Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85
DOI 10.1007/s00410-011-0659-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Decoding near-concordant U–Pb zircon ages spanning several
hundred million years: recrystallisation, metamictisation
or diffusion?
J. A. Halpin • N. R. Daczko • L. A. Milan •
G. L. Clarke
Received: 27 November 2010 / Accepted: 25 May 2011 / Published online: 14 June 2011
Ó Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract In situ isotopic (U–Pb, Lu–Hf) and trace ele-
ment analyses of zircon populations in six samples of the
intrusive Mawson Charnockite, east Antarctica, emphasise
complex zircon behaviour during very high-grade meta-
morphism. The combination of geochemical data sets is
used to distinguish xenocrysts and identify a population of
primary igneous zircon in situations where U–Pb data
spread close to concordia over a few hundred Myr. The
population is filtered to exclude grains with: (1) U–Pb ages
[2% discordant, (2) anomalous trace element-content (Th,
U, Y, REE) and (3) outlying Hf-isotopic values. Rare
metamorphic-type grains were also excluded. Upon filter-
ing the population, minimum emplacement ages for each
sample were determined using the oldest grain(s). This
approach improves upon age determinations in complex
data sets that use weighted mean or isochron methods. Our
results suggest that the Mawson Charnockite was emplaced
Communicated by T. L. Grove.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this
article (doi:10.1007/s00410-011-0659-7) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.
J. A. Halpin (&)
ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits,
University of Tasmania, Private Bag 126, Hobart,
TAS 7001, Australia
e-mail: jahalpin@utas.edu.au
J. A. Halpin  N. R. Daczko  L. A. Milan
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
GEMOC ARC National Key Centre, Macquarie University,
Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
G. L. Clarke
School of Geosciences, The University of Sydney,
Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
episodically at c. 1145–1140 Ma, c. 1080–1050 Ma and
c. 985–960 Ma. Core-outer core-rim and core-rim textures
were identified but are not correlated with U–Pb ages. We
establish that recrystallisation (mainly of zircon rims) must
have occurred shortly following igneous crystallisation and
that metamictisation/cracking is a Paleozoic to Recent
event. Therefore, intra-zircon diffusion in a high-T, high-
strain environment during Meso-Neoproterozoic orogene-
sis is inferred to have caused the extensive U–Pb isotopic
disturbance. Charnockitic magmatism prior to c. 1,000 Ma
has not previously been recorded in the Mawson region and
indicates that orogenesis may have commenced c. 150 Myr
earlier than previously thought. Correlations with similar
aged rocks in adjacent regions have implications for
supercontinent reconstructions.
Keywords Rayner Orogen  Mawson Charnockite 
East Antarctica  Hf-isotopes  Trace elements  Pb-loss 
Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometer
Introduction
Regional high-grade metamorphism may promote zircon
growth, the modification/recrystallisation of older zircon or
a combination of the two processes (e.g. Hoskin and
Schaltegger 2003). Geochronological studies of zircon in
orogenic belts now make use of an array of techniques to
decode zircon genesis including microstructural charac-
terisation via BSE and CL imaging (Corfu et al. 2003;
Hanchar and Rudnick 1995; Rubatto and Gebauer 2000)
and trace element patterns in zircon and co-existing silicate
minerals (Kelly and Harley 2005; Rubatto 2002; White-
house and Platt 2003). In addition, combined in situ U–Pb
123
68
and Lu–Hf analysis of zircon domains have the potential to
decipher the crustal growth history of complex terranes
(Scherer et al. 2007). Multiple studies now show that the
initial 176Hf/177Hf value, once incorporated into the zircon
lattice during growth, is not modified by processes that may
disturb or reset the U–Pb isotopic system (e.g. Kinny et al.
1991; Kinny and Maas 2003; Patchett 1983) and that this
holds true even in high-grade metamorphic terranes (Ger-
des and Zeh 2009; Halpin et al. 2005).
End-members of zircon U–Pb age datasets range from
the common situation of a limited concordant Gaussian
distribution interpreted as a single population, through an
array spread along discordia reflecting an isotopically dis-
turbed population, to a series of random ages distributed
along concordia. The first case is usually interpreted to
reflect a geologically significant event, such as crystalli-
sation, metamorphism or a maximum deposition age. A
systematically discordant population is commonly inter-
preted in terms of variable Pb-loss during a second event.
However, concordant igneous zircon U–Pb age data spread
across several hundred million years are not easily inter-
preted (Mezger and Krogstad 1997). Some high-grade
terranes, such as the Rayner Complex in east Antarctica,
present zircon populations involving the third case (Halpin
et al. 2005; Kelly et al. 2002; Kelly et al. 2004). In this
paper, we analyse a series of random near-concordant ages
that reflect the effects of two or more geological events, by
exploring the crystallisation age and isotopic disturbance of
the Mawson Charnockite, a [3,000 km2 composite pluton.
Our approach integrates: (1) Backscattered Electron (BSE)
and cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging; (2) trace element
analysis and (3) Hf isotopic analysis, via Laser Ablation-
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-IC-
PMS) to resolve complexity in the U–Pb zircon data.
Imaging methods reveal a wide variety of growth, re-
crystallisation and/or structural modification textures in
zircon (Corfu et al. 2003). However, similar textures may
form via different processes; e.g. distinction between tex-
tures formed during the final stages of magmatic crystalli-
sation (dissolution/precipitation) compared to those formed
during later metamorphism or fluid ingress is not always
straightforward. The decoupling of U–Pb and Lu–Hf sys-
tematics in zircon is particularly useful in the interpretation
of age data smeared along concordia (Bomparola et al.
2007; Halpin et al. 2005). In contrast, though trace element
content may also define chemically distinct zircon popula-
tions (Rubatto 2002), the expulsion of non-essential cations
(e.g. Th, Y, LREE, MREE) can accompany Pb-loss during
recrystallisation (Hoskin and Black 2000; Hoskin and
Schaltegger 2003; Schaltegger et al. 1999).
For this study, we analysed five charnockitic gneiss
samples and one gabbroic gneiss sample of the Mawson
Charnockite composite pluton (Fig. 1). Our integrated
123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85
methodology allows for the zircon growth and modification
history in these rocks to be unraveled and ‘conservative’
constraints to be placed on protolith emplacement ages.
This methodology is broadly applicable to refining geo-
chronology and terrane evolution where protracted and
repeated tectonothermal events have occurred. Our results
point to a reevaluation of the Grenvillian terrane definition
in east Antarctica.
Regional geology of the Mawson Coast
Geological setting, petrography and metamorphism
Geological mapping by Crohn (1959), McLeod (1964) and
McCarthy and Trail (1964), Trail et al. (1967) and Trail
(1970) divided the rocks of the Mawson Coast, MacRob-
ertson Land (between 60°E and 66°530 E; Fig. 1) into a large
orthopyroxene-bearing orthogneiss body, the Mawson
Charnockite ([3,000 km2 and possibly even [5,000 km2)
and older paragneiss and felsic orthogneiss units. The rocks
are part of the Proterozoic Rayner Complex (Kamenev
1972), which extends from MacRobertson through Kemp
and Enderby lands (Fig. 1). This belt records a protracted
c. 1,000–900 Ma tectonothermal event (Black et al. 1987;
Dunkley et al. 2002; Grew et al. 1988; Kelly et al. 2002;
Sheraton et al. 1987; Young and Black 1991) correlated with
c. 1,000–950 Ma events in the central and northern Eastern
Ghats Belt (EGB) in India (Aftalion et al. 1988; Grew and
Manton 1986; Mezger and Cosca 1999; Paul et al. 1990;
Shaw et al. 1997). The orogeny is commonly interpreted as
reflecting convergence between part of the Antarctic craton
with proto-India (Harley 2003). The significance of the
event(s) in assembly of the Rodinian supercontinent is con-
troversial (Fitzsimons 2000a, b; Yoshida 1995) largely
because of complexity in the geochronological datasets.
Intensely foliated paragneiss and orthogneiss bodies
occur as xenoliths within the Mawson Charnockite; a
composite S1–S2 gneissosity is cut by charnockite contacts
(Clarke 1988; Clarke et al. 1989; Dunkley et al. 2002;
White and Clarke 1993). Post-emplacement deformation
(D3–D4) resulted in open to tight, upright folding of S1 and
S2 and recrystallised mineral assemblages in the char-
nockite. Metapelitic gneiss from the Forbes Glacier and
Cape Bruce (Fig. 1) records evidence for an anticlockwise
P–T-t path involving peak T & 850–920°C and P & 5.4–
6.2 kbar (Halpin et al. 2007). Emplacement of the char-
nockite is interpreted to have accompanied or immediately
followed peak metamorphic conditions and accompanied
crustal thickening to P & 6.0–6.8 kbar followed by near-
isobaric cooling (Halpin et al. 2007).
The Mawson Charnockite is a composite body; composi-
tions are dominantly intermediate (SiO2 from *54–68 wt%;
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85 69

Mawson Charnockite
(c) 61°0'E Mawson Charnockite 62°0'E 63°0'E
(LM01, this study) 64°0'E
(RW28, this study)
Cape Bruce Mawson area/Framnes Mts 2.12-1.94 Ga (THf(c)DM)
2.19-2.01 Ga (THf(c)DM) c.2.1 Ga; Mawson Charnockite (THf(c)DM)5
1.90-1.71 Ga (THfDM) 1.91-1.71 Ga (THfDM)
2.17-2.04 Ga; Mawson Charnockite (TNdDM)1, 6 c.1 145 Ma (U-Pb)
Chapman Ridge c.1080 Ma (U-Pb) 1.87-1.79 Ga; Mawson Charnockite (THfDM)5

zone
RW28 Ufs Island c.2.0-1.7 Ga felsic gneiss xenolith (U-Pb inherited ages)2
Macey Island
1254±13, 1153±47 Ma; banded gneiss (Rb-Sr whole rock)2

one
z644 982±33 Ma; Mawson Charnockite (U-Pb)5 LM01

tern
tral z
Falla Bluff c.970-910 Ma; metapelite (U-Th-Pb mnz)4

Wes
z542 921±19 Ma; felsic gneiss xenolith (U-Pb)2

Cen
67°30'S
67°30'S
Holme Macklin Island
Bay LM12
Mawson Charnockite
Austskjera
Cape Bruce/Ufs Is/Falla Bluff Mawson (LM12, this study) LM11
1.98-1.80 Ga; Mawson Charnockite (TNdDM)1 2.36-2.08 Ga (THf(c)DM)
Mawson Charnockite
LM53 (LM11, this study)
992±10 Ma; bi-opx dyke (U-Pb)3 Mawson Charnockite 1.74-1.63 Ga (THfDM)
985±29, 954±12 Ma; Mawson Charnockite (U-Pb)2 (LM53, this study) 90030 c.1050 Ma (U-Pb) 2.16-1.94 Ga (THf(c)DM)
c. 930-915 Ma; metapelite (U-Th-Pb mnz)4 2.52-1.90 Ga (THf(c)DM) 1.88-1.76 Ga (THfDM)
c. 910 Ma; paragneiss, charnockitic gneiss c.1 140 Ma (U-Pb)

one
1.95-1.76 Ga (THfDM)

zone
granitic gneiss, pegmatite (U-Pb)3 c.985 Ma (U-Pb)

tral z
Mawson eastern &

tern
NS
(b) nPCM western zone

Cen
1.98 - 1.89 Ga (TNdDM)1

Eas
NTAI
Study area

Mawson Charnockite 45°W 0° 45°E

MOU
(LF60, this study)
Kemp Hf(c)
c.2.06-2.02 Ga (T DM) Study
Enderby Land c.1.76-1.74 Ga (THfDM)
Land MacRobertson area
957±6 Ma (U-Pb)

NES
Land
ben

Rayner Complex Mt Horden 90°W 90°E

FRAM
Gra

ca.1000 - 900 Ma LF60

Archaen Napier Complex
bert
Lam

reworked Napier Complex 0 20 40

ca.940 - 900 Ma
km (a)
135°W 180° 135°E

Fig. 1 a Location of the study area in east Antarctica. b Distribution
of the Napier and Rayner complexes in Enderby, Kemp and
MacRobertson lands. c Regional diagram summarising sample
locations and relevant previously published geochronological data
for MacRobertson Land within the Rayner Complex. Samples z644
and z542 are from Young and Black (1991) and Young et al. (1997),
sample 90030 is from Halpin et al. (2005) and the remaining samples
are from this study. Dating methods: U–Pb, zircon U–Pb age; U–Th–
Pb mnz, monazite U–Th–Pb chemical age; Rb–Sr, whole-rock Rb–Sr
HfðcÞ
isochron age; THfDM , zircon Hf model age; TDM zircon Hf model
crustal average age (using a crustal average value; see Halpin et al.
2005 and this study); TNd DM , whole-rock Nd model age. Geochrono-
logical references: 1Young et al. (1997); 2Young and Black (1991);
3
Dunkley et al. (2002); 4Halpin et al. (2007); 5Halpin et al. (2005);
6
Black et al. (1987) and this study

Sheraton and Black 1983; Sheraton and Black 1988; Young felsic gneiss xenolith at Mawson Station have a complex
and Ellis 1991; Young et al. 1997) and range from quartz age spectrum: cores give c. 1,040–2,460 Ma concordant
monzodiorite through granodiorite to granite, with minor ages, with a chord reflecting Pb-loss at c. 1,000–900 Ma
gabbro (Young et al. 1997). Exposures are mostly foliated (Young and Black 1991). Data cluster between 1,700 and
dark brown to orange-brown (when highly weathered), 2,000 Ma, but a few concordant analyses at 1,300–
medium- to coarse-grained gneiss with or without K-feldspar 1,400 Ma mean that a protolith age is poorly defined.
megacrysts. They typically comprise K-feldspar, orthopy- Zircon rims and young grains in the xenolith yield a U–Pb
roxene, plagioclase, quartz and biotite, and accessory age of 921 ± 19 Ma interpreted to date effects of recrys-
zircon, apatite, ilmenite and magnetite, with or without tallisation during D3 (Young and Black 1991). Chemical
garnet or clinopyroxene. High crystallisation temperatures U–Th–Pb dating of monazite from metapelitic gneiss
interpreted for orthopyroxene-bearing granitoids (Frost and (Halpin et al. 2007) and ion-microprobe U–Pb zircon dat-
Frost 2008) are supported by feldspar geothermometry ing from both pre-D1 and pre/syn-D4 intrusives (Dunkley
(950–1,000°C; Young and Ellis 1991). Retrograde biotite et al. 2002) from Forbes Glacier and Cape Bruce (Fig. 1)
and hornblende are common. suggest that the D1-D4 events occurred between c. 990 and
910 Ma and cannot be individually resolved. It is likely
Previous geochronology and isotopic studies that progressive deformation was accompanied by a con-
tinuous protracted high-grade metamorphic evolution over
Paragneiss c. 80 Myrs (Halpin et al. 2007).

The age of hosts to the Mawson Charnockite is poorly Mawson Charnockite

constrained (Fig. 1). Rb–Sr whole-rock isochrons that yield
ages between c. 1,150–1,250 Ma (Tingey 1982; Young and Early studies of the age of charnockite at Mawson Station
Black 1991) probably represent at least partial metamor- were via multi-grain U–Pb zircon and whole-rock Rb–Sr
phic overprints of a protolith age. Zircon grains from a isochrons (P. A. Arriens unpublished data, see Young and

123
70
Black 1991; Black et al. 1987) and yielded ages between
c. 890 and 960 Ma. An ion-microprobe study of two
charnockite samples from the Mawson Coast by Young and
Black (1991) yielded statistically indistinguishable ages of
985 ± 29 Ma and 954 ± 12 Ma (Fig. 1). A recent study of
charnockite from Mawson Station via LA-ICPMS sug-
gested a minimum emplacement age of c. 980 Ma (Fig. 1),
but the smear of much of the data along concordia was
taken as evidence for complex U–Pb isotopic disturbance,
or a mix of inherited zircon and U–Pb isotopic resetting
and zircon growth/recrystallisation (Halpin et al. 2005).
Hf-isotopic data for zircon grains from charnockite at
Mawson Station yield Hf-depleted mantle model ages
(THf
DM ) between 1.79 and 1.87 Ga and a ‘crustal’ model age
of 2.1 Ga (where Lu/Hf = 0.01; Fig. 1) and have been
interpreted as evidence for a lower crustal source, possibly
without the addition of more primitive mantle components
(Halpin et al. 2005). A similar Nd-depleted mantle model
age (TNd
DM ) of 2.18 Ga was derived by Black et al. (1987)
for charnockite from this location.
A detailed study of Sr–Nd isotopic composition of
charnockite and host rocks across the Mawson region was
undertaken by Young et al. (1997). A large range of initial
87
Sr/86Sr ratios (0.7076–0.7334), initial eNd values (-4.0 to
-11.1) and Nd-depleted mantle model ages (TNd
DM ;
1.6–2.2 Ga) were derived for charnockite, comparable to
that from host gneisses (Young et al. 1997). Regional
variations were used to define three zones (the eastern,
central and western zones; Fig. 1). Central zone char-
nockite has higher 87Sr/86Sr values (0.7205–0.7334), lower
eNd values (-8.8 to -11.1) and older Nd-depleted mantle
model ages (TNd DM ; 2.03–2.16 Ga) than that from the wes-
tern and eastern zones (0.7076–0.7263; -4.0 to -8.4;
1.68–1.96 Ga). The geochemical and isotopic constraints
derived by these workers, together with similar data from
the northern Prince Charles Mountains to the south (i.e.
inland) of the Mawson Coast (Zhao et al. 1997), were
interpreted as evidence for charnockite magma generation
from the high temperature anatexis of dry, Proterozoic
granulitic crust. Regional variation in isotopic composition
of both charnockite and basement gneisses was interpreted
to reflect distinct crustal domains in the MacRobertson
Land region.
Analytical procedures
Sample selection, preparation and imaging
Five charnockitic rocks and a gabbroic rock were collected
for analysis from across the Mawson region as represen-
tative of the three zones (Fig. 1) as defined by Young et al.
(1997). Whole-rock XRF analysis was performed at the
123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85
University of New South Wales, Sydney (Supplementary
Material 1). Zircon grains were separated from 1–2 kg of
each sample using conventional heavy liquids and mag-
netic separation techniques at GeoTrack, Melbourne. Zir-
con grains representing the spectrum of morphological
types were hand-picked from a heavy mineral separate,
mounted in epoxy resin discs and polished so as just to
expose the central portions of the grains. Individual zircons
were analysed for a suite of elements (Zr, Si, Hf and Y)
using a CAMEBAX SX50 electron microprobe (EMP) at
the ARC National Key Centre for the Geochemical Evo-
lution and Metallogeny of Continents (GEMOC), Mac-
quarie University, Sydney. Operating conditions for the
EMP were 15 kV accelerating voltage and a beam current
of 20 nA.
BSE and CL images reveal internal structure and
zonation and were captured to provide a guide for targeted
analyses such that analyses of ‘mixed’ zircon domain types
were avoided. Zircon grains were imaged by BSE on the
EMP at GEMOC while CL imaging was performed on a
FEI Quanta 600 scanning electron microscope (SEM) at
the Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania,
Hobart. Energy Dispersive Spectrometer software was used
to identify inclusions in representative zircons using this
same SEM.
U–Pb and trace element analysis
U–Pb and trace element analysis of zircon was conducted
using an Agilent 7,500 s quadrupole ICPMS instrument,
attached to a New Wave UP-213 Nd:YAG laser ablation
system at GEMOC. U–Pb isotopes (206Pb, 207Pb, 204Pb,
232
Th, 238U and 235U; Supplementary Material 3–8) and
trace elements (Supplementary Material 9–14) were ana-
lysed simultaneously. For a detailed discussion of the
analytical procedures, operating conditions, acquisition
parameters and uncertainties involved in this technique, see
Jackson et al. (2004). Typical LA-ICPMS operating con-
ditions and data acquisition parameters in this study were:
c. 60 s background signal prior to ablation; c. 120 s signal
analysis; 40 lm beam diameter; 5 Hz repetition rate;
85–90% laser power output; estimated laser pit depth
*40 lm. A typical run consisted of 10 analyses of our
unknowns, 2–3 analyses of the reference zircon standard
91500 (Wiedenbeck et al. 1995), two analyses of a sec-
ondary standard Mud Tank (Black and Gulson 1978) and
bracketed by at least five analyses of the external calibra-
tion zircon standard GJ-1 (Elhlou et al. 2006; Jackson et al.
2004). Hf from EMP analyses was used as an internal
standard for trace element analysis. Analyses of the stan-
dard reference zircon 91500 (treated as an ‘unknown’)
provide an independent control to assess accuracy and
precision; our 207Pb/206Pb age for 91500 over the course of
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85
this study is 1,064 ± 6 Ma which is indistinguishable to
the TIMS age of 1,065.4 ± 0.3 Ma (Wiedenbeck et al.
1995). Trace element analysis and average counts are
within error of published values (Wiedenbeck et al. 2004).
Net background-corrected count rates for each isotope
were used for age calculations. These data were processed
using the in-house GLITTER data reduction program (van
Achterbergh et al. 2001) that calculates isotopic ratios
(207Pb/206Pb, 208Pb/232Th, 208Pb/238U and 207Pb/235U where
235
U = 238U/137.88) for the selected portion of each
ablation. Trace element data were similarly processed
using this software. Optimal output signals (a proxy for
ablation-depth profiles) for each analysis were selected and
automatically matched to signals from the primary standard
during the same time interval, allowing for correction for
effects of laser-induced U–Pb fractionation and mass bias.
User interrogation of these time-resolved signals allowed
for identification of isotopic heterogeneity within the
ablation volume. These intervals were also matched to the
suite of trace elements. Due to the low 204Pb count rates
and isobaric interference from Hg (a contaminant from the
Ar gas supply), common Pb contents were estimated using
the program ComPbCorr (Anderson 2002). This method is
commonly used in LA-ICPMS studies and assumes that the
discordance of Pb/U and Pb/Th isotopic ratios observed in
a zircon is a sum of the effects of common lead contami-
nation and Pb-loss. The use of this method in this study is
compromised by poor constraints on the timing of Pb-loss
in each sample. However, in most cases, common Pb
contents calculated via this method were below the level of
detection (\0.2%), and no correction was applied. Con-
cordia diagrams and age calculations were made using
Isoplot v.3 (Ludwig 2003). Uncertainties for individual
analyses as quoted in tables and as error ellipses on U–Pb
plots have been calculated to the one-sigma level.
Weighted mean age calculations are reported at 95%
confidence limits.
Hf-isotope analysis
Hf-isotope analyses were performed in situ on the same
grains analysed for U–Pb using a New Wave UP-213
Nd:YAG laser ablation microprobe attached to a Nu
Plasma multi-collector (MC)-ICPMS system. Griffin et al.
(2000, 2004) describe the methodology in detail. Operating
conditions included a beam diameter of 50–55 lm, a 5- to
10-Hz repetition rate and 75% power output; estimated
laser pit depth *40 lm. Ablation times include 30 s of
background and a total signal time of approximately 200 s.
The procedure for measuring 176Hf/177Hf includes cor-
recting for 176Yb, and where Yb is significant the degree of
uncertainty in the correction for isobaric overlap increases.
71
Griffin et al. (2002) considered that high precision could
only be achieved where 176Yb/177Hf in zircon is less than
0.26, which is the case here. The Mud Tank zircon was
used as a reference standard for Hf analysis; our mean
176
Hf/177Hf value for this zircon is 0.282537 ± 0.000034
(2SD) within error of the published value of
0.282522 ± 0.000042 (Griffin et al. 2007). Uncertainties
quoted are the internal measured uncertainty and do not
include any propagation of error from this reference stan-
dard. During the period of this study, analyses of the zircon
standard 61.308 produced a long-term average 176Hf/177Hf
value of 0.283004 ± 0.000057 (Pearson et al. 2008), which
is within error of published solution analyses (Wiedenbeck
et al. 1995) and demonstrates the veracity of the correction.
The initial 176Hf/177Hf (Hfi) value in zircon is calculated
using the measured 176Lu, 176Hf/177Hf and 207Pb/206Pb age.
The calculation of eHf values used the 176Lu decay constant
of Blichert-Toft et al. (1997) of 1.93 9 10-11. Model age
calculations (TDM) are based on a depleted-mantle source
with Hfi = (176Hf/177Hf) initial = 0.279718 and
176
Hf/ Hf = 0.0384. This provides a value of 176Hf/177Hf
177
(0.28325) similar to that of average mid-ocean ridge basalt
over 4.56 Ga. The calculated TDM ages use the measured
176
Lu/177Hf of the zircon and give a minimum age for the
source material of the magma from which the zircon crys-
HfðcÞ
tallised. A ‘crustal’ model age (TDM ) was also calculated
for each zircon grain; this calculation assumes that the
parental magma was derived from the average continental
crust (176Lu/177Hf = 0.015), which in turn was originally
derived from the depleted mantle. A second ‘crustal’ model
age was calculated using 176Lu/177Hf = 0.01 for the 5
charnockitic samples as they are more felsic than average
continental crust (Halpin et al. 2005).
Sample characteristics
Compositionally, the opx-bearing felsic granitoid gneisses
studied here range from granite to granodiorite within the
range of compositional variations observed by Young et al.
(1997). The mafic sample LM12 (Macklin Island) is an
opx-bearing gabbroic gneiss similar in composition to a
sample collected by Young et al. (1997) from the same
location. Young and Ellis (1991) and Young et al. (1997)
divided samples of the Mawson Charnockite into two
major groups: high-Ti (Stibbs Bay Group) and low-Ti
(Holme Bay Group), based on geochemical features,
especially TiO2 and P2O5 contents. Based on TiO2, P2O5,
Cr and Mg-number (Supplementary Material 1), LM12 is
part of the low-Ti group, while LF60 belongs with the
high-Ti group. The remaining samples display geochemical
characteristics transitional between these two groups.
123
72 Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85

However, our interpretations that follow do not rely upon
this geochemical discrimination.
The six samples analysed in this study are divided into
three types on the basis of paragenesis and microstructure
(Fig. 2, Supplementary Material 2). Samples LM53 and
LF60 (Mawson Station and Mt Horden, respectively) are
the least deformed and recrystallised of the felsic samples.
Though their mineralogy is similar to the other felsic
samples, they are distinguished on the basis of their
microstructure and form type 1. The other three felsic
samples (LM01, LM11 and RW28; Macey Island, Aus-
tskjera and Chapman Ridge, respectively) share similar
mineral assemblages and microstructure and form type 2.
The mafic sample (LM12; Macklin Island) contains distinct
mineralogy and microstructure compared with the other
five samples and comprises type 3.
Zircon imaging, U–Pb and Lu–Hf isotope and REE
results
Charnockitic and gabbroic gneiss samples have abundant
zircon of varied size and morphology (Table 1; Figs. 3, 4).
Individual grains range in length from c. 100 to 1,000 lm;
the finest grain size is observed in sample LM01, which has
the lowest whole-rock Zr-content (Supplementary Material
1). The majority of grains are interpreted as igneous on the
basis of elongate doubly terminating grain shapes and
commonly having oscillatory zoning (Figs. 3, 4). Rock
forming minerals in the charnockitic gneiss commonly
occur as inclusions in zircon in samples LM53, LM11 and
RW28, mostly in grain cores (Fig. 3). Zircon grains in
these three samples have core-outer core-rim structures
evident in BSE and CL imaging. Zircon grains in samples

(a) (b) qtz

plag
kfs
opx

qtz

kfs
plag
LM53 LF60
(c) opx (d)
plag
grt

grt qtz qtz

opx
plag
bt LM01 kfs LM11
(e) (f)
kfs
bt
qtz cpx
plag
plag
bt opx
opx

RW28 LM12

Fig. 2 a Coarse K-feldspar with rounded inclusions surrounded by
polygonal recrystallised feldspar and quartz. Domains of quartz grains
are elongate in the foliation. Orthopyroxene is irregular and tends to
form clusters of grains (LM53). b Coarse plagioclase and K-feldspar
porphyroclasts (LF60). c, d Coarse elongate recrystallised quartz
domains and irregular garnet (LM01 and LM11). e Foliation defined
by biotite and elongate quartzofeldspathic domains (RW28). f Equi-
granular gabbroic gneiss that contains plagioclase-orthopyroxene-
clinopyroxene-biotite (LM12). Field of view is 2.5 mm for all images

123
 Table 1 Summary of zircon characteristics
Sample LM53 LF60 LM01 LM11 RW28 LM12

Petrographic 1 1 2 2 2 3
type
Grain size (lm) 150–640 150–680 120–280 100–700 340–870 170–1,000
Grain shape Sub-angular elongate to Sub-angular elongate to Highly elongate with Elongate with angular- Mainly elongate with sub- Elongate with angular
ovoid morphologies ovoid sub-rounded to rounded broken or sub-rounded to angular to sub-rounded to sub-rounded
morphologies ± angular terminations to stubby rounded terminations, terminations terminations, and
fragments ovoid grains ± angular with some more minor ovoid or
fragments irregularly rounded grains irregular
morphologies
Inclusion mnz, bi, q, ksp, ru, liq bi, q, ksp, ru Rare ap, bi, q, pl, ksp, opx, liq ap, bi, q, pl, ksp, opx, py, liq bi, pl, ksp, opx
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85

assemblage
BSE/CL texture Core-outer core-rim, Core-rim, cracks in rim Core-rim, cracks in rim Core-outer core-rim, Core-outer core-rim, Core-rim, limited
inclusion-rich cores, inclusion-rich cores, inclusion-rich cores, cracks
cracks in core and rim cracks in core and rim cracks in core and rim
BSE response High Low High High High Low
CL response Core: low–high, blurred, Core: mod., oscil. Core: low-mod., blurred, Core: low–high, blurred, Core: mod.-high, blurred, Core: low-mod., sector
thickened and/or zoning ± sector zoning thickened and/or thickened and/or thickened and/or zoning ± planar
convoluted oscil. convoluted oscil. convoluted oscil. convoluted oscil. zoning banding
zoning or sector zoning/ zoning or sector zoning zoning ± sector zoning
planar banding
Outer core: oscil. zoned, Rim: low-mod. (\50 lm); Rim: mod.-high Outer core: oscil. zoned, Outer core: oscil. zoned, Rim: high (\50 lm);
concordant around core lobate edges, embays (\90 lm); lobate concordant around core concordant around core lobate edges, embays
core primary zoning edges, embays core core primary zoning
primary zoning
Rim: low inner (\30 lm) Rim: mod.-high (\70 lm) Rim: low-mod. inner
±high outer (\90 lm); (\70 lm) ±mod.-high
lobate edges, embays outer (\20 lm); lobate
core/outer core primary edges, embays core/outer
zoning core primary zoning
No. U–Pb/trace 34 (23 grains) 21 (21 grains) 20 (18 grains) 51 (41 grains) 19 (11 grains) 38 (37 grains)
element
analyses
No. Hf isotope 16 (12 grains) 11 (11 grains) 11 (9 grains) 25 (22 grains) 12 (7 grains) 21 (20 grains)
analyses
Th content 148–1,187 162–651 (most \ 400) 83–1,079 (most \ 300) 147–1,952 (most \ 1000) 117–895 50–2,000
(ppm) (most \ 1,500)
U content (ppm) 98–3,283 (most \ 1000) 122–790 (most \ 300) 84–1220 199–1,914 266–1,900 (most \ 1400) 66–755
Th/U 0.17–3.57 0.68–2.30 (most 1–1.5) 0.20–2.30 (most \ 1.30) 0.12–2.52 (most \ 1.50) 0.26–1.21 (most \ 0.60) 0.61–2.80
(most [ 1.00)
73

123
 74

Table 1 continued
Sample LM53 LF60 LM01 LM11 RW28 LM12

123
Y content (ppm) 505–2,978 495–2,270 (most \ 1,500) 316–10,356 345–4,169 (most \ 1,500) 328–3,764 (most \ 1,000) 298–2,739
(most \ 1500) (most \ 2,500) (most \ 2,000)
Sm/La 24 113 15 43 21 85
(normalised to
chondrite)
Lu/Gd 16 14 18 21 24 9
(normalised to
chondrite)
Ce/Ce* 8 14 2 15 17 6
Eu/Eu* 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2
207
Pb/206Pb age 750–1,664 (B43% disc.) 940–992 (B5% disc.) 817–1,506 (B36% disc.) 555–1,222 (B17% disc.) 895–1,238 (B13% disc.) 690–1,048
(Ma) (max. (B11% disc.)
range)
207
Pb/206Pb age 883–1,512 (B5% disc.) 940–992 (B5% disc.) 829–1,149 (B5% disc.) 555–1,222 (B5% disc.) 895–1,238 (B5% disc.) 690–1,048
(Ma) (near- (B5% disc.)
conc. range)
No. analyses 25 (74%) 8 (38%) 12 (60%) 26 (51%) 14 (74%) 19 (50%)
discordant
([ 2%)
176
Hf/177Hfi 0.281846–0.281933 0.281926–0.281945 0.281874–0.281960 0.281841–0.281927 0.281829–0.281963 0.281922–0.282027
(excluding
outliers in Hfi/
REE)
No. analyses 2 1 1 1 0 1
with outlying
Hfi
No. analyses 9 2 4 3 4 0
with unusual
trace elements
Eu/Eu* = Eu(n)/H(Sm(n)*Gd(n)), Ce/Ce* = Ce(n)/H(La(n)*Pr(n))
mnz monazite, bi biotite, q quartz, ksp K-feldspar, pl plagioclase, ru rutile, opx orthopyroxene, py pyrite, liq silicate melt
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85 75

LM53 (4-04) t.r. LM53 (4-19) LM53 (4-07) LM53 (5-07)

quartz
quartz
d.f. 1.84 Ga (THf DM)
ksp 1.90 Ga (THf DMc)
biotite
it 1664±37 Ma
(72% conc.)

ksp t.r./g.z.
898±19 Ma
(95% conc.) 883±24 Ma 1.83 Ga (THf DM) 969±14 Ma
1.80 Ga (THf DM) (102% conc.) 2.13 Ga (THf DMc) (102% conc.)
2.13 Ga (THf DMc)
1345±14 Ma 1.82 Ga (THf DM)
(92% conc.) 2.13 Ga (THf DMc)
2.03 Ga (THf DM) 975±20 Ma
1223±19 Ma
(a) (97% conc.) 2.32 Ga (THf DMc) 100µm (b) t.r./g.z. t.f./g.z.
100µm (c) (94% conc.) 100µm (d) 100µm

LM11 (2-106) LM11 (2-87)

LM11 (2-84) 979±27 Ma LM11 (1-19)
(100% conc.)
1.80 Ga (THf DM)
2.26 Ga (THf DMc)

570±5 Ma
1140±22 Ma (97% conc.)
(99% conc.)

1.76 Ga (THf DM)

2.17 Ga (THf DMc) 1097±17 Ma
(98% conc.)
1.88 Ga (THf DM)
1111±13 Ma d.f. 2.46 Ga (THf DMc)
1.83 Ga (THf DM)
(96% conc.)
(e) 2.29 Ga (THf DMc) 100µm
(f) 100µm (g) t.r.
100µm
(h) 100µm

RW28
W28 (2-13)
2-1 1.86 Ga (THf DM) t.r. RW28 (2-09) 1.87 Ga (THf DM) t.r. t.r.
ksp 2.37 Ga (THf DMc) 2.39 Ga (THf DMc)
RW28 (2-24)
d.f.
1057±21 Ma 1034±22 Ma
biotite (93% conc.)
(95% conc.)
quartz
melt(?)

910±17 Ma biotite
1.90 Ga (THf DM) (108% conc.)
2.42 Ga (THf DMc) 1.71 Ga (THf DM) 1084±20 Ma
2.24 Ga (THf DMc) (105% conc.)

g.z. 1238±94 Ma
quartz(?) 1077±17 Ma 1.77 Ga (THf
THf DM) 1078±17 Ma (97% conc.)
(i) (102% conc.)
100µm (j) 2.21
.21 Ga
a (THf
TH DMc) (101% conc.)
100µm (k) probable xenocryst 100µm

Fig. 3 Representative BSE and CL images of zircon from samples are oscillatory zoned. Rim domains are transgressive (t.r.), inward
LM53, LM11 and RW28. Most grains are elongate with two penetrating, lobate areas that embay outer core domains (most
terminations (except d); these contain core, outer core and rim grains). Some rim domains preserve patchy ghost zoning (g.z.; e.g.
domains. Core domains are variable, but most exhibit faint or b). Inclusions are most common in core domains (e.g. a). Cracks are
modified oscillatory zoning (e.g. i). Outer core domains mimic core common in core and rim domains (most grains). One grain is faceted
shape (e.g. j) with local truncation (dissolution front, d.f.; e.g. f) and with soccer ball shape and sector zoning (d); it lacks rim development

LF60, LM01 and LM12 most commonly have core-rim domains (Fig. 4b). Rare, small sector zoned ovoid (Fig. 4c,
structures and fewer inclusions (Fig. 4). Zircon grains with h) or faceted (Figs. 3d, 4d) grains resemble metamorphic
core-outer core-rim texture have radial cracks in core and grains in all five charnockitic gneiss samples. These grains
rim domains (Fig. 3a, e, i, j), whereas zircon grains with are the least texturally complex zircon lacking secondary
core-rim texture mostly have cracks only in rim domains textures.
(Fig. 4e). Penetrative cracks that propagate across appar- Zircon isotopic data and ages are presented for each
ently coherent domains and around inclusions also occur in sample in Fig. 5 (full dataset in Supplementary Material
some grains in all samples. The core-outer core-rim versus 3–8). REE data are summarised in Table 1 (full dataset in
core-rim zircon types does not correlate with the petro- Supplementary Material 9–14 and representative plots in
graphic types defined above. The BSE and CL response Supplementary Material 15). There is no correlation
and texture of core domains are both highly variable. Outer between the apparent age of zircon domains and the U, Th,
core domains, where present, are oscillatory zoned which Y-contents or Th/U values. However, Th/U values and total
generally mimics the shape of the core (Fig. 3a–c, e, g, i, j), trace element content are generally lower in rim domains
though local truncation of core zoning may be present compared to that of adjacent core or outer core domains in
(Fig. 3f, k). Rim domains have inward penetrating lobate individual grains. Most REE signatures show steeply
edges, commonly penetrate from prism terminations in positive chondrite normalised La-Lu patterns with positive
elongate grains, and embay primary zoning in adjacent Ce and negative Eu anomalies, typical of igneous zircon
core or outer core domains (Figs. 3a–c, g, i–k, 4a, f, g, i–l). grains (Supplementary Material 15). Zircon populations in
Patches of remnant primary zoning (ghost zoning; Figs. 3b, all samples (except LF60) show a broad age range and
c, 4b, f) and weak sector zoning are common in rim variable discordance (Table 1; Fig. 5). The near-concor-
domains. Rare patches within core domains also display dant zircon ages (B 5% discordance) typically span
very high CL-response (bleached) with ghost zoning 350–650 Myr. Intra-sample Hfi values are clustered, and
(Fig. 3i). Very rare sigmoidal domains are inward pene- most analyses are within error of the sample mean (±2SD).
trating and cause convolution of primary oscillatory-zoned Electron Backscattered Diffraction (EBSD) analysis of

123
76 Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85

LF60 (2-33) LF60 (2-26) g.z. LF60 (2-41) LF60 (3-07)

rutile
947±12 Ma 992±11 Ma
(99% conc.) (95% conc.)
1.75 Ga (THf DM)
2.02 Ga (THf DMc) biotite

976±12 Ma
(96% conc.)

1.74 Ga (THf DM)

2.03 Ga (THf DMc) 1.74 Ga (THf DM)
t.r.
959±11 Ma 2.03 Ga (THf DMc)
(97% conc.)
(a) 100µm (b) t.r. 100µm (c) 100µm (d) 100µm

LM01 (3-16) 1.85 Ga (THf DM) LM01 (3-14) t.r.

2.14 Ga (THf DMc)
LM01 (3-41) 970±15 Ma LM01 (3-70)
(95% conc.)
1427±16 Ma 1.84 Ga (THf DM) 958±12 Ma
(87% conc.)
(92% conc.) 2.29 Ga (THf DMc)
1126±10 Ma
(97% conc.)

t.r./g.z.
1506±30 M
Ma
(93% conc.)
conc.

(e) 2.29 Ga (THf DM)

2.82 Ga (THf DMc)
100µm (f) 100µm (g) 100µm (h) 100µm

1.73 Ga (THf DM)

LM12 (5-03) LM12 (5-21) LM12 (4-35) LM12 (5-22) 2.05 Ga (THf DMc)
805±13 Ma
t.r. (95% conc.)
t.r. t.f./g.z.(?)

934±16 Ma
(98% conc.)

1.63 Ga (THf DM)

988±15 Ma
(99% conc.) 1.97 Ga (THf DMc) 718±20 Ma
690±13 Ma (95% conc.)
1.70 Ga (THf DM) (98% conc.) 1.65 Ga (THf DM)
(i) 1.96 Ga (THf DMc) 100µm (j) 100µm (k) 100µm (l) 1.98 Ga (THf DMc) 100µm

Fig. 4 Representative BSE and CL images of zircon from samples rim texture while metamorphic grains lack rims. Igneous cores are
LF60, LM01 and LM12. Igneous grains are elongate with two commonly oscillatory zoned in samples LF60 and LM01(e.g. a) or
terminations (a, b, f, g, i–k), while metamorphic grains are faceted, banded in sample LM12 (e.g. k). Rim domains are generally narrower
ovoid grains with sector zoning (c, d, h). Igneous grains show core- than for Fig. 3 (e.g. i), otherwise features are similar to Fig. 3

representative zircon grains from the least (LF60) and most analysis (or group of analyses) that satisfies our criteria is
texturally complex (RW28) samples identified small mis- considered a minimum estimate of protolith emplacement.
orientations of a few degrees (strain) within sub-domains Isotopic disturbance of zircon is highlighted by 38–74%
and across cracks (Supplementary Material 16). of analyses being[2% discordant. Commonly, 2–4 (and up
to 9) zircon grains per sample contain anomalous trace
element content. Only sample LM12 had a consistent trace
element pattern across all analysed zircon grains. Despite
Discussion
the broad span in 207Pb/206Pb zircon ages, samples com-
monly showed a narrow range of Hfi consistent with a
Interpretation of results and ‘minimum emplacement
single population. Only a total of 6 analyses outlying Hfi
age’ criteria
values (outside of the mean of the main popula-
tion ± 2SD). All grains with any combination of [2%
Our complex geochronological data warrant a reevaluation
discordance, anomalous trace element content or outlying
of the validity of a c. 970 Ma crystallisation age interpreted
Hfi were excluded from the determination of the minimum
for the Mawson Charnockite (Young and Black 1991). The
emplacement age. Our results resolve three minimum
appreciable disturbance in zircon U–Pb isotopic data for
emplacement age groups: c. 1,145–1,140 Ma (LM01,
the Mawson Charnockite invalidates a simple weighted
LM11), c. 1,080–1,050 Ma (RW28, LM12) and c. 985–
mean approach for age determination. We posit conserva-
960 Ma (LM53, LF60). These age groupings do not match
tive criteria to refine age determinations in complex zircon
populations affected by Pb-loss: ages should be determined
from U–Pb analyses that are robust (98–102% concordant), Fig. 5 Concordia plots with probability density curves (dark grey c
and which have consistent Th, U, Y and REE-content and \5% discordance; light grey all data). Vertical dashed lines on Hfi
versus age plots for each sample mark the minimum emplacement
Hf-isotopic values. This approach facilitates exclusion of ages, and the width of the horizontal grey arrow is equal to two
potential xenocrysts from the age determination. In the standard deviations about the mean of Hfi values. DM Depleted
discussion below, the oldest (non-xenocrystic) zircon Mantle, CHUR Chondritic Uniform Reservoir

123
 0.28 0.24
LM53 - Charnockite 1500 LM11 - Charnockite
Mawson Station Austskjera
0.24 1200
1300 0.2825 0.20 0.2825
Oldest concordant zircon LM53 - Charnockite, Mawson Station DM Oldest concordant zircon
207 207
LM11 - Charnockite, Austskjera DM
Pb/206Pb age Pb/206Pb age
0.20 984±14 Ma 1140±22 Ma 0.2823
1100
0.2823 1000
0.16
0.2821 CHUR 0.2821 CHUR

Pb/238U
0.16

Pb/238U
900 Mean 176Hf/177Hfi = 0.281880±0.000043 Mean 176Hf/177Hfi = 0.281890±0.000043
800

206

206
0.2819 ? 0.2819
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85

0.12
0.12 700 Pb-loss Pb-loss
(g)
Hf/177Hf initial
(a) 0.2817 Minimum emplacement age = c.985 Ma 600 0.2817

Hf/177Hf initial
Age (Ma) (b) Age (Ma) Minimum emplacement age = c.1140 Ma
176 (h)

176
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 50µm
1700 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
0.08 0.2815 0.08 0.2815
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 650 750 850 950 1050 1150
Age (Ma) Age (Ma)
0.170 0.22
LF60 - Charnockite RW28 - Charnockite
Mt Horden Chapman Ridge 1200
0.166 990 (i)
0.20
0.2825 Oldest concordant zircon 0.2825
Oldest concordant zircon 970 LF60 - Charnockite, Mt Horden DM 207
Pb/206Pb age 1100 Oscil. zoned
0.162 207
RW28 - Charnockite, Chapman Ridge DM
Pb/206Pb age 1078±17 Ma (outer core) outer cores
961±16 Ma 0.2823 0.18 Mean = 1077±15 Ma 0.2823
950 (MSWD=0.13, n=5)
0.158 1000

Pb/238U

Pb/238U
0.2821 CHUR 0.2821 CHUR
930 Mean 176Hf/177Hfi = 0.281936±0.000060 0.16

206
Mean 176Hf/177Hfi = 0.281888±0.000078

206
0.154
0.2819 900 0.2819 ?
910
Mean = 957±6 Ma (c) 0.14
0.150 (MSWD=1.3, n=21)
Pb-loss

Hf/177Hf initial
Hf/177Hf initial

0.2817 800 0.2817

890 Minimum emplacement age = c. 975 Ma
Age (Ma) Age (Ma) Minimum emplacement age = c.1080 Ma

176
176

500 600 700 800 900 1000

(d) 500 700 900 1100 1300
(j)
0.146 0.2815 0.12 0.2815
1.35 1.45 1.55 1.65 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 650 750 850 950 1050 1150
Age (Ma) Age (Ma)
0.26 0.19
LM01 - Charnockite LM12 - Gabbro
Macey Island 1400 Macklin Island 1050
0.24 0.2825
0.17 LM12 - Gabbro, Macklin Islan d DM
1300
0.22 Oldest concordant zircon
0.2825 LM01 - Charnockite, Macey Island DM Oldest concordant zircon
950 0.2823
207 Oscil. zoned cores/ 207
Pb/206Pb age 1200 0.15 Pb/206Pb age
0.20 1145±11 Ma outer cores 0.2823 1048±39 Ma
Mean = 1110±20 Ma 850 0.2821 Mean 176Hf/177Hfi = 0.281979±0.000054 CHUR
1100 (MSWD=3.6, n=7) ?
Pb/238U

0.18 CHUR

Pb/238U
0.2821 176 177 0.13 0.2819 Pb-loss
Mean Hf/ Hfi = 0.281919±0.000055
1000 750
206

206
0.16 0.2819
Hf/177Hf initial

900 Pb-loss
0.2817 Minimum emplacement age = c.1050 Ma
0.11 650
176

(l)

Hf/177Hf initial
0.14 (e) 0.2817
(k)
800 Age (Ma) Minimum emplacement age = c.1145 Ma Age (Ma) 0.2815

176
500 700 900 1100 1300 100µm
1500
(f) 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 650 750 850 950 1050 1150
0.12 0.2815 0.09
1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
Age (Ma)
207 Age (Ma) 207
Pb/235U Pb/235U
77

123
78
either the petrographic types or zircon core-outer core-rim
versus core-rim types.
Relative trace element content between zircon grains
was undertaken to distinguish possible xenocrysts, but
identified anomalous grains were commonly enriched in
LREE; these analyses may be contaminated by ablation of
micro-inclusions of, for example, monazite and apatite
(both identified in EDS analysis); therefore, an anomalous
trace element content is not a robust criterion for identi-
fying zircon xenocrysts in our study. However, no grains
older than our interpreted minimum emplacement ages
were excluded on the basis of anomalous trace element
content alone, and domains with anomalous REE were
excluded from calculations of mean Hfi values. Therefore,
none of the minimum emplacement ages determined are
influenced by potential ablation of micro-inclusions.
It is notable that 6 zircon analyses (2–7% discordant) in
sample LM11 yield apparent 207Pb/206Pb ages (c. 1,220–
1,145 Ma) that are older than the interpreted minimum
emplacement age (c. 1,140 Ma). These exhibit ‘normal’
trace element-contents (Supplementary Material 12) and
Hf signature (in the case of 2_91; Supplementary Material
6), suggesting our c. 1,140 Ma emplacement estimate
could be extended by a further c. 80 Myr. This highlights
the need to analyse a large population of grains in order to
capture the oldest grains.
An early study of the Mawson Charnockite (Young and
Black 1991) determined igneous crystallisation ages of
985 ± 29 Ma (sample z644; Ufs Island) and 954 ± 12 Ma
(sample z542; Falla Bluff) using a weighted mean
approach. Without the benefit of high-quality BSE and CL
images, trace element or Hf-isotopic data, the ages appear
robust, but there are complexities that point to isotopic
disturbance identical to our new data. Tentatively revised
minimum emplacement ages, based on the oldest concor-
dant zircon (with common Th- and U-contents), are
c. 1,010 Ma and c. 980 Ma for the Ufs Island and Falla
Bluff plutons, respectively. A later study (Halpin et al.
2005) similarly identified a complex spread of zircon
207
Pb/206Pb ages in a sample from the Mawson Station
region (sample 90030), which was interpreted to reflect
either: (1) variable Pb-loss during orogenesis or (2) a mix of
inherited zircon, Pb-loss and new growth. The narrow range
of Hf-isotopic data supports the former interpretation. A
revised age estimate using our new criteria for sample
90300 is c. 1,060 Ma, older than our minimum age estimate
of c. 985 Ma for sample LM53 from a similar location.
The three phases of magmatism identify chronological
complexity within rocks originally all mapped as the
Mawson Charnockite (sensu stricto) (e.g. Crohn 1959;
Trail 1970; Young et al. 1997) and long interpreted as
coeval (Young and Black 1991). Whereas this plutonic
complex exhibits significant geochemical, mineralogical
123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85
and textural variation, contacts between these composi-
tional types are commonly hidden beneath ice. Where
contacts are observed, they generally appear gradational.
Rare sharp intrusive contacts between porphyroblastic
(megacrystic) opx-granite and even-grained opx-granodi-
orite are noted (Sheraton 1982), but trends of xenoliths are
undisturbed and relative ages cannot be determined (Crohn
1959). In contrast, two phases of charnockitic-type (i.e.
opx-bearing) granitoids are mapped further west in the
Colbeck Archipelago (White and Clarke 1993) and at Cape
Bruce (Dunkley et al. 2002) but are distinguished from the
Mawson Charnockite on both compositional and temporal
grounds. Mafic to felsic opx ± cpx-bearing gneisses,
locally containing pods of ultramafic orthogneiss and
metasedimentary xenoliths, are interpreted to have intruded
prior to D1 (Dunkley et al. 2002; White and Clarke 1993).
A later phase of biotite ± opx-bearing orthogneissic bod-
ies/dykes cuts S1 but contains an S2 foliation; this rock
type is intruded by the Mawson Charnockite on Chapman
Ridge (White and Clarke 1993) and is interpreted to have
been emplaced at 992 ± 10 Ma (Dunkley et al. 2002).
Further detailed geochronological constraints on these
charnockitic phases are required to posit any correlations
with the 3 age-types now identified further east within the
Mawson Charnockite.
Assessment of zircon growth/recrystallisation
Most zircon in this study is dominantly oscillatory or sector
zoned with euhedral, doubly terminating grain shapes
consistent with an igneous crystallisation origin. Char-
nockitic gneiss samples also contain rare sector zoned,
ovoid or faceted grains consistent with a metamorphic
origin (possibly in the presence of an anatectic melt). A
common texture identified in igneous grains in three sam-
ples (LM53, LM11 and RW28) involves the definition of
core, outer core and rim domains. Core domains are vari-
able, whereas outer core domains are always oscillatory
zoned. Rim domains are defined where oscillatory-zoned
zircon fades into unzoned or weakly sector-zoned zircon
towards the rim. The rim domains commonly occur as
transgressive, lobate, inward-penetrating patches. A second
group of samples (LF60, LM01 and LM12) contain zircon
identified by core-rim texture alone where rims are similar
to the first group.
The textural relationship between cores and outer cores
could be interpreted as a two-stage evolution in the magma
chamber; the latter (oscillatory outer core) stage potentially
at fluid-saturated conditions (Schaltegger et al. 2005).
Outer core domains are Th, U and Y-rich compared to
adjacent non-xenocrystic cores, and REE-contents are
similar or higher in all grains in samples LM53 and RW28,
and most grains in sample LM11. The total trace element
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85
content of outer cores is consistently higher than its adja-
cent core. This trend may form during magmatic frac-
tionation (Silver and Deutsch 1963), recharge by a trace
element rich magma or solid-state trace element migration
during slow cooling (Pidgeon et al. 1998). High contents of
contaminant elements distort the zircon lattice (Köppel and
Sommerauer 1974) and have been proposed to drive re-
crystallisation of zircon domains with high trace element
content (Pidgeon 1992). Incompatible cations within the
zircon structure are expelled during recrystallisation, and
the original euhedral form may be modified such that
grains become blunt (slightly rounded) in this model. This
process is envisaged here to produce the rim domains in
samples LM53, LM11 and RW28. This interpretation is
supported by the observation that rim domains contain
consistently lower trace element content (Supplementary
Material 9–15). In addition, similar Hfi values in adjacent
outer core and rim domains (Fig. 5) suggest modification
of primary zircon rather than new zircon growth (e.g.
Bomparola et al. 2007; Halpin et al. 2005). The rim
domains of zircon with core-rim texture (samples LF60,
LM01 and LM12) are generally narrower and less well
developed but have similar characteristics. We suggest the
isotopic, chemical and physical attributes of rim domains
of igneous zircon in this study are most compatible with
formation via partial recrystallisation of grain rims. A
partial recrystallisation process could occur: (1) in the solid
state without a fluid phase (Hoskin and Black 2000) (2)
during a solid-state diffusion–reaction process in the
presence of a high temperature fluid ([600°C; Geisler et al.
2007) or (3) during coupled dissolution–precipitation
(Tomaschek et al. 2003). We argue against complete re-
crystallisation (i.e. construction of a new zircon lattice) in
rim domains, as this should expel Pb, completely reset the
U–Pb age and remove all trace of primary zoning. The rare
inferred metamorphic zircon grains have similar total trace
element content and Hfi values to the igneous grains and
span between 990 and 950 Ma. This suggests they formed
via quantitative replacement of igneous zircon, i.e. disso-
lution of zircon by melt or metamorphic fluid and repre-
cipitation at nearby sites.
Metamictisation and cracking of zircon
Metamictisation in zircon occurs via accumulation of U
and Th radioactive decay causing time-integrated damage
of the zircon lattice. Damage is counteracted by recovery, a
type of annealing involving repair rather than construction
of a new zircon lattice (Nasdala et al. 2001), which takes
place above a ‘critical amorphisation temperature’
(approximately 350°C, but varies as a function of U-con-
tent and age; Meldrum et al. 1998). Calculations of alpha-
decay dose (after Holland and Gottfried 1955) suggest most
79
zircon grains are now metamict. Expansion occurs during
metamictisation, such that adjacent zircon is commonly
cracked (Lee and Tromp 1995). Cracking is observed
adjacent to all outer core domains (Fig. 3). Cracks were
also observed in rim domains in core-rim-type grains.
Metamorphic studies (e.g. Clarke and Norman 1993;
Dunkley et al. 2002; Halpin et al. 2007; White and Clarke
1993) suggest that the Mawson Charnockite resided in the
middle crust at c. 970 Ma such that continuous annealing
of zircon would have delayed metamictisation (and there-
fore cracking) until exhumation of the terrane, probably
during or after c. 550–500 Ma. However, with the dis-
covery of magmatism at c. 1,145–1,140 Ma (LM01,
LM11), c. 1,080–1,050 Ma (RW28, LM12), we cannot
discount that these older rocks were partially exhumed to
within *10 km of the surface and allowed to cool below
the critical amorphisation temperature (discussed further
below). In this case, zircons from these earlier magmatic
pulses may have acquired some radiation damage, before
being deeply buried (and annealed) during the main phase
of the Rayner Orogeny at c. 990–910 Ma. However, alpha-
decay dose calculations suggest that the *150 Myr inter-
val (between c. 1,145 Ma and c. 990 Ma) is not long
enough for zircons from the earliest intrusions to have
evolved past the first percolation point in the crystalline-to-
amorphous transition (Geisler et al. 2003) such that zircon
was not amorphous by this time.
Facilitation of Pb-loss
Above we document both zircon recrystallisation and
metamictisation in our samples. These processes cause Pb-
loss and may explain the smearing of our age determina-
tions along concordia over several hundred Myr (Fig. 6).
However, the overlapping age determinations for core,
outer core and rim domains in all samples indicate Pb-loss
was not specific to any one domain. This also suggests that
the recrystallisation identified in rim domains must have
taken place shortly following igneous crystallisation;
otherwise, the rim domains should have a discernibly
younger age distribution compared to adjacent core or
outer core domains (Fig. 6). In addition, the metamictisa-
tion and cracking are likely too young to have facilitated
the observed Proterozoic Pb-loss. Even if the earliest
intrusions (c. 1,145–1,140 Ma) were exhumed and cooled,
prior to reburial during the main phase of orogenesis
(c. 990 Ma), there would not have been sufficient time for
primary zircons to become metamict. Minor recent Pb-loss
via leaching of Pb along cracks is indicated by the slightly
younger ages of cracked core domains compared to adja-
cent outer core domains (Fig. 6).
We exclude these two common processes as key facil-
itators of the majority of Proterozoic Pb-loss observed.
123
80 Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85

(a) (b) (c)

core
inclusion
rim
c. 1130
outer core
c. 1120 c. 1150
Igneous crystallisation 1400 Development of rim: c/oc/r cluster Involving construction Pan-African Pb-loss 1400
at c. 1200 Ma of a new lattice?
c/oc (i) Soon after 1000 Either
crystallisation yes or no We observe:
1000 ad 1000
c/oc cluster
1000 pre
c/r s
ad c/o
(ii) 250 Myr 1000 spre

ki ord
after crystallisation rims No

ac c
ng
cr s
g os
500 500

in -l
c/oc cluster

w Pb
llo t
fo cen
(iii) 250 Myr 1000

e
R
after crystallisation rims cluster Yes

Fig. 6 Cartoon of the development of zircon textures (based on
sample RW28) and associated hypothetical U–Pb analyses on
concordia for core-outer core-rim type zircons. a Core and oscilla-
tory-zoned outer core domains develop during a two-stage evolution
in the magma chamber, possibly reflecting changes in fluid-saturation
and magma chemistry during melt fractionation or magma recharge.
Corresponding U–Pb analyses would cluster on concordia at the age
of crystallisation. b Development of transgressive rim domains with
ghost zoning and ‘blunting’ of terminations, interpreted to have
formed during recrystallisation of core-outer core domains. Recrys-
tallisation may occur: (i) soon after magmatic crystallisation (clus-
tered U–Pb data for core-outer core-rim domains, temporal
discrimination not possible using the LA-ICPMS technique), (ii) A
few hundred Myr after crystallisation (U–Pb data for rim domains
spread along concordia) or (iii) A few hundred Myr after crystalli-
sation via construction of a new lattice (U–Pb data for rim domains
clustered at a younger age equivalent to the age of the event which
facilitated complete recrystallisation). c The complex spread of U–Pb
data along concordia and overlapping age determinations for core,
outer core and rim-domains (inset) indicates Pb-loss was not specific
to any one domain. Partial recrystallisation of zircon margins
occurred soon after crystallisation as shown in b(i), followed by
Pb-loss during Proterozoic high-T, high-strain orogenesis via diffu-
sion. Pan-African orogenesis likely also caused minor variable
Pb-loss. Cracking of core and rim domains likely facilitated minor
Pb-loss during Palaeozoic-Recent times. See text for discussion

Several experimental (e.g. Cherniak and Watson 2001,
2003; Cherniak et al. 1991) and field studies (e.g. Möller
et al. 2002) suggest that diffusion in crystalline zircon is a
negligible process, unless zircon grains are exposed to
upper mantle temperatures. However, Ashwal et al. (1999)
note a c. 80 Myr spread in concordant U–Pb ages, which
they infer resulted from volume diffusion driven Pb-loss
during protracted granulite facies metamorphism in SW
Madagascar. Timms et al. (2006) examined crystal-plastic
deformation microstructures in zircon and showed defor-
mation enhances diffusion of trace elements. These case
studies are analogous to the tectonic history documented
for the Mawson Charnockite that involved T [ 850–900°C
during progressive deformation (Halpin et al. 2007). We
infer that the combination of high-T and strain during
protracted Proterozoic orogenesis most likely caused vari-
able Pb-loss that developed the smear of concordant ages
measured. In this scenario, high temperatures promote
recovery of lattice strain, which may erase any micro-
structural evidence of the crystal-plastic deformation that
facilitated Pb-loss. Small misorientations (in the order of a
few degrees) identified via EBSD analysis (Supplementary
Material 16) suggest minimal strain within sub-domains
and across cracks. However, it is unclear whether this
records high-T Proterozoic strain associated with protracted
orogenesis or Paleozoic to Recent strain associated with
metamictisation and cracking.
Grevillian context of the Rayner Orogen
Isotopic mapping via crustal model ages in conjunction
with high-precision geochronology can help delineate dis-
tinct crustal terranes in complex regions. In the case of east
Antarctica where outcrop is sparse, such a technique has
potential to shed light on the genetic relationship of adja-
cent terranes and assess the probability of a shared history.
In MacRobertson Land, geochemical and Sr–Nd isotopic
systematics of charnockites and host rocks were suggested
by Young et al. (1997) to reflect three distinct zones
(Fig. 1); the provincial distribution of these data was sug-
gested as potentially important for supercontinent
reconstruction.
Our THfDM model ages for samples collected across the
three zones delineated by Young et al. (1997) are indis-
tinguishable (compare Fig. 7a with Fig. 7b), suggesting
similar source rocks for charnockitic magmatism across the

123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85 81

TNdDM Young et al. (1997) preferred technique for metamorphosed rocks (Scherer
4
et al. 2007).
Our data set, combined with reinterpreted previous
3 geochronology, extends the onset of magmatism in the
Rayner Orogen to the Mesoproterozoic (at least c.
2
1,145–1,140 Ma and possibly [1,220 Ma). The preserva-
tion of igneous microstructure in sample LF60 combined
with a limited concordant Gaussian distribution of
Cumulative total

1 207
Pb/206Pb ages suggests a single igneous zircon popula-
(a) tion that is suited to a weighted mean approach. This
sample yields an age of 957 ± 6 Ma that we interpret as
25 This study &
Western Zone
Halpin et al. (2005)
the igneous crystallisation age, indicating magmatism
Central Zone extended to the Neoproterozoic. These data define episodic
20
Eastern Zone magmatism over at least 3 periods between c. 1,150–
960 Ma for construction of the Mawson Charnockite
15
composite pluton.
Meso-Neoproterozoic intrusive rocks occur in adjacent
10
terranes in east Antarctica. However, the significance of
5
widespread Pan-African-aged tectonism and magmatism in
regions to the east and west of the Rayner Orogen (i.e. the
THf (c)DM (b)
0 Prydz Bay-Denman Glacier and Lutzow-Holm Bay-Central
1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400
Dronning Maud Land regions) continues to be debated.
Age (Ma)
0.2821
Pan-African tectonism and magmatism in each of these
regions has been variably interpreted as either intracratonic
C

(c)
DM
H

0.2820
U

(e.g. Yoshida et al. 2003) or intercratonic (suture zones, e.g.

R

(Lu/H
f=0.0
Hf/177Hf initial

0.2819
Pb-loss 1) Fitzsimons 2000b). Fitzsimons (2000a) used a compilation
0.2818 (Lu/H of U–Pb zircon data to infer that neighbouring ‘Grenville-
RW28 f=0.0
1)
0.2817 LF60 age’ fragments in east Antarctica had distinct crustal his-
90030
0.2816 LM53 THf (c)DM tories such that rocks of the Rayner terrane (c. 990–900 Ma)
176

LM12
0.2815 LM01
LM11
0.2814
500 700 900 1100
Fig. 7 a Nd model ages reproduced from Young et al. (1997). b Hf
HfðcÞ
model ages (TDM where Lu/Hf = 0.01) for the charnockitic samples
from Halpin et al. (2005) and this study (excluding gabbroic sample
LM12). c Hfi versus age plot of all data from Halpin et al. (2005) and
this study
region. Variations in observed whole-rock Nd model ages
as observed by Young et al. (1997) are likely the result of
variable contamination of magma with assimilated material
incorporated during magma ascent and emplacement,
probably in conjunction with variable effects of metamor-
phism and strain partitioning during deformation. Assimi-
lation and interaction with varying amounts of
metasedimentary rocks may affect 87Sr/86Sr values; meta-
somatic interaction with xenoliths has been interpreted to
cause elevated 87Sr/86Sr in some charnockites from Dron-
ning Maud Land (Mikhalsky et al. 2006). The durability of
zircon, together with the resistance of the Lu–Hf system to
disturbance, means in situ Lu–Hf analysis of zircon is a
c. 1920-2220 Ma were considered to have amalgamated with those of the
Maud terrane (c. 1,090–1,030 Ma) at 650–550 Ma, and
1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 with the Wilkes terrane (and Albany-Fraser Orogen
Age (Ma) equivalents in Australia, c. 1,330–1,130 Ma) during the
final assembly of Gondwana at 600–500 Ma. The paradigm
shift has gained much support by many workers and has
been adopted in recent supercontinent reconstructions (e.g.
Li et al. 2008; Pisarevsky et al. 2003).
While it is well outside the scope of this paper to
investigate the nature of Pan-African events in east Ant-
arctica and terrane correlations, our U–Pb data indicate that
charnockitic magmatism commenced earlier than previ-
ously recognised in the Rayner Orogen, which allows for
discussion of possible Late Mesoproterozoic tectonic cor-
relations, at least within and across the proposed Pan-
African Prydz-Denman-Darling (after Fitzsimons 2000a)
suture zone. Inside the proposed Pan-African suture zone,
older crustal fragments with c. 1,380–1,000 Ma protolith
ages occur in the Prydz Bay area (Liu et al. 2007, 2009),
the Larsemann Hills (Carson et al. 2007; Wang et al. 2008),
the Prince Charles Mountains (Corvino and Henjes-Kunst
2007), the Naturaliste Plateau offshore Western Australia
(Halpin et al. 2008) and the Northampton Complex in
Western Australia (Bruguier et al. 1999). Furthermore,

123
82
while geochemical and isotopic similarities between char-
nockites on either side of the Prydz-Denman-Darling suture
have been noted (Mikhalsky et al. 2006), our estimation of
the onset of magmatism in the Mawson Charnockite now
overlaps ages of charnockitic plutons at the Bunger Hills in
the Wilkes province (c. 1,170–1,150 Ma; Sheraton et al.
1992). Varying degrees of Pb-loss have been observed in
these Proterozoic rocks. This study outlines an approach to
consider complex zircon data sets, avoiding simple
weighted mean calculations and highlights the need for a
detailed reevaluation of the Grenvillian terrane definitions
in east Antarctica.
Conclusions
Magmatic zircon may undergo variable Pb-loss due to
post-crystallisation isotopic disturbance over hundreds of
millions of years such that an individual ‘age’ of each
zircon analysis lacks any geological context. Complexity in
zircon textures determined by BSE and CL imaging from
samples of the Mawson Charnockite do not correlate with
207
Pb/206Pb age determinations, consistent with grain rim
recrystallisation shortly after igneous crystallisation.
Metamictisation and subsequent cracking of zircon are a
Paleozoic to Recent phenomena, which may have con-
tributed to minor Pb-loss but do not account for dominant
Proterozoic Pb-loss events. High-T, high-strain Meso-
Neoproterozoic orogenesis facilitated extensive isotopic
disturbance. Minor Pb-loss also occurred during Pan-
African times, possibly during exhumation of the terrane.
New ‘conservative’ emplacement ages of c. 1,150 Ma and
possibly older for the Mawson Charnockite extend the
onset of magmatism in the Rayner Orogen to the Meso-
proterozoic, requiring a reevaluation of local and super-
continent terrane definitions.
An emplacement age calculated via a weighted mean
approach for zircons that have lost at least some radiogenic
Pb will inevitably lead to an age that is too young and is
only ever a minimum estimate. This holds true, even if the
analyses are concordant to near concordant. A more real-
istic age can be calculated via a set of criteria such as
proposed here whereby the zircon population is assessed on
the basis of prerequisite common (‘normal’) chemical and
isotopic signatures (U-, Th-, Y-, REE-contents, U–Pb and
Hf isotopes), combined with BSE and CL imaging of zir-
con. The oldest zircon grain(s) that satisfies these criteria
provides a minimum emplacement age. The approach taken
in this study is widely applicable to zircons from high-grade
metamorphic terranes with protracted orogenesis.
Acknowledgments Fieldwork for this study was completed with
funding from the Antarctic Science Advisory Committee (ASAC
123
Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 163:67–85
Project No. 1150). Samples were collected during the 2004/2005 (by
LAM and JAH) and 1990/1991 (by Richard White) Australian
National Antarctic Research Expeditions. The authors thank the
Australian Antarctic Division and personnel of Mawson Base for their
logistic support, and M. Fitzpatrick for expert guidance in the field.
M. Morffew of the Australian Antarctic Data Centre provided the map
of the Mawson Coast. We are grateful to J. Payne, N. Pearson,
E. Belousova and S. Piazolo (GEMOC, Macquarie University) and
K. Goemann (CSL, University of Tasmania) for help with analytical
work and interpretation of munted zircon. The authors would like to
thank two anonymous reviewers for their careful and constructive
reviews, which greatly improved the paper. This is contribution 758
from the Australian Research Council National Key Centre for the
Geochemical Evolution and Metallogeny of Continents (http://
www.gemoc.mq.edu.au). The analytical data were obtained using
instrumentation funded by DEST Systemic Infrastructure Grants,
ARC LIEF, NCRIS, industry partners and Macquarie University.
Macquarie University Research Development Grant (MQRDG, grant
ref. 9200900498) funding provided financial support to conduct the
research.
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