Water near the equator is warm and water near the poles is cold. Warm water is lighter
and expands and moves towards the poles. The water near the poles moves towards
the equator as under current.

Some of the local currents are produced due to unequal evaporation in two neighboring
seas.

Currents of Atlantic Ocean

Currents of Pacific Ocean
Currents of Indian Ocean

Tides

People living on coast know that for six hours the sea water rise and for the next six
hours it recedes twice in 24 hours. This rise and ebb of the water is called tides.

The pressure of air is different at different places and even at same place at different
times. These variations are due to following three factors:

Altitude
Temperature
Water vapor

Altitude

At the sea level the whole of atmosphere (320 km) is exerting its pressure on us But as
we go higher and higher we leave a blank portion behind us. Thus higher the place the
lower the pressure is.

Temperature

Hot air expands and lighter, thus hot air exerts less pressure. Cold air contracts and
heavier and exerts more pressure.

Water vapor

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Water vapor is lighter than air. Thus water vapor exerts less pressure while on other
hand air is heavier and exerts more pressure.

All material (whether hard like stone or soft like sand) of which the crust of the earth is
composed is called rock e.g. stone clay sand etc. There are three types of rocks those
are as follows:

a. Igneous rocks
b. Sedimentary rocks
c. Metamorphic rocks

a. Igneous rocks. Are those rocks which are formed by the cooling of molten
mater comes from the interior of the earth is called igneous rocks.

b. Sedimentary rocks. Are those rocks which are formed by the deposition of
sediment material brought by the winds and water are called Sedimentary rocks.

c. Metamorphic rocks. Are those rocks which are formed owing to extreme heat and
pressure in the interior of the earth.

Crust of the earth. The hard and solid portion of the earth is called crust of the earth.

The earth appears to be flattened but it is more of less spherical and round like a ball. It
is little pressed at poles and bulges out at equator.

Proofs:

Ships
Altitude of midday sun
Horizon
Sun rise time different

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 GEOGRAPHY

Cyclone
Cyclone, hurricane, typhoon—what's the difference? Nothing, really. Each is a powerful
tropical storm that can produce destructive winds of 150 miles per hour or more.

Meteorologists call all large areas of low pressure cyclones. Higher pressure air flows into low
pressure areas. If temperature, pressure and humidity are just so, these winds can spin into giant
monster storms.

What we call these storms depends upon where they are born. When the huge storms caused by
cyclonic winds begin above the warm tropical waters of the Caribbean Sea, they are called
hurricanes. If the storms begin above the tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean, they are called
typhoons. Tropical storms born in the Indian Ocean are called cyclones.

Tornadoes Monsoon storms can cause a great deal of wind and rain damage in Arizona. But the
most destructive wind of all belongs to the tornado. Arizona rarely gets real tornadoes.

Tornadoes usually occur under the jet stream. The jet stream is found high in the sky—at about
36,000 feet—which is where most jet planes fly. The jet stream is a powerful, fast-moving river
of air that is similar to the air current that blasts from your portable hair dryer. Inside this stream
air jets along at 150 to 200 miles per hour.

Air moving that fast can act like a big vacuum cleaner. It sucks up huge pockets of air from
ground level. Combine that force with the right proportions of heat and moisture and tornadoes
could result.

Tornadoes are also called twisters. That's because air from different directions gets sucked up at
the same time. When those currents bang together they can cause the air to twist at up to 310
miles per hour. That's faster than even the fastest Indianapolis 500 cars. No "Indy" car has yet
reached speeds of 250 miles per hour.

Monsoons A monsoon and a thunderstorm are not the same thing. The word monsoon actually
comes from an Arabic word which means season—in this case, the summer season.

Arizona's monsoon winds blow from the south during the summer months, bringing air loaded
with moisture from the Gulf of California and the Gulf of Mexico. Blend that moisture in exactly
the right proportions with heat and wind, and the result is a thunderstorm almost every time.

During the rest of the year, winds blow in to Arizona from the west and northwest. Those winds
cause different kinds of thunderstorms.

MicroburstsAlthough Arizona rarely gets twisters, it does get some microbursts. Microbursts
can be just as deadly as twisters.

Think of microbursts as air bombs. They're blasts of air that begin high up in the clouds and
explode straight down.

Microbursts form when raindrops become so heavy that they force the air they are falling
through to fall with them. That air can fall at speeds of 90 miles per hour. Air inside normal
storms falls at about 10 miles per hour.

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When micro bursts hit the ground, they pick up dust and shoot it out and up. The resulting blast
pattern looks similar to that which would be caused by an explosion.

Dust Devils Dust devils look like miniature tornadoes. They actually are very different. Tornado
winds begin high up in the clouds. Dust devils begin directly on the ground.

Dust devils occur when patches of ground get very hot. The hot ground causes air directly above
to heat up rapidly as well. The heated air then rises. Air currents flow into the bottom of the
rising column, bang together, and begin to spin.

The result is a whirling column of hot air that sucks up dust and dirt. Dust devils can grow
hundreds of feet tall.

The fastest dust devils spin at about 40 miles per hour. Not even close to tornado speeds.
Tornado winds spin at speeds up to 310 miles per hour.

Monsoon
What is a monsoon and how is it formed?

A monsoon is a wind pattern that reverses direction seasonally.  It is much unlike a storm or
cyclone in that it does not randomly form, nor would you say there's a monsoon coming, you
would say its monsoon season.  If you've ever been to a beach you may have noticed there is
often a breeze, that breeze is working on the same concept as a monsoon.

Monsoon seasons exist in a great many areas, but in hotter areas such as the southern states of
the United States, or India, monsoon season is more noticeable.  The process is as I said
seasonal.  In the summer the land near an ocean will heat up, this causes the air above that
ground to rise.  The result is a low pressure area; the air above the cooler ocean water is a higher
pressure area so that air is continually rushing to the low pressure area creating a constant wind. 
Since the air above the ocean can absorb a great amount of water if as it gets warmer it can bring
a great amount of rain to the land near it.  In the cooler months the land cools off, and the ocean
water retains some of its heat, the result is that there is a lower pressure area over the ocean than
there is over the land.  The breeze is still there in the cooler months but it is blowing out onto the
ocean and therefore does not bring any rain to the land.

The high winds formed by a monsoon can also cause tornados, and umbrellas to bend in ways
they shouldn't bend.

ROCKS AND MINERALS

Rocks are made of one or more minerals.

Minerals are natural, inorganic solids. (Inorganic = made from non-living

materials which do not have carbon) Each mineral is made of specific elements
and has a specific crystal structure. A mineral may be one element such as
copper (Cu) or gold (Au), or it may be a mixture of several elements. About 2,500
different minerals have been described.

There are three kinds of rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic.

Igneous Rocks

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Igneous rocks are made from lava or magma. Lava and magma are made of hot,
melted minerals. Lava is found on or near the Earth's surface. Magma is found far
beneath the Earth's surface.

Extrusive igneous rocks are made from lava that cooled quickly. Extrusive rocks
generally have either no crystals or very tiny crystals. Intrusive igneous rocks are
made from slow-cooling magma. Intrusive rocks have large crystals.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks: pumice, basalt, obsidian, scoria, rhyolite, andesite

Intrusive Igneous Rocks: granite, gabbro, and diorite

Sedimentary Rocks

On Earth's surface, wind, ice, and water can break rock into pieces. They can also
carry rock pieces to another place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments,
drop from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can be buried under other
layers of sediments. Sometimes, the sediments can even be made from seashells
and bodies of plants and animals. Fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. After a
long time the sediments can be cemented together to make sedimentary rock. In
this way, igneous rock can become sedimentary rock.

Detrital sedimentary rocks are made from broken pieces of other rocks.

Chemical sedimentary rocks

Organic sedimentary rocks are made from the bodies of dead animals or plants.

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks: sandstone, shale, siltstone, conglomerate, coal

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: chemical limestone, halite
Organic Sedimentary Rocks: fossil-rich limestone, coquina, coal

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are made from older rocks, either igneous or sedimentary.
These rocks are changed by great heat and/or pressure deep beneath the earth's
surface. The heat and pressure makes crystals in the rock. If the rock already has
crystals, the heat makes the crystals larger. Sometimes the pressure flattens the
crystals into layers.

With great heat and pressure, these rocks change to:

Granite, gneiss, shale, slate, slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, basalt, gneiss,
sandstone, quartzite, limestone, marble

Foliated metamorphic rocks have layers or bands of crystals. (slate, gneiss)

Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks do not have layers or bands of crystals. (marble,

quartzite)

St Lawrence Seaway

The St Lawrence Seaway is the common name for a system of canals that permits ocean-going
vessels to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes as far as Lake Superior. Legally it
extends from Montreal to Lake Erie, including the Welland Canal and the Great Lakes

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Waterway. The seaway is named after the Saint Lawrence River, which it follows from the
Atlantic Ocean to Lake Ontario.

Suez Canal
The Suez Canal (Arabic: ‫قناة السويس‬, transliteration: Qanā al-Suways), is a large artificial canal in
Egypt, west of the Sinai Peninsula. It is 163 km (101 miles) long and 300 m (984 ft) wide at its
narrowest point, and runs between Port Said (Būr Sa'īd) on the Mediterranean Sea, and Suez (al-
Suways) on the Red Sea.

The canal allows two-way water transportation, most importantly between Europe and Asia
without circumnavigation of Africa. Before its opening in 1869, goods were sometimes
offloaded from ships and carried over land between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.

The canal comprises two parts, north and south of the Great Bitter Lake, linking the
Mediterranean Sea to the Gulf of Suez on the Red Sea.

WINDS
AQUILON – Shakespearean name for the North Wind
BAGUIO – a hurricane
BERG – a hot, dry wind in S. Africa
BISE – a cold dry northerly wind mainly prevalent in Spring that occurs in
and near Switzerland, also BIZE
BORA – a violent cold North wind that blows from the mountains (usually in
the winter) towards the East coast of the Adriatic
BRICKFIELDER – a hot dry wind in Australia
BURAN – In central Asia a blizzard blowing from the North, or a summer
wind from the North that causes dust storms, also BURA
BUSTER – a sudden violent cold wind that blows on the SE coast of
Australia
CHILI – the sirocco in the region of Tunisia
CHINOOK – a warm dry wind that descends the eastern slopes of the Rocky
Mountains, also a warm moist southwest wind blowing on to the NW coast
of the U.S.A
CHUBASCO – a violent thunderstorm
EUROS – an alternative spelling of Eurus, the SE wind in Greek mythology
HARMATTAN – a dry dusty wind from the Sahara blowing towards the W.
African coast
GHIBLI – the name of the scirocco in Libya
GREGALE – a strong and cold wind that blows (usually in winter) from the
northeast in the western and central Mediterranean region. Believed to be
the Euroclydon wind that sank St. Paul’s ship
ETESIAN – NW winds that recur annually in the summer in the eastern part
of the Mediterranean Sea
EUROS – alternative spelling of Eurus, the SE wind in Greek mythology
FOHN – a hot dry wind that blows down Alpine valleys, also spelt FOEHN
HABOOB – a violent dust storm or sandstorm, especially in Sudan along the
southern edges of the Sahara

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KHAMSIN – the sirocco in Egypt, it is a hot southerly wind that usually
blows from about March to May.
Variants - KAMSIN, KHAMSEEN and KAMSEEN.
LEVANTER – a boisterous easterly wind in the West Mediterranean area that
often occurs in the summer
LIBECCIO – a strong westerly (or south westerly) that blows on to Corsica’s
western coast. Also LIBECCHIO
MISTRAL – a strong cold dry north-east wind that blows through the Rhone
valley towards the Mediterranean
NORTHER – in Southern United States, particularly Texas, a cold winter
wind that blows from the north
PAMPERO – a strong cold wind from the south or southwest that blows
across the pampas in South America
PUNA – a cold wind of the Andes, arguably the harshest of them all
SAMIEL – a hot sand-laden wind of the Arabian and North African deserts.
Also known as SIMOOM and SIMOON
SHAITAN –  a dust storm
SOLANO – a hot, dry south-easterly wind (often sand-laden) that brings
suffocating weather over the Andalusia Plain in N. Spain
SIROCCO – a hot, dry, dusty wind blowing from North Africa to the North
Mediterranean coastline. Also SCIROCCO
SOUTHER – a south gale
SUMATRA – a brief violent squall that emanates from Sumatra. It occurs in
or near the Straits of Malacca.
TRAMONTANA – a cold north wind in Italy
TWISTER – alternative name for a tornado
TYPHON – a whirlwind
WILLIWAW – a strong gust of cold wind blowing seawards from a
mountainous coast, as in the Straits of Magellan. Variants – WILLIWAU and
WILLYWAW
ZEPHYR – a soft or gentle breeze; the west wind
ZONDA – in Argentina, a hot, humid air that blows from the north across
the plains

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