Chapter 1

PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Background of the Study

The human life is dependent on water and so is the situation with all animal and

plant life on the planet. Not only do we need water to produce our food, generate our

power, and run our factories, but we also need water as an essential part of our everyday

lives, eloquently stated by Kumar (2015). Nevertheless, for many decades one billion

people in developing countries have not had a stable and safe water supply. Every year

more than 297,000 children under the age of five die from diarrhoeal diseases due to

contaminated drinking water (WHO/UNICEF 2019).

The World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that about 2.2 billion people

around the world lack access to healthy drinking water services. According to the fifth

ASEAN State Environmental Study, Indonesia, boasting the largest economy in

Southeast Asia, falls short behind other countries regarding access to clean drinking

water. Nearly 28 million Indonesians experience safe water scarcity. Kazakhstan is one

of the countries facing the most extreme water shortages on the Eurasian continent.

Water scarcity, as well as its poor quality, were described as significant issues

undermining the country's future prosperity (Bekturganov, Z. et al., 2016). Moreover, the

water supply distribution in Kazakhstan is subtly different in both urban and rural areas.

Approximately 90% of urban residents have access to secure drinking water resources,

although this is just 28% for rural areas. Rural areas, therefore, pose the greatest

obstacle in efforts to provide clean water for all (UNICEF and UN, 2018).

The Philippines is a richly populated country with rich natural resources

including surface and groundwater. It has a total internal water supply of approximately
130 cubic kilometer per year. Given the vastness of this potential supply, however, the

country has a low freshwater availability per capita and encounters water-related

problems (Lapong, 2015). Approximately 1 in 10 Philippine people already lack access to

safe drinking water. In 2016, acute watery diarrhea was among the top 10 leading death

row in the Philippines, taking more than 139,000 lives (WHO, 2019). The Metro Cebu

has recently experienced water shortages, the reasons for the lack of water supply involve

population boom, groundwater over-extraction, saltwater intrusion, groundwater nitrate

contamination and a moratorium on groundwater drilling, limiting Metro Cebu Water

District's (MCWD) water supply to 250,000 cubic meters per day which is only half of

the estimated daily demand of consumers for 500,000 cubic meters per day. It was

reported that in the last decade, the increase in population or households, companies,

and industries made it impossible for MCWD to meet the needs of the water supply

(Fajardo, 2019). Furthermore, in Davao Region, Davao City is experiencing water

scarcity despite the "development explosion," most people in the far-flung areas of Davao

City still complain about the unreliable, if not zero, water supply in their region. For

example, residents now experience frequent low water pressure at Barangay 21-C,

Poblacion, Davao City, particularly during early morning and holidays or weekends,

unlike five years ago when water supply was still abundant at any time of day (Alivio,

2019).

Braulio E. Dujali is a municipality located in the Davao del Norte coastal

province, it is a municipality that is starting to bloom and needs careful urban planning

that will benefit its community and the people. In the Census of Population 2015, only

325 out of 5,404 households have their faucet that is connected to the municipal water

supply system. Three out of ten households obtained water for cooking from peddlers,

and peddler was also the most common source of drinking water and about 65.6% of

household acquired from it (Amoyen, 2015).

 Anchored in the above-mentioned contexts, the researchers are interested in

conducting the study and design expansion of the water distribution system to develop

adequate water pressure at various points such as the faucet spout of the customer, and

in determining the distribution and its elevation concerning the position of the water

treatment plants, the height of water in each tank, and the concentration of a chemical

species throughout the network during a simulation period comprised of multiple time

steps. This will be achieved by using EPANET, a computer program that simulates

hydraulic and water quality actions over an extended time within pressurized pipe

networks.

Life’s most critical resource in this pandemic is the water. The researchers had

found the urgency to conduct this study in order to help the people living in Sitio Pawas,

Braulio E. Dujali, Davao del Norte in providing sufficient potable drinking water and

preventing serious health issues that is cause by contaminated water. Existing studies

have been performed on the improvement of a water distribution network, but they do

not consider and prioritize problems of major concern for water distribution systems.

Objective of the Study

The ultimate purpose of this study is to establish an optimal long-term expansion

design of the water distribution system at a minimum cost for the residents of Sitio

Pawas at Braulio E Dujali for a period of approximately 10 years.

To achieve the purpose of this research, the following objectives are established:

1. To determine the location and the number of households to both people that

are part and not part of the current water distribution system.

2. To gather significant data in order to determine the result of the hydraulic

network solver by using EPANET

2.1 Nodal demands

 2.2 From/To node information

2.3 Topographic elevations

2.4 Reservoir/Tank information

2.5 Assumed diameters

2.6 Water Source Availability

3. To map out the design of the new pipeline routes in the georeferenced space

using Quantum Geographic Information System (GIS).

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This portion of the study presents the literature and studies related to the water

distribution systems (WDS) design methodologies that mitigate and also adapt the WDS

to the effect of urbanization changes.

History of Water Distribution System

Everyone knows the importance of water in the daily lives of people, not just in

human beings but in all species on this planet. Through centuries clean water has been a

matter of human interest. It is indeed a fact that all major early civilizations found a

structured supply of water as an essential component of any new urban community.

Even amongst the oldest archeological evidence on the island of Crete in Greece, there

has been proof of the existence of water distribution systems as early as 3500 years ago.

Furthermore, in support of their claims, in Anatolia in Turkey, they also founded old

pipes which indicates that the water supply systems are approximately 3000 years old

(Mays, 2015).

In Rome, Italy, the remnants of possibly the most excellent and well documented

ancient water supply network exist. Sextus Julius Frontinus, is the water commissioner

of ancient Rome around the first century AD, describes in his papers nine aqueducts with

an overall length of over 420 km which transported water for ranges of up to 90 km to a

transmission network of water pipes ranging in size from 20 to 600 mm. These

aqueducts conveyed almost 1 million m3 of water each day, which would have provided

the 1.2 million population of ancient Rome to enjoy as much as an estimated 500 liters of

water for every person per day even after large losses along their routes. Nearly 2000

years later, one would expect the situation to have completely changed due to the

scientific and technological advances after the fall of the Roman Empire. Nonetheless,

many parts of the world still live under the conditions of water supply in which the

ancient Romans would have regarded as extremely primitive, and the worst-case

scenario is that there are still some places that do not have a water distribution system

(Tifunovic, 2016).

According to Adeosun (2015), supplying adequate water of adequate quality and

quantity was one of the most significant issues in human history. Many ancient

civilizations have started in the vicinity of water bodies. As populations expanded, the

challenge of meeting user demands also increased. People started bringing water from

other places to their neighborhoods. For example, the Romans built aqueducts to supply

water from distant sources to their communities. The water supply system today consists

of an infrastructure that gathers, processes, stores and distributes water between water

sources and consumers. Restricted new natural water supplies, particularly in the

southwestern region of the United States, and an increasingly rising population, have led

to the need for revolutionary methods to manage the water supply system. For instance,

reclaimed water has become an important water resource for drinking and non-portable

use. Structural additions, including modern conveyance systems and treatment and

recharging facilities and organizational decisions, such as the allocation of flow and the

implementation of sustainable practices, are made with current and future demands in

mind. With the introduction of new components and connections between sources and
users, the complexity of the water supply system and the difficulty in understanding how

the system can respond to changes are growing.

According to Chan et.al 2020, global development of freshwater is expanding as

availability becomes more volatile. Today, one in six people – more than one billion – do

not have adequate access to clean water. The United Nations estimates that by 2025, half

of the world's countries will experience scarcity or marked shortages. By 2050, the water

shortage could impact as much as three out of four people across the globe. 

Water problems are therefore especially acute in Asia. Although Asia is home to

more than half the world's population, it has less freshwater than any continent other

than Antarctica – 3,920 cubic meters per person per year. Approximately two thirds of

the global population growth is taking place in Asia, where the population is estimated to

increase by about 500 million people over the next 10 years. The rural population of Asia

will remain nearly the same by 2025, but the urban population is projected to increase by

60 per cent. Moreover, as population growth and urbanization rates are gradually

growing in Asia, the water supply pressure in the region is rising. Climate change is

expected to make the situation worse. Experts believe that decreased freshwater access

would result in a cascading range of effects, including diminished food supply, lack of

livelihood security, large-scale displacement inside and across borders, and intensified

economic and geopolitical uncertainty and volatility. Those consequences would have a

significant impact on the protection around the country over time (Chan et.al, 2020).

According to Connor (2015), unsustainable development pathways and policy

deficiencies have affected the efficiency and availability of water supplies, undermining

their capacity to produce social and economic benefits. Unless the balance between

demand and scarce resources is restored, demand for freshwater is increasing, the world

will face an increasingly severe global water deficit. Global water demand is primarily
driven by population growth, urbanization, food and energy conservation policies, and

macroeconomic forces such as trade globalization, shifting diets and rising usage by

2050, global water demand is expected to rise by 55 percent, mainly due to growing

demands from agriculture, thermal electricity production and domestic use. Competing

demands force hard allocation decisions and hinder market expansion.

According to Farwa Aamer and Jace White study in 2019, over the past few years,

global demand for fresh water supplies has drastically increased, especially in light of

rapid population growth and extensive urbanization around the globe. In addition, with

the impacts of climate change and supply shortage pressures gaining more momentum,

communities are being increasingly forced to pursue successful and viable alternatives to

their water woes. Water shortage has increasingly emerged within South Asia, one of the

most populous regions in the world and home to nearly 1.9 billion people, as a highly

important and contested issue. 

In addition, Asia is reportedly residences of 4.5 billion people, who make use of

around 65 percent of the world’s water resources. Around 30 percent of the Asian

population faces water scarcity now. In recent years, India and China have experienced

near double-digit GDP growth, along with a population boom. Many rivers basins are

still incapable of fulfilling the demands put on them (Tunnicliffe, 2018).

Human Right to Water

United Nations Development Program’s Human Development Report (2016)

states that “Human rights are the rights of all people, by their shared humanity, to live a

life of freedom and honor. They are universal, indivisible, and inalienable. Water comes

under the rubric of subsistence rights. Human beings cannot survive for very long

without a sufficient amount of water. A right to water must meet the basic needs for
which a person needs water; that is, people have the right to a quantity of water that will

help them to survive (McAdam, 2018).

Water plays a key role in society and serves multiple purposes, including

agricultural, industrial, and public health needs (Lamm & Carter, 2015). Water scarcity is

one of the most pressing problems today. The problem of water scarcity is not

temporary, the mechanism is further challenged by climate change, the global

population, and food production. The effect associated with water scarcity is significant,

including the negative impact of up to two-thirds of the world's population by 2045.

There’s a close correlation between agriculture and water scarcity. Agriculture is the

world's largest user of water, accounting for about 70% of withdrawals (Mancosu et al.,

2015). Recognizing the role of agriculture in the problem of water scarcity, interventions

such as education in sustainable approaches to water management are recommended

(Fales et al., 2016). In fact, research indicates that educational interventions are

successful in increasing the sustainability of water use activities (Suh, Khachatryan,

Rihn, & Dukes, 2017).

Access to clean water is important for sustaining human life and necessary for

maintaining a stable and dignified existence. A large portion of the world's population

lacks adequate access to safe water, contributing to a substantial global burden of disease

and water-related disease death. Lack of access to clean water has been related to 60% of

diseases in the world (Moyo, 2015).

Living on an island nation with multiple natural water resources did not

guarantee access to clean water for the 75% of the Philippine population that has low

socioeconomic status and live in rural villages called barangays (United Nations 2017).

However, global concern generated by the introduction of the United Nations (UN)

Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and a steady flow of financial support from the
World Bank at $638.1 million provides guidance and funding that led to the

development of important national legislation and the enactment of institutions to

respond to these and other community needs. Stronger institutions represent greater

opportunities for citizen engagement through community-driven development (CDD)

initiatives prompted by the UN. CDD is a platform for citizens to “make their own

decisions in identifying, developing, implementing, and monitoring development

initiatives based on their priorities” (United Nations, 2017).

The progression of moving policy decision-making process from global initiatives

to national initiatives began first with the UN establishing internal partnerships with

existing Philippine government institutions, such as the Department of Social Welfare

and Development and the National Statistical Coordination Board, providing community

access and local monitoring. The UN also had external development partnerships, such

as the Japan Social Development Social Fund and several governments, which were

instrumental in developing important internal mechanisms and metrics based on

monitoring the MDGS. These metrics establish empirical evidence for decision-making

with the long-term goals of a healthy environment and population. “The monitoring of

the MDGs taught us that data are an indispensable element of the development agenda,”

and that “what gets measured gets done” (United Nations, 2017).

Long-term Water Distribution System Design

The design of WDS has historically been focused on practice and trial and error to

satisfy the requirements. Since then, due to the vast number of potential design

combinations and the need to achieve the maximum efficiency for the investments made

in water supply facilities, WDS design optimization, service, etc. have been largely

investigated. In the past, numerous researchers and practitioners have researched the

issue of the optimal least-cost design of WDS. The majority of previous approaches
focused on developing systems so that the necessary amount of water can be supplied as

a specific objective to customers at sufficient pressure (constraint), in a reliable manner

and at least cost. The previous design strategies include all precautionary techniques, i.e.,

for all design changes conducted at the outset of the planning horizon designs and

phased designs. Although the staged designs obtained by the aforementioned

researchers are progressive and better than the fixed deterministic (precautionary)

designs because of their staged design implementation over the planning period

according to the respective design stage requirements, they are still susceptible to poor

performance under uncertainty (Ainger et al., 2016).

The environmental output of WDS is increasingly being viewed and measured. In

the sense of environmental issues, the main contemporary indicator is that of

greenhouse gas emissions. Several environmental results of WDS have been analyzed,

such as energy density, operating energy, life-cycle energy review, greenhouse gases,

environmental impact index (Ghimire and Barkdoll, 2017). These evaluations can

facilitate climate change mitigation but have not been considered simultaneously with

WDS hydraulic performance in design. Concerning demineralized water, proposed

locally optimized rainwater harvesting systems to include a water distribution network to

pumps energy-saving approach in mountainous areas, and the results revealed that

harvesting rainwater becomes economically efficient when both energy and water

savings are approached together.

Some researchers have also acknowledged uncertainty in WDS designs where

nodal demand, pipe roughness coefficient, and part failure are the most prominent

sources of uncertainty. In all the earlier methods, the potential water demand variability

was only tackled actively by building in additional system redundancy (robustness) by

suitably constructed system configurations that are established (most of them not
staged) over some pre-specified long-term planning horizon. The above studies did not

establish versatility in WDS designs nor did they suggest managing uncertainty with DM.

In engineering system design uncertainty can also be controlled by managing it with DM

and creating design flexibility. Researchers have recently started to create versatility in

the preparation of engineering systems and WDS designs (Huang et al., 2010). To a

greater degree, the implementation of methodologies for versatile WDS designs that

consider long-term management also needs to be explored.

Water distribution systems continue to work on the basis of simplified

assumptions and rigid-static analysis. As a result, the systems are not evaluated under

different conditions that can be experienced during their operating life and under

different scenarios of water demand. This typically results in troubling failures to satisfy

the actual demand during the service of the device in real life circumstances. Continuous

efforts should be made to drastically reduce waste/abuse, contamination and systems

operational cost through optimization, analysis and design. Several popular optimization

and assessment techniques can be used to analyze a water distribution system. These

methods may include several stochastic and metaheuristic methods (Elsevier, 2020).

Savic et al. (2018) stated in their research that Tuttle was responsible for the first

work in the late 1890s that presented standard pipe sizes in WDSs using standard flow

across pipes. Expansively, Tuttle formulated a theory of knowledge that stated that

reducing pipe sizes and pipe-related costs consequently increase head losses and the

required pressure. In addition, he modeled an equation representing the annual WDS

costs along with the initial cost of investment, installation, operation, and maintenance,

and equated the derivative of the equation to zero, reducing the pipe diameter and

measured flow.
 Water is primarily used domestically for drinking, cooking, bathing, and cleaning

purposes, secondly for industrial use in energy production and manufacturing, and third

for irrigation in agriculture. Optimization is applied in several systems and

circumstances, making it an important technology paradigm. We either minimize

(resource consumption, price) or maximize (profit, system performance) when we try to

optimize. In fact, money, time, and resources are typically short; optimization is

therefore highly paramount in operation (Yang & Koziel, 2019).

A list of research works that applied different metaheuristics to WDS

optimization has been reviewed by (Mala-Jetmarova et al., 2017), some of which include:

genetic algorithms, harmony search, simulated annealing, cuckoo-search algorithm,

shuffled complex evolution, optimization of particle swarm, scatter search, immune

algorithm, memetic algorithm, optimization of honey bee mating, the algorithm of

discrete state transition, differential evolution, mine blast algorithm, and evolutionary

algorithm.

A review of water distribution optimization found that formal research on the

optimization of WDSs began around half a century before work in this area was

published. In the early 1970s, few studies which reviewed optimization of water

distribution systems were published and more and more works were reviewed with novel

ideas applied as time passed. The succeeding section addresses the gap by reviewing the

early publications to date (O.M. Awe et al., 2019).

Furthermore, integrated water supply management is essential for the

optimization of hydraulic systems in developing nations such as Nigeria. A water delivery

system connects consumers through hydraulic components such as pipes, tanks and

reservoirs to water sources. When pipelines have been built, land-use developers

correctly push for the lowest construction cost along the pipeline path. As a result, while
these services respond to development initially, the latter are an engine for urban and

rural expansion. Distribution network is an integral aspect of all water delivery schemes

and, in any major water supply scheme, the contribution amounts to more than 60

percent of the project’s over all contribution. Proposed methodology for storage

optimization to cross the difference between conventional engineering experience and

the mathematical requirements needed by genetic algorithms. The key variable used for

optimization was restricted to tank simulation only, while other critical variables and

components representing water delivery systems exist (Ovebode, 2018). 

According to Agboka et. al, 2019, that the water delivery system must provide the

consumers with water at the appropriate flow and pressure and consistency. Usually,

pressures in a water delivery system vary from around 20 to 70 m. This pressure scale is

a general model that can originally be used to measure the pressures in the service field.

An improved logistics network is required to provide the consumers with productive

supplies. Juja water supply distribution system in central Kenya under Riuru Juja Water

and Sewerage Company (RUJWASCO) is a looped distribution system but has water at

consumer points, not at the required pressure and flow rate. The basis for designing a

delivery network is based on the theory of cost and was the focus of numerous studies

using mathematical and technical instruments. To overcome the complexities of a

distributed network, software development based on the mathematical algorithm is

commonly used. The Environmental Protection Agency Network (EPANET) has been

used by the researches for the study of hydraulic and qualitative activity modeling in

pressurized zones in a water distribution system over a single or prolonged duration.

EPANET can also analyze the water quality levels in the delivery system.

Urbanization and Demographics

 Future water sources ought to be able to cope with unpredictable shifts in water

demand and supply due to the adverse effects of local and global developments that may

include a rise in population concentration in urban centers and the associated economic

growth per capita. Rapid urbanization has already triggered extreme water shortages and

dramatic disputes between supply and water demand. The American Water Works

Association Research Foundation listed U.S. population growth and demographic

changes as one of the top ten global factors that will change the drinking water industry's

operations over the next 20 years (Buchberger et al., 2008).

According to the case study of Omarova et.al (2019) that the goal of water

availability in rural areas is a big challenge for all countries, not just the low and middle-

income economies. The pledge to "leave no one behind" needs to concentrate on rural

areas, which is typically ignored. Approximately 844 million people on Earth actually

have no access to sufficient water supplies and 79% are rural residents. Around the same

time, 2.1 billion people do not have a healthy control of the drinking water supply

operation. That means that 14.9 percent of the urban population and 45.2 percent of the

rural population require quality facilities. To satisfy physiological and hygienic needs, a

person requires 50 to 100 liters of water per day. Therefore, people with a maximum 20

liters per capita per day would be subject to a high degree of health problems. Typically,

rural residents live in poorer economic conditions than urban residents and this impacts

the rate of water use. 

Despite the general demands to switch from public water fixing to improving

water systems, and to change from centralized to local water planning, detailed analyzes

of village drinking water facilities have been limited and preparation at regional level

remains underdeveloped. (Sangameswaran, 2014; Schouten & Smits, 2015; Hutching

et.al, 2017).
 Bao and Fang (2007) suggested that whenever the population, economic and

urban scale reaches or exceeds the capacity-bearing water resources or the usage of

water resources reaches or exceeds the natural water supply threshold, water

management systems drastically decrease down the growth of socio-economic

structures, including the urbanization phase. In addition, where water supplies are

limited, there is also the greater water supply constraint strength.

Rapid urbanization and an exponential rise in demand for water are some of the

problems that the 6th sustainable development objective aims to solve, and these

challenges involve increasingly efficient water delivery systems. WDSs are structures that

typically include interconnecting modules such as pumps, pipes, valves, pumps,

reservoirs and tanks, and are the result of the joint efforts of engineers and scientists

around the world. The reliability of WDS depends on the configuration, design, pressure

and flow of the system components. The running costs of the water delivery system can

be greater than or equal to 60% of the overall cost of the system as a whole (Elsevier,

2020).

In rural southern India, groundwater is pumped from deep bore wells into

overhead tanks and supplied to villages at least once a day by subterranean or surface

water pipes. Despite the piped supply of drinking water in most southern Indian villages,

the quality of drinking water is still poor. Multiple studies have shown fecal drinking

waste in rural and urban areas of Vellore, the likelihood of inadequate construction and

maintenance of water supply systems, inadequate water treatment and extended

household storage. Additional chlorination and solar disinfection have shown progress in

mitigating fecal emissions in drinking water at the point of use; nevertheless, low

implementation of these steps has resulted only in limited health benefits. (Francis et.al,

2016).
Flexible Planning Methods

To keep up with the water service regulations, the design of WDS is required.

However, the scope of the design needs to be done to provide consumers with sufficient

water into the uncertain future. Given the consequences such as of rapid urbanization,

the WDS parameters (e.g. water demand) are highly uncertain in the future (Kapelan et

at.,2017).

It is important that uncertainty is recognized in the design parameters for WDS.

Studies have shown clearly that neglecting ambiguity in the design phase can lead to

WDS design becoming bad. Uncertainty occurs because of mistakes in calculations or

failure to accurately predict future parameter states (Babayan, 2018). The nodal

requirement, pipe roughness coefficient, and part failure are among the most prominent

sources of uncertainty studied by WDS research groups. Researchers have formulated

and solved robust WDS design issues over the years under uncertainty order to allow the

system to deal with uncertainty. One way to achieve robustness is to build redundancy in

the WDS. Kapelan et al. (2017) focused on robustness and risk-based solutions to a

multi-objective WDS issue of redesign under uncertainty in water demand. In all

previous approaches, the potential demand volatility has only been approached passively

by creating additional device capacity through a suitably designed and traditional

intervention strategy that is set within a certain pre-specified long-term planning period.

The importance of consideration of uncertainty increases as we take a longer-term view,

i.e. in the sense of the dynamics of climate and urbanization. As De Neufville (2015) has

pointed out, alternate ways exist to address potential uncertainty more proactively by

establishing and retaining flexibility in engineering design and/or demand management

control. Flexibility in WDSs has been seen as the degree and ease with which the systems

are able to cope with eventualities for which they were not planned. In other words,
versatility in WDSs has so far centered more on the capacity of the structures to cope

with uncertainty without potential future interventions (change from external ones).

Recently, Huang (2011) introduced the Flexibility Index, which is described as

the weighted sum of decreasing (improving) pressure deficiency under each load

condition on the worst node of WDS. The improvement of the pressure deficiency is

based on the pressure deficiency before and after the application of the flexibility source

(intervention).

The necessity for a continuous water supply system with less head loss and high

pressure, a good indication of the form of soil and pressure in the pipes is appropriate for

EPANET (Kalubarme et al., 2015). According to the study by Ramana et al. (2015), in

order to ensure the availability of a good quality of water to be distributed to the different

parts of the population, the residual head at each node is analyzed using EPANET for the

design of complex pipe networks.

Data mining algorithms can be used for various purposes in the management of

the water delivery system. Commonly used data mining techniques (DMTs) in WDS

research include artificial neural networks (ANNs), genetic algorithms (GAs),

probabilistic and evidence-based reasoning, and fuzzy strategies. With regards to models

that predict pipeline failure rates, artificial neural networks (ANNs) seem to be

performing better than statistical methods. However, as ANNs is a black-box method, it’s

not helpful in establishing specific relationships between the variable concerned. GAs

can be utilized for optimization of system design, operational decisions, and

maintenance plans. Fuzzy based techniques were used for pipe condition assessment and

failure risk assessment (Al-Zahrani et al., 2016).

Design of Water Distribution System

 A water distribution network must be designed so that, at sufficient pressure, it

can supply the desired amount of water to the consumers. The design involves specifying

the sizes of different distribution network elements and checking that network's

adequacy. Significant efforts have been made to develop approaches to solving optimal

water distribution systems design. (May, 2016).

There is a wide body of literature on pipe network design optimization,

discussing the use of classical optimization approaches. These approaches were used,

often at the expense of the optimization models' substantial simplifications. One of the

earliest methods of optimization, in 1977, Alperovitz and Shamir proposed the linear

programming gradient method.

Fujiwara and Silva (2019) proposed a heuristic method for obtaining a design of a

water distribution network with given reliability at the least cost. First, the approach

decides an optimal design without reliability consideration. It then assesses the

efficiency of the network architecture. Then an iterative feedback technique is used

which improved the reliability with a slight cost increase.

Nonlinear programming methodology was used as an optimization method to

solve the problem of water distribution networks design optimization, in which the

diameter is taken as a continuous variable. Geem (2016) provided a cost minimization

model for the design of water distribution networks using the Harmony Search (HS)

algorithm. The model is applied to five water distribution networks and the findings have

shown that the Harmony Quest model is ideal for designing water networks.

According to Kumar et al. (2015) in their study about water distribution system

using EPANET. EPANET can help assess alternative management methods to improve

water quality in a system and to tracks the water flow in each pipe, the pressure at each

node, the water height in each tank, and the concentration of a chemical species
throughout the network over a simulation period consisting of multiple time steps. The

research builds the respective distribution system by using EPANET which is by filling in

the data about the number of nodes, demand, elevation, tanks, and pipes in it. They

concluded that with the help of EPANET they successfully design a water distribution

system.

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2017) with EPANET, in

an extended period of time, users can simulate hydraulic and water quality actions

within pressurized pipe networks, consisting of pipes, nodes, pumps, valves, storage

tanks, and reservoirs. EPANET’s user interface provides a visual network editor that

simplifies the process of building network pipe models and editing their properties and

data. Different data monitoring and visualization tools are used to help visualize the

effects of network analysis, including color-coded network charts, data tables, energy

consumption, reaction, calibration, time-series graphs, and profile and contour plots.

A great deal of effort has been made to establish a water management system for

safe water supply. However, the complexity of the method restricted the site-specific

application at the first age. As water demands are growing stresses on the current water

supply system, a number of studies have attempted to establish a general water supply

system to help decision-makers design more efficient systems over a long period of time.

These attempts also require optimization of overall system construction and operating

costs. In the context of situations such as pipeline maintenance, non-revenue water,

advanced metering infrastructure, the ultimate aim of this paper is to ensure that water

delivery system problems are addressed and that water supplies are delivered to

consumers in a more reliable and timely manner as a long-term strategy.

According to Christodoulou (2018) Water delivery systems are wide and complex

networks planned and developed to meet the needs of urban water supply. For the best
and most simplified management of the networks. Water supply networks should be

divided into parts, called "District Metered Areas." These areas can be identified as

sections of the network containing separate regional water meters as well as one entry

point and one exit point. Therefore, there should be no large altitude variations within

DMAs, particularly in gravity-based networks. In cases where this is inevitable, pressure

valves could be used to maintain continuous pressure through the DMA.

In order to ensure that an adequate quantity of good water quality to the various

section of the community in accordance with the demand. Several computer tools have

been developed, with EPANET being the most popular and convenient of all available

tools for the efficient design of complex pipe networks (Ramana et al., 2015).

EPANET is a public domain modeling software package for water distribution

systems developed by the Water Supply and Water Management Division of the United

States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). EPANET is a computer program that

performs extended time simulation within pressurized pipe networks of hydraulic and

water quality behavior. EPANET offers hydraulic analysis that can handle systems of any

size. EPANET tracks the flow of water in each pipe, the pressure at each node, the height

of the water in each tank, and the concentration of chemical organisms throughout the

network. Running under Windows, EPANET offers an advanced, environment for

editing network input data, running simulations of hydraulic and water quality, and

showing the results in a variety of formats. This includes the network maps with color-

coding, data tables, time-series graphs, and contour plots. As a set of links connected to

nodes, EPANET models a water delivery system. The links represent pipes, pumps, and

control valves. Junctions, tanks, and reservoirs are defined by the nodes (Waikhom and

Mehta, 2015).

Water Demand Management

 With water supplies depleting and increasing demand for water due to changes in

the environment and urbanization, the focus should be shifted to controlling demand for

the available resource. Changes in climate and urbanization pose challenges in WDS

performance to meet the regulatory requirements for its intended service. Therefore, the

need to incorporate DM strategies into WDS' design and long-term planning to mitigate

the impact associated with changes in climate and urbanization is evident (Abdulla,

2016).

Inadequacy of water delivery systems to meet demand and pressure is typically

the result of a rise in population, primarily due to rapid urbanization. Another concern is

the leakage and destruction of pipelines due to bursts. High pressure and flow also lead

to bursting, loss of water, decreased water quality, high maintenance costs, poor system

design as a result of systems being constructed as a continuous system based on a steady

supply assumption. But then again, the supply of water is not constant but intermittent.

Weak device design and configuration make WDSs susceptible to error due to incorrect

assumptions, inadequate data and error in input calculation. The related high levels of

pollution are a serious problem caused by intermittent supplies, bursts and leaks. This is

achieved in networks where supply outage times are prolonged due to negligible or null

system stresses and regular system disturbances. (Elsevier, 2020).

Worldwide water management schemes have been studied and implemented

(Memon, 2016), and certain initiatives are known to save electricity, reduce wastewater

and related costs, i.e. , water supply construction and treatment plants (Fidar et al.,

2015). Water DM based on water-efficient devices is seen as a way to reduce water use

without necessarily changing user behavior (Fidar et al., 2010). In addition, water-

efficient products are known to offer significant water-saving potential at the point of use

(Butler and Memon, 2006). However, it is very difficult to determine future savings and
user acceptability. This is because potential savings can be affected by adoption (e.g.,

replacement time, patterns, technology acceptability, other developments and barriers),

the proportion of total water uses by the individual product, rebound effects, and usage

trends (Memon, 2016).

The gathered related literature and studies made the researchers grasp about the

problem of water scarcity not just in Philippines but also in the whole world despite how

large is the economy of a country. However, by understanding the problem and the

process of water distribution system, the researchers know how to design a safe WDS

that will provide sufficient potable water to the community.

Conceptual Paradigm of the Study

A conceptual model is used to give a clearer picture of the subject under

investigation. The whole process of this study was planned and outlined from the

diagram given (see Figure 1). The diagram will be understood from top to bottom

starting from the identification of the households that are not part of the existing water

distribution network. Next, is the computation of how much volume of water are needed

enough to be distributed. The third one is to test the flow of water using the EPANET

software, this is where the movement and fate of drinking water constituents within

distribution systems will be understand. The results in the EPANET will be mapped-out

using Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS).

 DETERMINE AND CALCULATE THE WATER
DEMAND OF THE PROJECT

TRACKING AND GEOTAGGING WATER

TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION PIPELINES AND
FACILITIES

DRAWING THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

EXPANSION OF SITIO PAWAS

ANALYZE THE HYDRAULIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE

PIPE TRANSMISSION LINES AND ITS FACILITIES
USING EPANET

CREATE MAPS OF THE STUDY USING QUANTUM

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
SYSTEM (QGIS)

Figure 1.1 The Conceptual Paradigm of the Study

Significance of the Study

This study provides information that will benefit the community with insufficient

supply of potable water and also provides design on expansion of water distribution

system to develop adequate water pressure that will sustain the needs of water in every

household.

National and Local Government Unit. This research will provide information

for government agencies that are tasked in the development of water distribution system

to provide clean and safe water to the community.

Civil Engineers. This study will benefit engineers in enhancing the designs of

water distribution system in the country.

Municipality of Braulio E. Dujali. The output of this study will benefit the

residents like those living in Sitio Pawas, Braulio E. Dujali Davao del Norte which most

of the households lacks access to the water supply provided by the municipality.

St. Mary’s College of Tagum, Inc. The researchers are taking their bachelor’s

degree in Civil Engineering in this institution. This study will help the school to provide

information that will support and improve the quality of future studies. Also, it will

increase the school’s popularity since the study itself is unique.

Future Investigators and Researchers. This study will benefit the future

investigators and researchers in providing them data and information to support and

develop their studies in the future. Furthermore, this study will give them ideas that will

enhance their knowledge in some things that is related in other fields of engineering.
Definition of Terms

The following terms used in this study are conceptually and operationally defined

for clarity purposes.

Water Supply System. Networks whose edges and nodes are pressure pipes

and either pipe junctions, water sources or end-users, respectively. Their function is to

provide end-users with potable water with a sufficient pressure level. A WSS can be

decomposed into hierarchically arranged tiers. The first layer collects all pipes in the

main distribution which (within urban areas) follow the main roads and convey the main

water flow. This is usually designed with a redundant grid-like topology to ensure

reliable connection of the sub-components. The latter follows lower-order roads and

have a more vulnerable tree-like topology (but are made of more easily repairable

smaller diameter pipes and serve smaller demands, thus limiting the impact of service

interruption).

Sumps. According to Akvopedia (2015), a sump is an underground (or partially

underground) tank that is popular in India. It is usually used for large water tank storage

and can be built cheaply using cement-like materials. It is usually part of a rainwater

harvesting system, where the rainwater gets channeled into the tank, then pumped out

for use.

Elevated Tank. According to Hocine Hammoum, Drifa Slimani, in Handbook of

Materials Failure Analysis with Case Studies from the Chemicals, Concrete and Power

Industries, (2016) is constituted by the set of resistive elements ensuring its rigidity and

stability to the horizontal forces caused by the earthquake. It constitutes one of the most

important aspects of seismic design. The classification of this parameter is defined taking

into account the capacity of energy dissipation to the seismic action and deformation.

For this, there is currently interest to equip tanks with a regular structural mesh in order
to avoid twisting of bracing elements. The tank studied is installed on a supporting

system of pilings which is a structure that has a low rigidity distribution of mass and

stiffness that changes from abrupt manner.

Pumping station. Main pumping stations, which supply water to the

distribution system, are located near the water treatment facility or a potable water

storage facility, and pump directly into the piping system. Pumps that pump directly into

transmission lines and distribution systems are sometimes called high lift pumps.

Booster pumps are additional pumps used to increase pressure locally or temporarily.

Booster pumps stations are usually remotely located from the main pump station, as in

hilly topography where high-pressure zones are required, or to handle peak flows in a

distribution system that can otherwise handle the normal flow requirements (Guyer,

2015).

Groundwater. It is used for drinking water by more than 50 percent of the

people in the United States, including almost everyone who lives in rural areas. The

largest use for groundwater is to irrigate crops. The area where water fills the aquifer is

called the saturated zone (or saturation zone). The top of this zone is called the water

table. The water table may be located only a foot below the ground’s surface or it can sit

hundreds of feet down.

EPANET. is a software application used throughout the world to model water

distribution systems. It was developed as a tool for understanding the movement and

fate of drinking water constituents within distribution systems, and can be used for

many different types of applications in distribution systems analysis. Today, engineers

and consultants use EPANET to design and size new water infrastructure, retrofit

existing aging infrastructure, optimize operations of tanks and pumps, reduce energy

usage, investigate water quality problems, and prepare for emergencies. It can also be
used to model contamination threats and evaluate resilience to security threats or

natural disasters.

Pipelines. According to Scott a water pipe is any pipe or tube designed to

transport drinking water to consumers. If the water is treated before distribution or at

the point of use (POU) depends on the context. In well planned and designed water

distribution networks, water is generally treated before distribution and sometimes also

chlorinated, in order to prevent recontamination on the way to the end user. The

varieties of water pipes include large diameter main pipes, which supply entire towns,

smaller branch lines that supply a street or group of buildings, or small diameter pipes

located within individual buildings. Water pipes can range in size from giant mains of up

to 3.65 m in diameter to small 12.7 mm pipes used to feed individual outlets within a

building. Materials commonly used to construct water pipes include polyvinyl chloride

(PVC), cast iron, copper, steel and in older systems concrete or fired clay. Joining

individual water pipe lengths to make up extended runs is possible with flange, nipple,

compression or soldered joints.

Hydraulic Network Solver. It is an analysis of fluid flow through a hydraulic

network, comprising many or more interconnected branches. The goal is to evaluate the

flow rates and the pressure drops in the individual parts of the network.