CHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE

Batteries

• A device that converts the chemical energy into electrical

energy.
• “Combination of individual cells”
• Cell is chemical combination of material and electrolyte
constituting the basic electrochemical energy storer.
• Battery a black box into which electrical energy is put,
stored electrochemically, and later recovered as
electrical energy.
Classification of batteries

Batteries

Primary Secondary
 Primary batteries

Primary batteries / non-chargeable – e.g. dry cell

- chemical reaction are non reversible
• Can produce current immediately

• These are most commonly used in portable devices that

have low current drain, such as in alarm and
communication circuits

• the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and

active materials may not return to their original forms
 Secondary batteries

Secondary batteries / rechargeable –

e.g. lead acid battery- chemical reaction
are reversible
• Chief interest of solar electrics

• Storage batteries

• Generally portable, common mobile sources of energy,

• Ex. Starting-lighting ignition (SLI) of automobiles,

other applications in mines locomotives, forklift trucks,
golf carts, road vehicles and submarines
 Basic battery theory

• Two electrodes (anode and

• Electrolysis
cathode) immersed in
electrolyte • A chemical process in which

• Electrical load connected bonded elements and

between electrodes compounds are dissociated
by the passage of an
• The electrons flows through
external load and ion electric current.
through in the electrolyte
recombining at other • The electrolysis of water:
electrodes
2H2O + energy = 2H2 + 2O2
 Battery - During Charge

Voltage and energy increases

Heat
Anode + Electrolyte Cathode -
chemical
reaction

Heat
Current
Charger
Energy
Battery - During Discharge

Voltage and energy decreases

Heat

Anode + electrolyte Cathode -

Chemical
reaction

Heat
Current
Load
Work
 Definition of fundamental quantities
• Energy capacities of batteries
1)Energy stored(watt-hr)
2)Energy stored per weight (watt-hr/kg)
3)Energy stored per volume(watt-hr/m³)
• Power capacity
It is the rate at which stored energy can safely be taken out of
a battery and restored
• Specific Power
The maximum rated power output/ kg the battery can supply
• Energy efficiency - useful energy out (watt-hr)/ recharge
energy (watt-hr)
• Cycle life
It is number of times the battery can be charged and
discharged under specified condition
 Classification of batteries
A) Conventional batteries
e.g. lead acid, nickel cadmium, nickel iron, nickel zinc,
silver cadmium, zinc bromine

B) Metal gas batteries

e.g. iron-air, zinc-air, zinc-oxygen, zinc-chlorine, nickel
hydrogen etc.

C) Alkali-metal-high temperature batteries

e.g. sodium-sulfur, sodium-chlorine, lithium-sulfur etc.
 Lead acid battery

• Invented by Gaston Plante in France in 1859

• First practical storage battery

• Lead-acid batteries having a very low energy-to-weight ratio

and a low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high
currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large
power-to-weight ratio.

• These features, along with their low cost, make them

attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current
required by automobile starter motors
Working principle

• + ve electrode : Lead-di-
oxide (PbO₂)
• - ve electrode : Metallic
lead (Pb)
• Electrolyte : sulphuric
acid solution

• PbO₂ + Pb + 2 H₂SO₄ ↔
PbSO₄ (+) + PbSO₄ (-) +
2H₂O
Working of a lead acid battery
 Lead acid battery
• Positive electrode (anode) made from lead alloy and
lead dioxide
• The negative electrode (cathode) is made from pure
lead and both electrodes are immersed in sulphuric
acid
While charging
• Lead oxide-anode, pure lead- cathode, liberating
H2So4 in water
• On charging sulphuric acid is produced and the
specific gravity of the electrolyte increases
Discharging
• When the battery is discharged water is produced,
diluting the acid and reducing its specific gravity
 Applications
• Wet cell stand-by (stationary) batteries designed for deep discharge
are commonly used in large backup power supplies for telephone and
computer centers, grid energy storage and off-grid household electric
power systems
• Lead-acid batteries are used in emergency lighting in case of power
failure
• Large lead-acid batteries are used to power the electric motors in
diesel-electric (conventional) submarines and are used on nuclear
submarines as well
• Motor vehicle starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) batteries (car
batteries) provides current for starting internal combustion engines.
• Lead-acid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage
(usually between 2 and 12 volts with 2 V being most common) in early
vacuum tube (valve) radio receivers.
Advantages
• Inexpensive and simple to manufacture
• Reliable and well-understood technology
• Low self-discharge
• Low maintenance requirements
Disadvantages
• Cannot be stored in a discharged condition
• Low energy density
• Allows only a limited number of full discharge cycles - well suited for
standby applications that require only occasional deep discharges
• Environmentally unfriendly - the electrolyte and the lead content can
cause environmental damage
• Transportation restrictions on flooded lead acid
• Thermal runaway can occur with improper charging
 Nickel-iron cell battery
• By Thomus A. Edison in early 1900
• Anode – Nickel oxide - hydroxide , Cathode – Iron
• Electrolyte – Potassium hydroxide
• 2NiOOH.H₂O + Fe ↔ 2Ni(OH)₂ + Fe(OH)₂
o The active materials are held in nickel-plated steel tubes or perforated
pockets. It is a very robust battery which is tolerant (overcharge, over-
discharge and short-circuiting).
o It is often used in backup situations where it can be continuously
charged and can last for more than 20 years. Due to low specific
energy, poor charge retention and its high cost of manufacture, other
types of rechargeable batteries have displaced the nickel-iron battery
in most applications
o They are currently gaining popularity for solar voltaic backup
applications where daily charging makes them an appropriate
technology
• Advantages - used for rail, raod car, mine lighting, industrial trucks
• Disadvantages - Upon standing it losses its charge & requires addition
of water time to time
 Nickel-Cadmium battery
• By W. Junjer in sweden
• The nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd or NiCad) is a type of rechargeable battery
using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrode.
• 2NiOOH.H₂O + Cd ↔ 2Ni( OH) ₂ + Cd (OH)₂
• Advantages : longer life, Little loss of water and no evaluation of hydrogen
o Applications : Small NiCd dry cells are used for portable electronics and toys
o When NiCds are substituted for primary cells, the lower terminal voltage and
smaller ampere-hour capacity may reduce performance as compared to
primary cells
o Miniature button cells are sometimes used in photographic equipment, hand-
held lamps (flashlight or torch), computer-memory standby, toys and novelties,
cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting and other applications.
Advantages
• Fast and simple charge - even after prolonged
storage
• High number of charge/discharge cycles
• Good load performance
• Long shelf life
• Simple storage and transportation
• Good low temperature performance
Disadvantages
• Relatively low energy
• Memory effect
• Environmentally unfriendly - the NiCd contains toxic
metals
• Some countries are limiting the use of the NiCd
battery
 Lithium ion battery

• One of the most energetic rechargeable batteries

Advantages
• They're generally much lighter than other types of
rechargeable batteries of the same size. The electrodes of
a lithium-ion battery are made of lightweight lithium and
carbon. Lithium is also a highly reactive element,
meaning that a lot of energy can be stored in its atomic
bonds. This translates into a very high energy density for
lithium-ion batteries
Lithium ion battery
• The metal case holds a long spiral comprising
three thin sheets pressed together:
• A Positive electrode
• A Negative electrode
• A separator
• Inside the case these sheets are submerged in
an organic solvent that acts as the electrolyte.
Ether is one common solvent.
• The separator is a very thin sheet of micro-
perforated plastic. As the name implies, it
separates the positive and negative electrodes
while allowing ions to pass through.
• The positive electrode is made of Lithium
cobalt oxide, or LiCoO2. The negative
electrode is made of carbon. When the battery
charges, ions of lithium move through the
electrolyte from the positive electrode to the
negative electrode and attach to the carbon.
During discharge, the lithium ions move back
to the LiCoO2 from the carbon.
• A typical lithium-ion battery can store 150 watt-hours of
electricity in 1 kilogram of battery.

• A lithium-ion battery pack loses only about 5 percent of

its charge per month, compared to other batteries

• They have no memory effect, which means that you do

not have to completely discharge them before recharging,

• Lithium-ion batteries can handle hundreds of

charge/discharge cycles.
 Disadvantages

• They start degrading as soon as they leave the factory. They will
only last two or three years from the date of manufacture whether
you use them or not.
• They are extremely sensitive to high temperatures. Heat causes
lithium-ion battery packs to degrade much faster than they normally
would.
• If you completely discharge a lithium-ion battery, it is ruined.
• A lithium-ion battery pack must have an on-board computer to
manage the battery. This makes them even more expensive than
they already are.
• There is a small chance that, if a lithium-ion battery pack fails, it will
burst into flame.
 Sodium–sulfur battery
• Sodium–sulfur battery or liquid metal battery is a type of molten
metal battery constructed from sodium (Na) and sulfur (S).
• This type of battery has a high energy density, high efficiency of
charge/discharge (89–92%) and long cycle life, and is fabricated
from inexpensive materials.
• However, because of the operating temperatures of 300 to 350 °C
and the highly corrosive nature of the sodium polysulfides, such
cells are primarily suitable for large-scale non-mobile applications
such as grid energy storage
• The battery has a solid electrolyte membrane between the anode
and cathode, compared with liquid metal batteries where the anode,
the cathode, and also the membrane are liquids.
• Pure sodium presents a hazard because it spontaneously burns/explodes in
contact with water, thus the system must be protected from moisture.
• Corrosion of the insulators was found to be a problem in the harsh chemical
environment as they gradually became conductive and the self-discharge
rate increased.
• NaS batteries are a possible energy storage technology to support
renewable energy generation, specifically wind farms and solar generation
plants.
• In the case of a wind farm, the battery would store energy during times of
high wind but low power demand. This stored energy could then be
discharged from the batteries during peak load periods.
• In addition to this power shifting, it is likely that sodium sulfur batteries could
be used throughout the day to assist in stabilizing the power output of the
wind farm during wind fluctuations.
 Zinc-bromine battery

• A solution of Zinc bromide is stored in two tanks.

• When the battery is charged or discharged the solutions
(electrolytes) are pumped through a reactor and back
into the tanks.
• One tank is used to store the electrolyte for the positive
electrode reactions and the other for the negative.
• Zinc bromine batteries from different manufacturers
have energy densities ranging from 34.4–54 Wh/kg
The primary features of the zinc bromine battery are:
• High energy density relative to lead-acid batteries
• 100% depth of discharge capability on a daily basis
• High cycle life of >2,000 cycles at 100% depth of discharge, at
which point the battery can be serviced to increase cycle life to over
3,500 cycles
• No shelf life limitations as zinc-bromine batteries are non-perishable,
unlike lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries, for example.
• Scalable capacities from 10 kW·h (0.036 GJ) to over 500 kW·h
(1.8 GJ) systems
• The ability to store energy from any electricity generating source
 Flow battery

• A flow battery is a form of rechargeable battery in which

electrolyte containing one or more dissolved electro-
active species flows through an electrochemical cell that
converts chemical energy directly to electricity
 Battery Storage

• Flow batteries store energy in charged electrolytes and

utilize proton exchange membranes similar to fuel cells.
This storage technology is not developed enough at this
point for practical wind energy application. Battery size,
tank capacities, containment, and cell life are the most
critical issues.
 Wind-hydrogen storage system
Storage system e-
Variable Power Grid
efficiency: 25% to 35% e-
-speed
drive

e- Wind
turbine

Rectifier e-
e- Inverter

e-

e-

Electrolyzer
H2 Fuel-cell
H2 H2

Storage
H2 Fuel
Compressor
 B ASIC CHARGING METHODS
 Constant Voltage Cheap battery chargers

 Constant Current Switches off at voltage set-point

 Taper Current Unregulated constant voltage

 Negative Pulse Charge Short discharge pulse

 IUI Charging Constant I, constant V, equalize

 IUO Charging Constant I, constant V, float

 Trickle charge Compensate for self discharge

 Float charge Constant voltage below gassing V

 Random charging Solar panel

 B ATTERY C APACITY
Type Capacity (mAh) Density (Wh/kg)

Alkaline AA 2850 124

Rechargeable 1600 80

NiCd AA 750 41

NiMH AA 1100 51

Lithium ion 1200 100

Lead acid 2000 30

 D ISCHARGE R ATES

Type Voltage Peak Optimal

Drain Drain
Alkaline 1.5 0.5C < 0.2C
NiCd 1.25 20C 1C

Nickel metal 1.25 5C < 0.5C

Lead acid 2 5C 0.2C

Lithium ion 3.6 2C < 1C

 H OW TO MAXIMIZE BATTERY LIFE
 Do not mix with the new batteries used. It reduces the life of
both.
 Store batteries in room temperature (60 – 90 degrees typical).

 For re-chargeable batteries: Do not over charge batteries. It will

reduce the cycle time of battery.

 Don’t over drain the batteries as well.

 Use the right charger for each type of batteries.

 General uses of a battery
• Alarm System  Cars/Trucks
• Radios  Computers/Laptops
• Clock
• Cameras  Motorcycle
• Digital devices  Boats
• Hearing aids
• Toys  Cordless Phone
• Flashlights
 Drill packs
• Calculators
• Medical Devices  Electric Wheel Chair

 Ipods/Mobile Sound systems

 Advantages of batteries

• Mitigation of oil shortage and import problem

• Lower cost of electric energy

• Lower capital cost

• No envt. Pollution

• Savings in power transmission

• Shorter time for construction

• Reliability In power emergency and regulation

 Disadvantages of batteries

• Batteries can be used for only a limited time, even

Rechargeable batteries can be recharged a certain
number of times
• Some equipment (high consuming power
equipment) become heavier when using batteries
• Some batteries are dangerous and can lead to fire,
explosion and chemical pollution
• Some types of batteries need to be maintained and
checked periodically
 Fuel cells
• Fuel cells use a chemical reaction, rather than
combustion (burning a fuel), to produce electricity in a
process that is the reverse of electrolysis.

• In electrolysis, and electric current applied to water

produces hydrogen and oxygen. By reversing this
process, hydrogen and oxygen are combined in the fuel
cell to produce electricity and water.
Working principle
• Hydrogen (fuel) is fed into the
anode of the fuel cell.
• Oxygen (from air) is fed into the
cathode side.
• Encouraged by a catalyst,
electrons are stripped from the
hydrogen atom.
• Freed of the electrons, the protons
pass through the electrolyte, while
the electrons are forced to take a
different path to the cathode.
• As the electrons travel their
separate path, they create an
electric current that can be
utilized.
• At the cathode, another catalyst
rejoins the hydrogen atom, which
then combines with the oxygen to
create a molecule of water.
 Storage of chemical energy
• Energy content about 0.3 cubic meter at STP is one kWh
• Familiar reaction is electrolysis where direct current is passed
through a conducting aqueous solution producing hydrogen at
one electrode and oxygen at the other
• Energy from the wind was converted into electricity (DC) in one
scheme for the electrolysis of water
• Electrolytic cell – Estimated to offer about 60% efficiency and
hydrogen was produced and stored by electrolysis at 211 kg/cm2
• Volume required to store hydrogen at a pressure of 211 kg/cm2,
would be only 0.001 m3 per kWh
Types of fuel cells
Classified on the basis of operating
conditions and various electrolytes used.

– Alkaline fuel cells (AFC)

– Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM)
– Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)
– Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
– Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
– Regenerative fuel cells
 Hydrogen Production by
Solar Electrolysis

• Solar electric power and/or utility grid power

• Power Controller
• Electrolyzer
• Hydrogen Purifier
• Oxygen Purifier
• Hydrogen and Oxygen Storage Tanks
• Electrolyte Storage Tank and Transfer Pump
• Makeup-water Purifier
• Solar electric power is
produced by two 16-panel
Solar photovoltaic arrays
and a gaggle of other
smaller panels.
• When the two house
battery banks are fully
charged, two 50 Amp
charge controllers
disconnect the PV power,
and the PV voltage rises.
• controller senses the
voltage rise and transfers
the PV power to the
electrolyzers to make
hydrogen and oxygen.
Advantages
• No green house gases
• Not much political dependence
• More operating time.

Disadvantages
• Storage of Hydrogen due to highly inflammable
nature of H2. Though metal hydrides(FeTiH1.7)
and NH3 can be alternative.
• High capital cost due to Platinum catalyst used
in the process.
Thank you !!!