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Energy Reports 6 (2020) 364–370

www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

7th International Conference on Energy and Environment Research, ICEER 2020, 14–18
September, ISEP, Porto, Portugal

Carbon footprint and embodied energy of PVC, PE, and PP piping:

Perspective on environmental performance
Amzan Alsabri, Sami G. Al-Ghamdi ∗
Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
Received 1 November 2020; accepted 16 November 2020

Abstract
This study is aimed at comparative data analysis of three types of polymers i.e. Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polyethylene
(PE) and Polypropylene (PP). These polymers are widely used in Piping, water sanity, and medical industries. Polypropylene
is highly thermal resistant and can withstand much higher temperatures than PVC. Literature review was done to analyze Life
cycle assessment and carbon footprint of these plastic production processes to find the environmental impact that contributes to
global warming. However, PVC has higher energy consumption and CO2 gas emission that shows its high potential in global
warming than other plastics. Moreover, the recycling of PVC has shown significant contributions in lowering the effect on
climate change. This study also focuses on the industries which produces significant CO2 emissions into environment and how
we can reduce these emissions in most appropriate ways.
⃝c 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 7th International Conference on Energy and Environment Research, ICEER, 2020.

Keywords: Carbon footprint; Embodied energy; Life cycle assessment; Polyvinylchloride; Polypropylene; Polyethylene

1. Introduction
1.1. Global market for polyvinyl chloride

Polyvinylchloride (PVC) is an extensively used thermoplastic polymer due to its durability, affordability, and
workability. It is all-purpose general plastic widely used in construction, civil material, and many other consumers’
products. PVC polymer is highly polar and thus has a good insulation property, but it is inferior to non-polar
polymers i.e. polypropylene and polyethylene. Hence, it is used for low or medium voltage material. Heat stability
of this material is very poor as it decomposes at a temperature of 140 ◦ C. It is the perfect material for roofing due
to its resistance to aggressive environments. The chlorine content of the PVC gives its ignition property. PVC is
considered as the most significant product of the chemical industry since 50% of PVC is being used in construction
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: salghamdi@hbku.edu.qa (S.G. Al-Ghamdi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2020.11.173
2352-4847/⃝ c 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 7th International Conference on Energy and Environment Research, ICEER,
2020.
A. Alsabri and S.G. Al-Ghamdi Energy Reports 6 (2020) 364–370

Nomenclature
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
PP Polypropylene
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
PE Polyethylene
AML All Materials Locator
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
LLDP Linear Low-Density Polyethylene

industry [1]. Approximately 44.3 MMT of Polyvinyl Chloride resin is produced globally in 2018, and it is projected
to increase up to 59.72 MMT till 2025 at a rate of 4.36% of Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) for the estimated
period [2]. Despite the fact, demand of PVC is about USD 59.1 billion in the market in 2018, and will increase up
to USD 88.63 billion till 2025 increasing by 5.96% compounded yearly [3].

1.2. Global market for polyethylene

Polyethylene pipes are significantly known for its cost-effective solution for several piping applications e.g., com-
munity water and sewer, natural gas distribution, industrial, mining, landfill, marine and electrical and transportations
duct applications. It is also significant for above ground, trenchless, buried, marine and floating installations [4].
Globally, demand of polyethylene resins in 2018 was estimated to be $164 billion that escalated to 4.0% annually to
99.6 MMT [5]. Improvements will match total world economic growth, powered by growth in consumer expenditure
and industrial activity. Polyethylene will take its position of the most commonly used plastic, promoting from its
adaptability, low cost, easy processability and recyclability. The production of ethylene raw material from new
sources for instance, coal, shale gas and bio based resources will lead to economic growth of polyethylene [5].
Furthermore, constantly refining polymerization catalyst skills will improve the customization, performance, and
production of polyethylene resins. More intensifications will be restricted, though, by the extremely commoditized
and settled position of polyethylene. Moreover, main polyethylene applications for instance, plastic bags have
progressively become issue to environmental procedures and bans [6].

1.3. Global market for polypropylene

Polypropylene is considered as the most versatile and light weight polymer. It can undergo a wide range
of manufacturing processes, for instance, general-purpose extrusion, injection molding, expansion molding, and
extrusion blow molding. It has various applications that are packing of customer goods, plastic parts for several
industries together with the automotive industry, textiles and special devices corresponding to living hinges [7]. The
global production of polypropylene market is expected to reach USD 155.57 billion in 2026 [8]. Polypropylene
resins are estimated to be produced at the rate of 56 MMT in 2018, and expected to be increased to 88 MMT till
2026 with the growing rate of about 5.7% [8].
Packaging industry is in highest demand of propylene and thus expected to grow the market in future. High tensile
strength, better surface finish, superior barrier properties and low cost define polypropylene as an ideal product for
several packaging applications [7].

1.4. Use of polymers in piping industry

1.4.1. Polyvinyl vinyl chloride

The most commonly used material for the manufacturing of plastic piping is Polyvinyl as it is stronger and
more rigid than any other thermoplastics. PVC piping is practically implemented in several applications including
water supply, drainage, and electrical conduit. It is argued that PVC is not that efficient for underground piping
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as it is a bit harder to locate, that is why they prefer metal pipes which can be easily located. Nevertheless, a
new subversive electrical locator known as all materials locator (AML) PVC Pipe Detector is altering the way
people locate hidden PVC pipes [9]. It is hard to locate subsurface PVC pipe and thus needs a special process.
Polyvinyl chloride is widely used for producing pipes, and in the water distribution market it accounts for 66%
of the market in the US, and in sanitary sewer pipe applications, it accounts for 75% [3]. In February 2007, the
California Building Standards Code was modernized to support the use of chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)
pipe for usage in domestic water supply piping structure. Since 1982, CPVC has been generally recognized stock
in the United States; but its limited use was permitted in 2001. However, use of CPVC was approved after the
recommendation of Community Development as they tested the environment impact of PVC [3].
PVC has a comparatively higher modulus of elasticity and tensile strength. The main water and sewer spotting
industries entail their workforces to be well informed of extreme deflection, and the most bend a specific flexible
pipe, for instance, PVC pipe can endure. It is imperative to measure the maximum deflection of the pipe while
using buried PVC pipe, and also the embedment procedure to certify it remains undamaged in the pressure of
soil. Or more strength, PVC pipe should be tightened as the pressure of the weight loaded on top will be spread
into the adjacent embedment despite in walls of the pipe. Moreover, a PVC pipe detector can be used in different
applications i.e. chemical processing, chilled water distribution, industrial plating and irrigation etc. [10].

1.4.2. Polypropylene
Polypropylene is another commonly used polymer in the Piping industry as it is lightweight and equally strong as
high-density polyethylene. Polypropylene pipes have the advantage of bearing much higher temperature than PVC
pipe. This pipe is resistant to various reagents, for instance, caustic soda and sulfuric acid, and also counterattacks
abrasion [9]. However, pipe detection connoisseurs are not recommended to use Polypropylene along with strong
oxidizing acids e.g. chlorinated hydrocarbons. The AML is the most extensively used detector and it can detect
any type of underground material with an edge without discriminating it based on types of thermoplastics used.
The Polypropylene pipe was introduced in the sanitary sewer industry as its reduced safety factor was acclaimed,
however, these claimed factors were not proved exactly [7]. PVC pipe has been approved as best for difficult
applications i.e., water main and sewer detection. Hence, PVC is the most extensively used pipe and shares 80%
of the market use [11].

1.4.3. Polyethylene
Polyethylene is another polymer used in the Pipe industry. Even though the Pipe marketplace in Saudi Arabia
is centrally based on polyvinylchloride, but in 2008 PE-100 pipes were specified for various portable functions by
the government. This has encouraged more solid growth for fittings and pipes in high density polyethylene (HDPE)
that needs bi-modal resins [12].

1.5. Production of polymers in gulf cooperation council countries (GCC)

Polyethylene (PE) takes up the major market share of approximately 70% of the overall engineering polymers.
The main areas in the GCC region beneath high development actions are transportation, construction, healthcare,
and electronics that contribute maximum share in the requests of plastics. GCC industry is rising at a rate of nearly
9% per annum affecting a similar growth outline for polymers market. Globally Polyethylene (including all types
i.e. High-density polyethylene, low-density polyethylene, and Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDP) demand
was around 81 million tons in 2013 [13]. Around 7% of the total demand was from the Middle East, where Saudi
Arabia was the main consumer country that comes under the GCC. However, Iran and Turkey are the second-largest
consumers of total Polyethylene’s demand outside GCC. In 2013, the total demand for polypropylene was about
55 million tons per year, where 7% was for the Middle East, and 23% of total demand was consumed by Saudi
Arabia [13].
Globally, 39 million tons of PVC was in demand that included 6% of Middle East countries. While in Japan, in
2013, PVC demand was 15% for sewer, 12% for water supply, 4% for agriculture and 2% for cable protection [14].
The production of PVC pipe is assessed to be approximately 2000 tons per annum. More than a few thousand
tons of single-layer pipes with recycles that do not meet standards of the PPFA values are traded to niche market
e.g. Do-It-Yourself shops [15].
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GCC governments are highly concerned with the difficulties confronted by recycling authorities and waste
management. At this time available statistics have depicted that only 11% of entire waste is being recycled in
the United Arab Emirates, and similarly in Kuwait. Only 15 of waste recycling is reported in Jubail Industrial
city assembled in Saudi Arabia in 2015. Qatar has also shown recycling of 1% of total solid waste. Collectively,
approximately 12million tons (9% of total plastic waste) was recycled annually in all regions of GCC [13]. With
the geopolitical uncertainty and export restriction being imposed by some GCC countries on Qatar, the demand of
construction material, especially polymers might increase in the upcoming years. With the increase in production
houses, the production of locally produced polymer will increase which will increase the environmental impacts.
Therefore, this region should consider recycling plants or production units with downstream carbon capturing
technologies as an alternative to avoid future undesired environmental impacts resulted from manufacturing
processes of polymers as well as polymers waste [16].

1.6. Production of polymers in Japan

In Japan, PVC was being recycled to about 44% in 2000 and this production was increased to 48% in 2001
which was used for the piping industry. About 1.486 × 106 tons of Polyvinylchloride is retained in Japan, while
the rest is exported to other countries [17]. The recycling of PVC in Japan is highly recommended as about 50%
of the local accretion ensues as PVC plates, rods, and pipes; about 30% is present as PVC sheets and films and
approximately 8% of PVC occurs as wire sheathing. All these facts suggests that the recycling of PVC can not only
increased the production scale but also reduce environmental impacts [14].

1.7. Embodied energy consumption of polymers

For sanitation pipes, each 3 m section pipe the most energy-consuming polymer is Polyvinylchloride as it
consumes 223.4 kWh of energy. It has also most emission of CO2 as for each 3 m section pipe, around 67 kg
CO2 is used without accessories [18]. Primarily, the ridged PP made without using recycled material consumes
energy of 191 kWh with the emission of 61.5 kg of CO2 [17]. The PE 3 m section pipes made without using
recycled material consumes energy of 211 kWh with accompanying emissions of about 58.6 kg of CO2 [18].
The determining factor, in this case, is the weight per meter of the pipe. Both the corrugated PP and PE weigh
15% less per meter than that of the PVC. It has shown that energy consumption for the production of PVC, PP, and
PE was reduced by 74%–75% with the usage of 80% recycled material [19]. Moreover, plastic pipes with recycling
material have shown similar behavior as the plastic with non-recycled material does. Recycling has a positive
impact of embodied energy in the packaging of beverages as Polyethylene has embodied energy of 6.56 MJ/l.
Moreover, the packaging of PVC is decreasing as it has a minor impact [18]. One of the sources of CO2 emission
is from the production plants of polymers and there should be appropriate measures and technologies employed
to reduce these dangerous emissions into environment [20]. Adsorption and absorption are most used conventional
technologies to capture carbon before it is being released to environment. But with recent developments, there
are advanced technologies like membrane technology which is gaining satisfactory results. In this technique, flue
gas from manufacturing plants is cooled down and made to pass through a special type of membrane made up of
ceramic, metallic or polymeric materials where CO2 is absorbed by membrane and clean gas is ejected into the air.
The efficiency of this technique is above 80% of CO2 removal and most of the newly constructed manufacturing
units are adapting this technology in their plants [20].

1.8. Objectives of this research

The purpose of this research is to implement a comparative analysis of the three types of polymers (Polyvinylchlo-
ride, polyethylene, and polypropylene) from different aspects. First of all, to discuss the global demand of PP, PVC,
and PE as well as the polymers productions in the GCC region comparing to Japan. Moreover, a comparative analysis
focuses on the embodied energy consumption for the PP, PET, and PVC in order to calculate the carbon footprint
and emissions for each polymer.
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2. Methods
2.1. Life cycle and carbon footprint assessment

The life cycle assessments is a great tool used to measure the carbon footprints, and it is also a significant process
for assessing the environmental impacts for any type of product, where it was used in recent studies to assess the
environmental impacts for several types of polymers. Raised levels of carbon dioxide caused by the utilization
of fossil fuels in mid-20th century onwards give rise to climate change and regional patterns of climate [21].
The carbon footprints of plastic products are determined by measurement of emission of Greenhouse gases in
the whole production process. In the Earth’s atmosphere, important greenhouse gases are Carbon dioxide, methane,
water vapor, ozone, nitrous oxide, and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). This greenhouse gas emission has an impact on
the environment that is defined as global warming. Global warming potential is also used to measure how much
greenhouse gases have contributed in global warming. Among all the greenhouse gases, CO2 is used as a reference
to the other greenhouse gases [19]. During the years 1970 to 2010, the total anthropogenic GHG emissions have
climbed to extreme levels despite the accredited global policies to mitigate climate change [20].
The rise in the concentration of greenhouse gases will result in climate change impacts like increase in
temperature, increase in wet-bulb temperature (WTB), rise in sea level, and changes in precipitation patterns in
Middle East countries [21]. Many countries around the globe are acting to reduce their emissions of Green House
Gases and help delay or prevent the adverse effects of global warming [20]. Subsequently, as per the geographical
position of Qatar, heat waves will occur more frequently and have a longer duration in the future, as per the local
climate agencies and predictions from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). These countries are
facing tough challenges to cover their electricity demand over summer period, experiencing grid burnouts and
consequent power blackouts much frequently. Such increase in electricity demand could be covered by installing
additional production capacities in Gulf Countries. However, additional fossil-fuel plants would increase already
significant carbon footprint of these countries, which would consequently result in lower air, land and water quality.
Also this step will harm the country’s economy because of the increase in self-consumption and depletion rates of
natural resources [22]. The polymer industry of Qatar is dependent on imports, in addition to that Qatar maintains
a single land neighbor and surrounded by gulf. It is quite evident that they are at higher risk of sudden changes in
importing supply routes considering current geopolitical uncertainties in the region [16].
A discontinuity in the supply chain of any type of commodity such as polymers which is widely used material in
GCC countries may need an immediate change in action plans of government to maintain the economy and stability.
It will affect country’s economy as well as environmental aspects associated with that commodity. Therefore, the
related aspects should be considered, and a government should take necessary actions needed to maintain the
development and supply chain management [16].

2.1.1. Polypropylene
A study has found the environmental impact of polypropylene by comparing procedures for making two shopping
bags to calculate its carbon footprint. Life cycle inventory assessed the inputs and outputs for Spun bonding, Cutting,
Screen printing, Sewing, thermal bonding and packaging of sewing and non-sewing shopping. Thermal bonding
was used instead of sewing for one shopping bag. The study has concluded that sewing shopping bag is better than
non-sewing (thermal bonding) in terms of global warming potential [8]. However, contributing factors for global
warming potential are the transport and usage of electricity for the manufacturing process and the Polypropylene chip
production itself. Briefly, carbon foot printing of polypropylene is proved to produce lower carbon emissions with
application of sewing technology [23]. However, another study has revealed that the polyethylene (PE) production
is more successful than polypropylene production in all the life cycle impact categories [24]. An LCA study has
been conducted to examine the environmental impacts associated with the PP manufacturing process based on an
existing PP plant located in the GCC, the study considers the environmental impacts of polypropylene resin in the
context of the Middle East region, using the LCA tool where GaBi software was selected to carry out this research
study and the functional unit was 1 ton of PP pellets. The results of this study show that gross CO2 emissions for
the manufacturing process of PP in the plant located in the GCC region were estimated to be 1.58 kg CO2 /Kg-PP,
where this result has been compared to previous LCA study that have been conducted in Japan were their outcome
was estimated to be 1.6 kg CO2 /Kg-PP, my results were relatively close to the outcome of the LCA study that has
been conducted in Japan.
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2.1.2. Polyvinyl chloride

A study has analyzed the environmental impact of five different types of pipes i.e. high-density polyethylene
(HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), fibrocement, ductile iron (DI) and steel. Through life cycle assessment, the
production process of all types of pipes were analyzed at each step to evaluate the use of energy and carbon
emission [25]. Findings have revealed that ductile iron has large environmental impact in terms of large carbon
emission, for instance, 128 kg CO2 gas emission by production of 1 meter of 200 mm Ductile iron pipe. This carbon
emission was six times that of the polyvinyl chloride. However, in installation phase, fibrocement trench showed
large environmental impact than the polyvinylchloride pipe [26]. The recycled Polyvinyl chloride has reduced
climate impact from 36.21% to 15.53% for the production of 1-ton polyvinylchloride [1,23].

2.1.3. Polyethylene
A study has analyzed the environmental impact of three type of bottles i.e. fully fossil-based, 100% bio-based
and partially bio-based PET bottles. Findings of Life cycle assessment of these bottles have indicated that woody-
biomass PET bottles with 21% less GWP and need 22% lesser fossil fuel, however, it did not work as good in
other categories i.e. ozone depletion and ecotoxicity impacts. Forest residue feedstock showed better environmental
impact for production of bio-PET bottle than corn Stover. The variability in avoided burdens could alter the relative
environmental rankings for fossil and bio-PET bottles [10].

2.2. Comparative perspective on environmental performance of three polymers (PVC, PP, PE)

Table 1, demonstrates a comparative perspective on environmental performance of the three polymers discussed
in this paper (PVC, PP, and PE).

Table 1. Environmental Performance of PVC, PP, and PE.

Polyvinyl chloride Polypropylene Polyethylene
Energy consumption Consumes 223.4 kWh of energy [15] Consumes energy of 191 kWh [16] Consumes energy of 211 kWh [17]
Carbon footprint Emission of 67 kg CO2 [15] Emission of 61.5 kg of CO2 [16] Emissions of about 58.6 kg of CO2
[17]
Life cycle impact The recycled Polyvinyl chloride has Lower carbon emissions. Better than Need 22% lesser fossil fuel. it did
reduced climate impact from 36.21% PE in terms of lifecycle impact not work as good in other categories
to 15.53% [1,20] categories [20] i.e. ozone depletion and Eco toxicity
impacts [10]

3. Conclusion
This study has suggested that the use of recycled plastic i.e., Polyvinylchloride can improve its production scale
but also reduce global warming Among all three types of polymers discussed in this article, PVC has been approved
to have more energy consumption and CO2 gas emission. Thus, it has a more contribution to global warming in
comparison to other types of polymer. Moreover, recycling of plastic waste is not that common in GCC regions
even they are dominant consumers of plastic. Hence, GCC regions have suggested to recycle products as Japan is
using recycle plastic wastes for the production of PVC in the piping industry. It was also revealed that recycling
and the non-recycling product has the same quality of products.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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