Química de Materiales

TEMA 1: J. F.
Shackelford, Introducción a la Ciencia de Materiales para Ingenieros

The evolution of engineering materials with time. Note the highly nonlinear scale. (From M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design,
2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1999.)
Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers, Seventh Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
James F. Shackelford All rights reserved.
TIPOS DE MATERIALES

TEMA 1: J. F. Shackelford, Introducción a la Ciencia de Materiales para Ingenieros The Golden Gate Bridge north of San Francisco,
California, is one of the most famous and most beautiful examples of a steel bridge. (Courtesy of Dr. Michael Meier.)

Periodic table of the elements. Those elements that are inherently metallic in nature are shown in color.
(se consideran materiales metálicos también las aleaciones)

Some common ceramics for traditional engineering applications. These miscellaneous parts with characteristic
resistance to damage by high temperatures and corrosive environments are used in a variety of furnaces and chemical
processing systems. (Courtesy of Duramic Products, Inc.)
Diferencias Al vs. Al2O3

- Resistencia química
- Punto de fusión 660/2020ºC
- Fragilidad limita aplicaciones estructurales
- Cerámicas estructurales Si3N4

Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers, Seventh Edition
TEMA 1: J. F. Shackelford, Introducción a la Ciencia de Materiales para Upper
Ingenieros
Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Figure 1.6 High-temperature sodium vapor lamp made possible by use of a translucent Al2O3 cylinder for containing
the sodium vapor. (Note that the Al2O3 cylinder is inside the exterior glass envelope.) (Courtesy of General Electric
Company.)
Cerámica transparente
Composición-estructura-propiedades-aplicaciones

Ingenieros
Periodic table with ceramic compounds indicated by a combination of one or more metallic elements (in light color) with
one or more nonmetallic elements (in dark color). Note that elements silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are included with
the metals in this figure but were not included in the periodic table shown in Figure 1.4. They are included here
because, in elemental form, Si and Ge behave as semiconductors (Figure 1.16). Elemental tin (Sn) can be either a
metal or a semiconductor, depending on its crystalline structure.

Ingenieros
Schematic comparison of the atomic-scale structure of (a) a ceramic (crystalline) and (b) a glass (noncrystalline). The
open circles represent a nonmetallic atom, and the solid black circles represent a metal atom.

Figure 1.12 Periodic table with the elements associated with commercial polymers in color.

Periodic table with the elemental semiconductors in dark color and those elements that form semiconducting
compounds in light color. The semiconducting compounds are composed of pairs of elements from columns III and V
(e.g., GaAs) or from columns II and VI (e.g., CdS).

Ingenieros
Figure 1.19 Schematic illustration of the integral relationship among materials, the processing of those materials, and
engineering design. (From G. E. Dieter, in ASM Handbook, Vol. 20: Materials Selection and Design, ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1997, p. 243.)

Chapter 2
Atomic Bonding
Enlace primario: electrones se transfieren o comparten (iónico,
metálico, covalente). Tipos de enlace----categorías de materiales
Enlace secundario: dipolos temporales o permanentes,

atracciones menos intensas-Van der Waals

Schematic of the planetary model of a C12 atom. 1s22s22p2
1 mol contiene 1 Número de Avogadro de átomos

que pesan una masa atómica expresada en gramos
Protón:
1.66 x 10-24 g.
1.6 x 10-19 C.
Electrón:
9.1 x 10-28 g.
1.6 x 10-19 C.

Periodic table of the elements indicating atomic number and atomic mass (in amu).

La identidad química de un elemento la determina el núcleo,
pero en el enlace intervienen los electrones que se ubican en orbitales electrónicos
Niveles energéticos específicos no prohibidos.

p Orbitals

p Orbitals

d Orbitals

Orbital Energies

Orbital Filling

Energy-level diagram for the orbital electrons in a C12 atom. Notice the sign convention. An attractive energy is
negative. The 1s electrons are closer to the nucleus (see Figure 2.1) and more strongly bound (binding energy =
−283.9 eV). The outer orbital electrons have a binding energy of only −6.5 eV. The zero level of binding energy
corresponds to an electron completely removed from the attractive potential of the nucleus.
En el enlace intervienen
los electrones que se ubican en orbitales electrónicos
Niveles energéticos específicos no prohibidos.

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

Ionic bonding
between sodium and chlorine atoms. Electron transfer from Na to Cl creates a cation (Na+) and an
anion (Cl−). The ionic bond is due to the coulombic attraction between the ions of opposite charge.
: configuraciones electrónicas estables
1s2 2s22p63s23p5
1s2 2s22p63s1 [Ne] 3s23p5
[Ne] 3s1
1s2 2s22p63s23p6
1s2 2s22p6 [Ne] 3s23p6 = [Ar]
[Ne] anión
catión

Regular stacking of Na+ and Cl− ions in solid NaCl, which is indicative of the nondirectional nature of
ionic bonding.
Apilación sistemática
Maximiza iones de carga
Contraria que rodean uno dado

Plot of the coulombic force (Equation 2.1) for a Na+–Cl− pair.
Fc =-K/a2
¿distancia de enlace = 0?
La fuerza de enlace debe contemplar
algo más…

Net bonding force curve for a Na+−Cl− pair showing an equilibrium bond length of a0 = 0.28 nm.
FR
• repulsión interelectrónica
• acercamiento núcleos
• compresión y tracción requieren
Fuerza externa

Comparison of the bonding force curve and the bonding energy curve for a Na+−Cl− pair. Since F = dE/da, the
equilibrium bond length (a0) occurs where F = 0 and E is a minimum
Las posiciones estables de los iones corresponden a mínimos de energía

Comparison of (a) a planetary model of a Na+−Cl− pair with (b) a hard-sphere model and (c) a soft-sphere model.
A efectos prácticos es válido el modelo de

esferas rígidas y la distancia de equilibrio se considera
Igual a la suma de los radios iónicos

Formation of an ionic bond between sodium and chlorine in which the effect of ionization on atomic radius is illustrated.
The cation (Na+) becomes smaller than the neutral atom (Na), while the anion (Cl−) becomes larger than the neutral
atom (Cl).

The largest number of ions of radius R that can coordinate an atom of radius r is 3 when the radius ratio r/R = 0.2.
(Note: The instability for CN = 4 can be reduced, but not eliminated, by allowing a three-dimensional, rather than a
coplanar, stacking of the larger ions.)
NÚMERO DE COORDINACIÓN: número de iones adyacentes que rodean a un ión de referencia

Depende de los tamaños relativos o relación de radios

The minimum radius ratio, r/R, that can produce threefold coordination is 0.155.

The covalent bond
in a molecule of chlorine gas, Cl2, is illustrated with (a) a planetary model compared
with (b) the actual electron density, (c) an electron-dot schematic, and (d) a bondline schematic.
Compartición de electrones
de valencia (orbitales externos)
Altamente direccional

(a) An ethylene molecule (C2H4) is compared with (b) a polyethylene molecule that results from the
conversion of the C=C double bond into two C–C single bonds.

Two-dimensional schematic representation of the “spaghetti-like” structure of solid polyethylene.
Entre cadenas vecinas enlaces débiles (secundarios)

Baja resistencia y temperatura de trabajo en polímeros tradicionales

Three-dimensional structure of bonding in the covalent solid, carbon (diamond). Each carbon atom (C) has four
covalent bonds to four other carbon atoms. (This geometry can be compared with the diamond-cubic structure shown in
Figure 3.20.) In this illustration, the bond-line schematic of covalent bonding is given a perspective view to emphasize
the spatial arrangement of bonded carbon atoms.
Menores nº c.
Predicho en relación
de radios

The tetrahedron represented as a cluster of ions. In fact, the Si–O bond exhibits both ionic and covalent
character.
Concordancia nº C
Predicho por r/R
0.039/0.132 = 0.295

The general shape of the bond-energy curve and associated terminology apply to covalent as well as ionic bonding.
(The same is true of metallic and secondary bonding.)

Tetrahedral configuration of covalent bonds with carbon. The bond angle is 109.5°. Naturaleza direccional

Metallic bond
consisting of an electron cloud, or gas. An imaginary slice is shown through the front
face of the crystal structure of copper, revealing Cu2+ ion cores bonded by the delocalized
valence electrons.
Enlace no direccional
Electrones compartidos
Máximo empaquetamiento
Cálculo de nº C, angulos y
Distancias.

Fuerza enlace relativa de los sólidos

The electronegativities of the elements. (From Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of
Molecules and Crystals; An Introduction to Modern Structural Chemistry, 3rd ed., Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY,
1960.)
Capacidad de un átomo para atraer electrones hacia sí

El enlace depende de transferencia/compartición

Enlace secundario o de Van der Waals
No hay transferencia de electrones

Sí distribución asimétrica de cargas
Development of induced dipoles in adjacent argon atoms leading to a weak, secondary bond. The degree of charge
distortion shown here is greatly exaggerated. La asimetría de carga es transitioria –dipolo temporal
Situaciones poco probables pero no imposibles

Hydrogen bridge. This secondary bond is formed between two permanent dipoles in adjacent water molecules. (From
W. G. Moffatt, G. W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1: Structures, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1964.)
Dipolo permanente
Moléculas polares

Puntos de fusión-comparación de energías de enlace relativas

Tetrahedron representing the relative contribution of different bond types to the five fundamental categories of
engineering materials (the four structural types plus semiconductors).

Parámetros o constantes de red
¿cómo pueden agruparse los átomos en una celda unidad?-puntos reticulares

PARÁMETROS DE INTERÉS EN UNA CELDA UNIDAD
Nº átomos = 8x1/8 +1 = 2
2 ⋅ 4 π ⋅ R3
fo = 3
Nº Coordinación = 8 l3
Número de átomos por celda unidad
Distinguir compartidos y propios
N
ú
m
e
r
o
d
e
á
t
o
m
o
s
2 ⋅ 4 π ⋅ R3
fo = 3
l3
4r = l√3 4r = l√2
Reglas básicas para describir la geometría de una celda unidad
POSICIONES: Fracciones de las dimensiones de la celda unidad

Notation for lattice directions. Note that parallel [uvw] directions (e.g.,
[111]) share the same notation because only the origin is shifted.
Ángulo entre direcciones con el producto

escalar de dos vectores (S. cúbico)
Densidad lineal
Notation for lattice planes. (a) The (210) plane illustrates Miller indices
(hkl). (b) Additional examples.
Densidad planar
• Sólidos Metálicos.-
F.O = 74%
F.O = 74%
F.O = 68%
ESTRUCTURAS CERÁMICAS-iónicas
Óxidos y sulfuros de metales de transición en estado de oxidación +2

¿?SiO2 UO2
ÓXIDOS MIXTOS
MgAl2O4
Alvarez, A. V., JimÃ©nez, M. E. R., Laredo, B. L. (2008, February 25). Cerámicas y vidrios.
Retrieved October 04, 2011, from OCW UC3M Web site: http://ocw.uc3m.es/ciencia-e-oin/ceramicas-y-vidrios.
ESTRUCTURAS CERÁMICAS-covalentes
Empaquetamiento compacto de poliedros
(semiconductores) •Grafito (capas lub.)

•C60, fullereno
•Cn, esferas, tubos
Blenda de Zn
(a) An exploded view of the graphite (C) unit cell. (From F. H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics, 2nd ed.,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, MA, 1974.) (b) A schematic of the nature of graphite’s
layered structure. (From W. D. Kingery, H. K. Bowen, and D. R. Uhlmann, Introduction to Ceramics,
2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY, 1976.)
Más cerámico que metálico/ enlaces direccionales/lubricante seco

(a) C60 molecule, or buckyball. (b) Cylindrical array of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms,
or buckytube. (Courtesy of Accelrys, Inc.)
SiO44−
Arrangement of polymeric chains in the unit cell of polyethylene. The dark spheres are
carbon atoms, and the light spheres are hydrogen atoms. The unit-cell dimensions are
0.255 nm × 0.494 nm × 0.741 nm. (Courtesy of Accelrys, Inc.)
POLÍMEROS
Largas moléculas con bajo grado de cristalinidad y estructuras complejas en celda unidad
¿Conocer celda unidad = conocer el material?
Weaving-like pattern of folded polymeric chains that occurs in thin crystal platelets of
polyethylene. (From D. J. Williams, Polymer Science and Engineering, Prentice Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971.)
Semiconductores: máxima perfección y una única estructura en elementos
y compuestos tipo III-V y tipo II-VI (blenda de Zn, ZnS)
Chapter 4
Crystal Defects and

Noncrystalline Structure–
Imperfection
No se pueden obtener materiales sin imperfecciones químicas
que alteran la regularidad de la estructura ideal. Se habla de disolución sólida
Por otra parte tenemos los defectos estructurales.
Forming a liquid solution of water and alcohol. Mixing occurs on the molecular scale.

Solid solution of nickel in copper shown along a (100) plane. This is a substitutional solid solution with nickel atoms
substituting for copper atoms on fcc atom sites.
Dis. Sol. Sustitucional

Reglas Hume-Rothery:
- Diferencia radios<15% Disolución sólida:
-Misma estructura Imperfección química
- Electronegatividad similar
-Misma valencia
Ordering of the solid solution in the AuCu3 alloy system. (a) Above ~390°C, there is a random distribution of the Au and
Cu atoms among the fcc sites. (b) Below ~390°C, the Au atoms preferentially occupy the corner positions in the unit
cell, giving a simple cubic Bravais lattice. (From B. D. Cullity and S. R. Stock, Elements of X-Ray Diffraction, 3rd ed.,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2001.)
Transiciones orden/desorden con tratamiento térmico adecuado: distintas propiedades

Interstitial solid solution of carbon in α-iron. The carbon atom is small enough to fit with some strain in the interstice (or
opening) among adjacent Fe atoms in this structure of importance to the steel industry. [This unit-cell structure can be
compared with that shown in Figure 3.4b.]
DISOLUCIÓN SÓLIDA INTERSTICIAL: FASE DOMINANTE EN ACEROS

Soluble < 1% deformación local de la estructura

Random, substitutional solid solution of NiO in MgO. The O2− arrangement is unaffected. The substitution occurs
among Ni2+ and Mg2+ ions.
También en compuestos: Reglas + neutralidad de carga

A substitutional solid solution of Al2O3 in MgO is not as simple as the case of NiO in MgO (Figure 4.5). The requirement
of charge neutrality in the overall compound permits only two Al3+ ions to fill every threeMg2+ vacant sites, leaving
oneMg2+ vacancy.

Iron oxide, Fe1−xO with x ≈ 0.05, is an example of a nonstoichiometric compound. Similar to the case of Figure 4.6, both
Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions occupy the cation sites, with one Fe2+ vacancy occurring for every two Fe3+ ions present.
FeO estructura ideal NaCl no se encuentra en la naturaleza

Two common point defects in metal or elemental semiconductor structures are the vacancy and the interstitial.
DEFECTOS ESTRUCTURALES
Defectos puntuales
Independientes de
Impurezas químicas

Two common point defect structures in compound structures are the Schottky defect and the Frenkel defect. Note their
similarity to the structures shown in Figure 4.8.
Defectos puntuales: vacantes intrínsecas creadas por vibración térmica
ln(ndef/nposiciones) = lnC –Ev/k(1/T)

Typical Arrhenius plot of data compared with Equation 5.2. The slope equals −Q/R, and the intercept (at 1/T = 0) is ln
C.
Procesos térmicamente activados

Difusividad elementos en aleaciones
Conductividad eléctrica en S.C.
Velocidad = Ce-Q/RT
ln(velocidad) = lnC –Q/R(1/T)
Q = energía activación.
Barrera energética que ha de ser
Superada mediante activación térmica
Característica
Del mecanismo del proceso

(a) The overall thermal expansion (ΔL/L) of aluminum is measurably greater than the lattice parameter expansion
(Δa/a) at high temperatures because vacancies are produced by thermal agitation. (b) A semilog (Arrhenius-type) plot
of ln (vacancy concentration) versus 1/T based on the data of part (a). The slope of the plot (−Ev/k) indicates that 0.76
eV of energy is required to create a single vacancy in the aluminum crystal structure. (From P. G. Shewmon, Diffusion
in Solids, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1963.)
ln(ndef/nposiciones) = lnC –Ev/k(1/T)
PRODUCCIÓN TÉRMICA DE VACANTES EN ALUMINIO

Atomic migration occurs by a mechanism of vacancy migration. Note that the overall direction of material flow (the
atom) is opposite to the direction of vacancy flow.
Difusión
Alta c---baja c
Posible gracias a
Existencia defectos

Diffusion by an interstitialcy mechanism illustrating the random-walk nature of atomic migration.
Difusión
Movimiento
alesatorio
Recubrimientos por difusión en metales

Saturación de materiales con gases
(carburación: endurecer superficies
acero)
Materiales como membranas de
Purificación de gases

The interdiffusion of materials A and B. Although any given A or B atom is equally likely to “walk” in any random
direction (see Figure 5.6), the concentration gradients of the two materials can result in a net flow of A atoms into the B
material, and vice versa. (From W. D. Kingery, H. K. Bowen, and D. R. Uhlmann, Introduction to Ceramics, 2nd ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1976.)

Geometry of Fick’s first law (Equation 5.8).
Flujo o velocidad de difusión debido

A un gradiente de concentración
D = coeficiente difusión

Solution to Fick’s second law (Equation 5.10) for the case of a semi-infinite solid, constant surface
concentration of the diffusing species cs , initial bulk concentration c0, and a constant diffusion coefficient, D.
El gradiente de concentración en un punto cambia con t
dCx/dt = D d2Cx/dx2

Master plot summarizing all of the diffusion results of Figure 5.10 on a single curve.
Permite calcular el tiempo necesario para tener una saturación relativa del sólido
Saturation curves similar to that shown in Figure 5.11 for various geometries. The parameter cm is the average
concentration of diffusing species within the sample. Again, the surface concentration, cs , and diffusion coefficient, D,
are assumed to be constant. (From W. D. Kingery, H. K. Bowen, and D. R. Uhlmann, Introduction to
Ceramics, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1976.)

Arrhenius plot of the diffusivity of carbon in α-iron over a range of temperatures. Note also related Figures 4.4 and 5.6
and other metallic diffusion data in Figure 5.14.

Arrhenius plot of diffusivity data for a number of metallic systems. (From L. H. Van Vlack, Elements of Materials
Science and Engineering, 4th ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, MA, 1980.)

Arrhenius plot of diffusivity data for a number of nonmetallic systems. (From P. Kofstad, Nonstoichiometry, Diffusion,
and Electrical Conductivity in Binary Metal Oxides, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY, 1972; and S. M. Hu in Atomic Diffusion
in Semiconductors, D. Shaw, Ed., Plenum Press, New York, 1973.)

Solution to Fick’s second law (Equation 5.10) for the case of a solid of thickness x0, constant surface concentrations of
the diffusing species ch and cl , and a constant diffusion coefficient D. For long times (e.g., t3), the linear concentration
profile is an example of steady-state diffusion.

Schematic of sample configurations in gas environments that lead, after a long time, to the diffusion
profiles representative of (a) nonsteady state diffusion (Figure 5.10) and (b) steady-state diffusion (Figure 5.16).

Self-diffusion coefficients for silver depend on the diffusion path. In general, diffusivity is greater through less-restrictive
structural regions. (From J. H. Brophy, R. M. Rose, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 2:
Thermodynamics of Structure, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1964.)

Schematic illustration of how a coating of impurity B can penetrate more deeply into grain boundaries and even further
along a free surface of polycrystalline A, consistent with the relative values of diffusion coefficients (Dvolume < Dgrain
boundary < Dsurface).

Edge dislocation. The linear defect is represented by the edge of an extra half-plane of atoms. (From A. G. Guy,
Elements of Physical Metallurgy, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, MA, 1959.)
Defectos lineales:
Dislocaciones asociadas a
Deformación mecánica
Dislocación de borde
o de arista: semiplano extra de
átomos

Definition of the Burgers vector, b, relative to an edge dislocation. (a) In the perfect crystal, an m× n atomic step loop
closes at the starting point. (b) In the region of a dislocation, the same loop does not close, and the closure vector (b)
represents the magnitude of the structural defect. For the edge dislocation, the Burgers vector is perpendicular to the
dislocation line.
Defectos lineales:
dislocaciones

Screw dislocation. The spiral stacking of crystal planes leads to the Burgers vector being parallel to the dislocation line.
Dislocación helicoidal: apilamiento

Defectos lineales: En espiral de planos
dislocaciones

Mixed dislocation. This dislocation has both edge and screw character with a single Burgers vector consistent with the
pure edge and pure screw regions.
Defectos lineales:
dislocaciones

A twin boundary separates two crystalline regions that are, structurally, mirror images of each other.
Defectos de superficie: maclas. Separan dos regiones imagen especular
Se puede producir por deformación o recocido

Simple view of the surface of a crystalline material.
Defectos de superficie. Los átomos aquí son ligeramente diferentes

A more detailed model of the elaborate ledgelike structure of the surface of a crystalline material. Each cube represents
a single atom. [From J. P. Hirth and G. M. Pound, J. Chem. Phys. 26, 1216 (1957).]

Typical optical micrograph of a grain structure, 100×. The material is a low-carbon steel. The grain boundaries have
been lightly etched with a chemical solution so that they reflect light differently from the polished grains, thereby giving a
distinctive contrast. (From Metals Handbook, 8th ed., Vol. 7: Atlas of Microstructures of Industrial Alloys, American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1972.)
Defectos de superficie:
Frontera/borde de grano (cristal)
Salvo S.C. materiales policristalinos
Estructura granular marca

Propiedades.
Depende de orientación de granos
contiguos

Simple grain-boundary structure. This is termed a tilt boundary because it is formed when two adjacent crystalline
grains are tilted relative to each other by a few degrees (θ). The resulting structure is equivalent to isolated edge
dislocations separated by the distance b/θ, where b is the length of the Burgers vector, b. (From W. T. Read,
Dislocations in Crystals, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1953. Reprinted with permission of the McGraw-Hill
Book Company.)
Ángulo pequeño: configuradas por dislocaciones

de arista. Modelo extrapolable a ángulos grandes

Specimen for the calculation of the grain-size number, G, 100×. The material is a low-carbon steel similar to that shown
in Figure 4.18. (From Metals Handbook, 8th ed., Vol. 7: Atlas of Microstructures of Industrial Alloys, American Society
for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1972.)
Importtante al describir estructuras

N = 2G-1
G: índice de tamaño de grano
N: número de granos en 1 in2
1in=645mm

Two-dimensional schematics give a comparison of (a) a crystalline oxide and (b) a noncrystalline oxide. The
noncrystalline material retains short-range order (the triangularly coordinated building block), but loses long-range order
(crystallinity). This illustration was also used to define glass in Chapter 1 (Figure 1.8).
Sólidos no cristalinos: imperfecciones tridimensionales

A chemical impurity such as Na+ is a glass modifier, breaking up the random network and leaving nonbridging oxygen
ions. [From B. E. Warren, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 24, 256 (1941).]

Schematic illustration of medium-range ordering in a CaO–SiO2 glass. Edge-sharing CaO6 octahedra have been
identified by neutron-diffraction experiments. [From P. H. Gaskell et al., Nature 350, 675 (1991).]


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TEMA 1: J. F.

Shackelford, Introducción a la Ciencia de Materiales para Ingenieros

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Diferencias Al vs. Al2O3

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Enlace secundario: dipolos temporales o permanentes,

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1 mol contiene 1 Número de Avogadro de átomos

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Las posiciones estables de los iones corresponden a mínimos de energía

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A efectos prácticos es válido el modelo de

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Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

NÚMERO DE COORDINACIÓN: número de iones adyacentes que rodean a un ión de referencia

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Entre cadenas vecinas enlaces débiles (secundarios)

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Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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Capacidad de un átomo para atraer electrones hacia sí

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

No hay transferencia de electrones

Situaciones poco probables pero no imposibles

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

¿cómo pueden agruparse los átomos en una celda unidad?-puntos reticulares

POSICIONES: Fracciones de las dimensiones de la celda unidad

Ángulo entre direcciones con el producto

Óxidos y sulfuros de metales de transición en estado de oxidación +2

Empaquetamiento compacto de poliedros

(semiconductores) •Grafito (capas lub.)