900 Production Separators

900 Production Separators
Abstract
This section presents design principles, process considerations, and sizing for
production separators, including common oilfield separators and separator internal
components and their functions. It discusses flash calculations, separation theory,
fluid properties, and liquid/liquid separation. Also included is a discussion of the
input data needed for the PC “Bookware” programs for sizing separators.
Contents Page
910 Introduction 900-4

911 Objectives
912 General Background
920 Design of Production Separators 900-4
921 Introduction
922 Gas Plant Process Vessels and Compressor Knockout Drums
923 Oilfield Production Separators
924 Crude Oil Dehydration
930 PC Based Programs 900-5
931 Comparison with Company Design Procedure
932 Input to the Bookware Programs
933 Program Output
934 Cautions on Using the Bookware Programs
940 Common Oilfield Separators 900-8
941 Scrubbers
942 Gas Traps and Sand Traps
943 Three-Phase Horizontal Separators
944 Test Separators
945 Filter Separators (Coalescers)
946 Slug Catchers
Chevron Corporation 900-1 March 1990

900 Production Separators Pressure Vessel Manual
947 Steam Separators

948 Flash Separators
949 Flare Knockout or Vent Scrubbers
950 Separator Internal Components and Functions 900-12
951 Primary Separation Section and Inlet Diverters
952 Secondary Separation and Vessel Intervals
953 Mist Extractors
954 Serpentine Vanes
955 Dixon Plates
956 Centrifugal Mist Extractors
957 Vortex Breakers
958 Weir Buckets and Interface Controls
960 Design Principles and Process Considerations 900-21
961 Approximate Flash Calculations
962 Process Information and Facility Design
970 Separation Theory 900-31
971 Mechanisms of Particle Collection
972 Gravity Separation
973 Centrifugal Force
974 Impingement and Coalescence
980 Fluid Properties 900-33
981 Formation and Characteristics of Oil-Water Mixture
982 Free Water
983 Fluid Equilibrium
984 Fluid Shear
985 Fluid Gravity vs Temperature
986 Multiphase Flow
990 Liquid/Liquid Separation 900-37
991 Liquid Retention Time
992 Factors That Affect Separation Efficiency
993 Pressure and Temperature
994 Viscosity
995 Foam
March 1990 900-2 Chevron Corporation

Pressure Vessel Manual 900 Production Separators
996 Emulsions
997 Flow Rate Surge or “Slugs”
998 Turbulence
999 Sour Service

910 Introduction
This section presents general guidelines for the selection of oil/gas/water separation
systems. In upstream oilfield operations, separators are the primary process
elements in production systems. They separate the components of reservoir fluid
into segregated gas, crude oil, and water streams for further processing. A review of
the factors affecting production separation efficiency is presented along with sizing
procedures for primary production separators. This does not include detailed
process simulation procedures, economic evaluations, sizing methods for equip-
ment other than separators, or mechanical design of separators. The information in
this section is not intended to be used for final separator design, although it will
allow reasonable verifications of vendor's quotations.
911 Objectives
The objectives of this section are:
1. To acquaint the engineer with the factors that go into planning a crude oil sepa-
ration system.
2. To simplify recognition and selection of the correct vessel configuration for
any particular duty.
3. To provide procedures for selecting overall dimensions for two- and three-
phase separators.
912 General Background

Historically, vendors and engineering contractors perform much of the sizing for
pressure vessels. In many cases, vendors and contractors use proprietary vessel
design equations or programs to size vessels. To a large degree, most of these
programs are based on theoretical equations with limited field data to verify the
basic mathematical model. All crudes are different, and good modeling of perfor-
mance involves knowledge not only of vessels but of crude characteristics. Informa-
tion about crude oils is often vague and subject to change. Tools to accurately
determine what is going on in the separator are now being developed. The theory
presented below is the best current information, although empirical.
920 Design of Production Separators
921 Introduction
This section discusses several methods for sizing horizontal and vertical separators.
922 Gas Plant Process Vessels and Compressor Knockout Drums

The Company Design Procedure as outlined in Section 300 is well suited for
compressor knockout and process vessel design where quality phase separation is

considered essential. This method uses a conservative design approach that gener-
ally accommodates variations in either process fluctuations or nominal flowrate
increases. It is recommended that this design method be used first when comparing
vessel sizes with other design approaches.
923 Oilfield Production Separators

For oilfield production separators, less conservative design methods are commonly
used to provide adequate sizing of vessels, such as production gas traps or “pool”
traps. Methods similar to API 12J using K factors are generally employed for these
less critical bulk separation processes. In these applications the engineer is gener-
ally designing for rapid separation of gas and liquids, typically in the 1 to 3 minute
liquid hold-up range.
The separator sizing computer programs discussed in Section 930 can be used for
initial sizing. Final calculation is vessel-specific and must take local operating expe-
rience into account. The PC sizing programs presented in Section 930 require that
you know certain process information that is key to obtaining a good separator
design. In the event that process data are not available, program supplied default
values can be used as guidelines to arrive at a “first pass” separator size. Most
certainly the best design technique is to use field data (retention time, BS&W, etc.)
to determine input to the PC programs. With field data, the program should provide
a good method to predict comparative separator performance.
All methods should be used in conjunction with foam prediction methods. Foam
generation, in high viscosity crudes is common, and process considerations of
vessel design as outlined in Section 995 should be included in the final vessel
design.
924 Crude Oil Dehydration

Oil dehydration is a complex subject that does not always lend itself to a simple
discussion of retention time vs oil gravity. It will not be covered in this manual;
however, additional design information can be obtained by contacting: Chevron
Research and Technology Company (CRTC), Production & Process Facilities
Group.
930 PC Based Programs

The “Production Facility Bookware Series” is a series on PC Based Programs for
sizing separators. Module 101 is for two-phase separators; Module 102 is for three-
phase separators. Each module contains a personal computer program for designing
or rating a vertical or horizontal separator. Module 101 and 102 can be obtained by
contacting Chevron Research and Technology Company, Production & Process
Facilities Group. (See Reference 9 in the Reference section of this manual for more
information.)

931 Comparison with Company Design Procedure

The main difference between the “Bookware” method discussed here and the
method recommended in Section 300 is in the correlations used for allowable vapor
velocity. Bookware uses a theoretical, droplet terminal settling velocity correlation
for vapor-liquid separation. The development is similar to that shown in Section
334 for liquid-liquid separation where the correlation used is based on data from
operating units (Equation 300-1 or 300-2).
For a vertical separator designed for 100 psig, specifying a liquid droplet diameter
of 250 microns causes the Bookware method to use about the same vapor velocity
as Equation 300-1 or 300-2. At 500 psig, a droplet diameter of 200 microns is
necessary to produce agreement; at 2000 psig, a droplet of 175 microns is needed.
For a horizontal separator, the allowable vapor velocity criterion applies despite the
fact that the liquid droplets settle in a direction perpendicular to the bulk flow of
vapor. In the Bookware procedure, the settling velocity of droplets is compared to
the height of the vapor space and the residence time of the vapor in the separator. In
other words, vapor moves in “plug flow” from the inlet end of the horizontal vessel
to the outlet end. A certain liquid droplet, moving at the horizontal velocity of the
vapor, settles from the top of the vapor space toward the vapor-liquid interface. If it
reaches the interface before reaching the outlet end, then all droplets of that size
will be removed by the separator. See the cautions below regarding using Bookware
for horizontal separators.
Liquid-liquid separation methods are similar in the Company and Bookware
procedures.
The Bookware procedures do not include demisters, coalescers, feed inlet shrouds,
baffles, and water boots.
932 Input to the Bookware Programs

Input data to the Bookware Programs include the following:
• Operating temperature and pressure
• Gas flow rate and either composition or specific gravity
• Oil flow rate and either specific gravity or API gravity
• Water flow rate, if present, and gravity
• Optionally, viscosities of the above phases, or they will be estimated by
internal correlations
• Maximum liquid droplet diameter in gas (default is 140 microns)
• Maximum water droplet diameter in oil (default is 500 microns)
• Maximum oil droplet diameter in water (default is 200 microns)
• Minimum oil retention time

• Minimum water retention time

• Upper and lower bounds on L/D ratio. (Default values are 4 and 2.)
• With a horizontal separator, the fraction of the volume occupied by liquid(s).
The default value is 0.5.
• Several mechanical items (with default values) used to estimate vessel weight
933 Program Output

The program develops a set of vessels of “standard” dimensions that satisfy the
separation and retention time requirements. Standard diameters are multiples of 6
inches; standard length increments are 1 foot. L/D varies from maximum to
minimum. For each vessel, the program gives a measure of the excess capacity it
provides. That excess may be in terms of gas or liquid rate, retention time, or
droplet size separated.
934 Cautions on Using the Bookware Programs

The following precautions should be observed when using the Bookware Programs:
• The criterion for acceptable vapor velocity in a horizontal vessel is that the
time necessary for a liquid droplet to settle from the top of the vessel to the
vapor-liquid interface shall be equal to the residence time of the vapor within
the vessel. This does not rule out use of a small fraction of vessel cross section
for vapor flow and high velocity of vapor. The result would be turbulence,
disturbance of the liquid surface, and reentrainment of liquid. Bookware
suggests liquid level at the vessel midpoint and cautions that L/D ratio higher
than 5.0 can result in reentrainment; this advice is not very specific. The user
of the program should apply the criteria of Section 351 to determine the cross
section for vapor flow, even if the Bookware program then indicates that the
vessel is oversized for vapor.
• A common practice is to state liquid gravity at standard conditions (60°F) and
then correct liquid density to operating temperature. The Bookware programs
do not adjust liquid gravities for temperature; therefore, the user should supply
liquid specific gravity at operating temperature (relative to water at 60°F).
• The programs do not adjust the fraction of horizontal vessel volume occupied
by liquid. If the user's (or the default) value is not optimal, a lot of vapor or
liquid volume can be unnecessary. The user should check the excess capacity
for vapor and liquid and adjust the liquid level appropriately.
• If total liquid volume in a three-phase separator is greater than what is needed
to satisfy hydrocarbon and water residence time requirements, the excess will
be allocated to oil and water in proportion to the original retention require-
ments. The user might prefer a different distribution.

940 Common Oilfield Separators

Separators are used for many different applications. A few of the most common
services are described in this section. Figure 900-1 is a flow chart showing a typical
field separation plant.
Fig. 900-1 Typical Field Separation Plant
A production separator (also called a bulk separator or primary separator) is used to

separate one or more combined wellstreams at a well site, gathering center, plant or
offshore platform. It can be two- or three-phase. “Primary” separation indicates it is
the first process of separation the produced fluids have encountered. If located in a
plant, the production separator might be very large and handle the production from
a whole field. In large plants, several production separators are often used in
parallel.
941 Scrubbers
A scrubber is a separator used on very high gas/oil ratio (GOR) flow streams to
“scrub” small amounts of liquid from a gas stream. (See Figure 900-2.) Scrubbers
are usually two-phase, vertical vessels, although in larger applications horizontal
scrubbers are not uncommon.

Fig. 900-2 Impingement and Droplet Growth in a Typical Filter Coalescer
Suction and discharge scrubbers are placed upstream and downstream of gas
compressors. Fuel gas scrubbers remove residual liquid from gas just prior to its
use as a fuel. Pipeline scrubbers remove condensate from gas streams flowing
through long pipelines.
942 Gas Traps and Sand Traps

Gas Traps
A gas trap is a vertical separator that performs primary separation of gas from
liquid flow from the wellhead. The vessels are two-phase, with both process
streams proceeding to further processing. See Figure 900-3.

Fig. 900-3 Typical Two-Phase Vertical Separator (Gas Trap)
Sand Traps
A sand trap is a device for removing sand from a produced well-stream. Sand traps
are typically used on high pressure gas wells, where sand production is common.
943 Three-Phase Horizontal Separators

A three-phase horizontal separator is the primary component used for oil/water bulk
separation. See Figure 900-4.

Fig. 900-4 Typical Three-Phase Horizontal Separator
944 Test Separators

A test separator is also called an Automated Well Test Unit (AWT), clean-up sepa-
rator, or a gage trap. A test separator determines the oil, water, and gas volumes of
each producing reservoir or well, and monitors well performance if the facility is
owned and operated by a single company. If the producing field has several co-
owners, the field may be “unitized” and the test separator may also be used to deter-
mine relative revenue payment to each co-owner. A minimum test separator would
separate the liquid and gas and measure both phases. The density of the liquids can
be measured by an accurate densimeter after the oil and water are completely sepa-
rated in a test container.
A conventional test separator may be horizontal or vertical. The test separator is
sized for the maximum “best” full well potential and anticipated gas and water
rates. The operating pressure of the test separator would be the same operating pres-
sure as the first stage separator. The size of the test separator is normally fixed by
the residence time required for oil/water separation.
945 Filter Separators (Coalescers)

Filter separator is a generic term which includes true filter-separators, filter
coalescers, and dry gas filters. They are used to separate liquid and solid contami-
nants from a gas or liquid stream when particle size is too small to be removed by a
conventional separator. See Figure 900-5.
946 Slug Catchers

A slug catcher, or surge drum is a separator designed to separate bulk liquid-gas
flow streams which are surging or slugging (see Section 970). The slug catcher may
also serve as a production separator, in which case further processing is generally
required. Properly designed, slug catchers should smooth out the intermittent flow.

Fig. 900-5 Typical Filter Separator (Coalescer)
947 Steam Separators

Steam separators are used in geothermal projects or with steam generators; they are
simple separators which remove free water from steam, thus producing 100%
quality steam.
948 Flash Separators

A flash separator is a two-phase vessel with the primary purpose of degassing
liquid before it enters another process. An example would be a flash separator in
conjunction with an electrostatic coalescer or desalter where no free gas can be
tolerated. The fluid is first degassed in a flash separator which is elevated above the
coalescer so that once degassed the fluid will remain gas-free.
949 Flare Knockout or Vent Scrubbers

Flare scrubbers or vent scrubbers are placed in gas outlet streams from production
separators to remove any residual liquids left or any condensates that may have
formed in the line, prior to flaring or venting.
950 Separator Internal Components and Functions

The simple separation of gaseous and liquid hydrocarbon streams is normally
achieved by four distinct processes:
1. Primary phase separation of predominantly liquid hydrocarbons from those
that are predominantly gaseous.
2. Refine primary separation by removing the entrained hydrocarbon mist from
the gas.

3. Further refine the separation by removal of entrained bubbles from the liquid
phase so that, ideally, the liquid contains no more gas than would exist at equi-
librium at the pressure and temperature within the vessel.
4. Assure proper control by devices which will provide for the removal of the
separated gas and separated liquid phases from the vessel without allowing an
opportunity for reentrainment of one into the other.
The physical properties used to achieve these processes are gravity, centrifugal
force, and impingement. The effective combination of these properties, and their
governing principles, leads to efficient separator design. A description and explana-
tion of a horizontal two-phase separator illustrates how these physical properties
and principles are employed. (See Figure 900-6.)
Fig. 900-6 Basic Two-Phase Separator
The separator consists of three basic sections plus the controls, which correspond
with the four processes noted above. These are:
1. A primary separation section which controls or dissipates the energy of the
fluids as they leave the flow line and enter the vessel.
2. A secondary separation section (mist extraction or coalescing section) which
minimizes turbulence in the gas section.
3. A liquid collecting and removal section which prevents reentrainment of the
separated phases.
951 Primary Separation Section and Inlet Diverters

The entrance stream into the gas/oil separator is a high velocity, turbulent flow
stream with highly interspersed phases. The inlet mass of fluids has high
momentum due to the velocity at which it leaves the flow line. In the separating
vessel, which has a much larger diameter than the flow line, the natural velocity
for the same continuous flow rate is much less. Therefore, the inertia effects
entering the vessel must be quickly and effectively overcome so that natural gravity

separation under lower velocity conditions can occur. To accomplish this, a care-
fully designed and compact device is required for producing controlled deceleration
of the incoming fluids. This device is usually referred to as a “momentum absorber.”
Downstream of the momentum absorber, liquid material with much entrained gas
separates generally downward. Above the liquid layer is a predominantly gaseous
material with much entrained liquid, moving either upward in a vertical separating
vessel or longitudinally in a horizontal vessel.
The configuration of the inlet device can take many shapes and should be given
careful consideration. Structural channel iron usually provides optimum results, but
angle iron, flat plates or dished heads have been considered optimum for certain
applications. Vertical vessels often employ a centrifugal inlet device. See Figure
900-7 for typical configurations of inlet devices.
Fig. 900-7 Typical Configurations of Inlet Devices
952 Secondary Separation and Vessel Intervals

The secondary separation section of a separator is important for efficient separator
design. Here the properties of gravity separation and impingement are combined
with the control of turbulence to achieve the required quality of liquid droplet sepa-
ration from the gas phase, and oil from water.
In two-phase separators, the primary function of the liquid retention section is to
allow free gas bubbles to separate from the liquid. This is accomplished by
providing sufficient residence time, free of excessive turbulence, to permit gravity
separation to occur. Typically no special internals are required for “degassing” the
liquid.

A second function of the liquid retention section in three-phase separators is to sepa-

rate oil and water. Depending on the degree of separation required, a liquid
coalescing element can be used, or no element can be used, allowing only separa-
tion by gravity.
953 Mist Extractors

The stainless steel wire mesh mist extractor, an impingement type extractor, is
perhaps the most common mist extractor. Most wire mesh mist extractor manufac-
turers furnish charts depicting proper velocity design. A common pad of wire mesh
used in production separators is 4 inches to 8 inches thick, having a density of 9
lb/ft3 (0.011 inch diameter stainless steel wire). (See Figure 900-8.)
Fig. 900-8 Wire Mesh Mist Extractor Configurations
Gas velocities entering a mist extractor usually are in the turbulent flow range, so
Newton's Law is applicable. Figure 900-9 shows various particle sizes found in
nature and the ease with which they are separated. A well-designed mist extractor
has no difficulty catching 10 micron particles. Mist extractors of poor design are on
the market that allow even 1000 micron particles to pass. Most arrangements of
angle iron pieces make poor mist extractors.
Fig. 900-9 Liquid Particle Characteristics

The gas velocity for Newton's Law can be expressed as:
ρ L – ρ G 0.5
V G = K -------------------
ρG
(Eq. 900-1)
where:
K = C ( 1.74 gd )
(Eq. 900-2)
C = Drag Coefficient
g = Gravitational constant, ft/sec2
d = Average particle diameter, ft
Equation 900-2 is used to avoid reentrainment from the mist extractor. The K factor
is proportional to the drag force on a film of particle. If the K factor is too high in a
mist extractor, the film will not drain. A large amount of liquid is torn off the outlet
edge and, due to the high K factor, the particles created are smaller than normal and
are carried out.
Laboratory tests yield K factor curves such as shown in Figure 900-10. In ideal
circumstances, the K factor is not dependent on pressure or inlet liquid load;
however, this is rarely the case in actual field conditions. The curves are very steep
and one can easily choose a K factor value that is below all the reentrainment
curves. To illustrate, select a K factor of 0.35 on the curve in Figure 900-10. Most
separators have K factor values between 0.2 and 0.8.
The gas flow of a separator is usually limited to the K factor of the mist extractor.
Reentrainment is usually the biggest problem, not entrainment. Increasing velocity
increases centrifugal and impingement catching ability, but not gravity catching
ability.
A wire demister pad should not be used if wax will be present at the operating
temperature. If the crude is waxy and operates at a temperature near the cloud
point, wax may appear.
954 Serpentine Vanes

Serpentine vane extractors are lightweight and economical and need be only about
8 inches long. See Figure 900-11. These particular vanes have natural drainage
paths that do not reduce the cross-section areas. Thus, a high K factor can be used
safely in horizontal flow. Serpentine vanes have also been used in a vertical flow
configuration. Used in this way the K factor must be reduced because the perfor-
mance is limited by the ability of the separated liquid to drain downward counter-
current to the gas flow.

Fig. 900-10 Example: Carryover vs K-Factor Fig. 900-11 Serpentine Vane Mist Extractor
In the normal horizontal flow configuration, very high K factors can be used if suffi-
cient volume is available upstream for bulk liquid separation, and downstream to
allow for settling of liquid fly-off. Fly-off is liquid which has coalesced in the mist
extractor, then is blown off the trailing edge by the gas velocity. These droplets
must be large enough to settle rapidly, and this limitation determines the allowable
velocity, and therefore the K factor. Too high velocity of gas will prevent even these
relatively large coalesced droplets from settling, and they will become reentrained
in the gas stream.
If the process volume is not available upstream and downstream of the vanes, then
restrictions such as lower K factor and small allowable liquid loading are necessary.
This is the case in some cross-flow separator designs, both vertical and horizontal.
Wire mesh collects paraffin, hydrates, sand, and other solid particles, causing it to
plug rather easily; therefore, it is not generally recommended for primary wellhead
application, but is preferred for clean relatively high GOR applications. It can be
used in either vertical upflow or small horizontal configurations. Its allowable K
factor in horizontal flow is lower than for serpentine vanes because of its relatively
poor ability to drain itself of liquids. However, when conditions permit its use, wire
mesh can catch smaller particles than can the serpentine vane mist extractor.
955 Dixon Plates

A successful and widely used type of mist extractor for many years, Dixon plates
work on the principle of gravity separation. (See Figure 900-12.) They are used in
horizontal vessels as shown below. Reducing the area of each flow path with Dixon
plates reduces the turbulence, permitting gravity to separate the phases.
Dixon plates are slanted at a 45° angle so that a settling liquid droplet has only a
short distance to fall. Traditionally Dixon plates have been frequently used in
foamy crude oil applications because of the large surface area which aids foam

Fig. 900-12 Parallel “Dixon” Plate Mist Extractor
decay. Relative to other mist extractors now available, Dixon plates are inferior in
performance and are heavier and more expensive.
956 Centrifugal Mist Extractors

This type of mist extractor utilizes the flow-stream momentum to create a high
velocity rotational flow. The resulting centrifugal acceleration causes a separation
of dense liquid from light gas. It allows high K factors, but is not as efficient as
element-type mist extractor designs for removing very small droplets of liquid
from gas.
Many other mist extractor designs are available, although many have poor perfor-
mance. In general, any mist extractor that greatly reduces flow area or otherwise
causes severe turbulence should be avoided.
957 Vortex Breakers

Large amounts of carry-over and gas slippage can often occur due to poor fluid
outlet design. Vortexing can also occur at the gas or liquid outlet. When a Coriolis
force or a nonuniform flow distribution starts a rotation motion, the available
energy at the mouth of the outlet produces and maintains a strong vortex. Excessive
pressure drop and poor separation are indicative of vortexing. These problems,
however, often are not detected. Fortunately, there are well-designed vortex
breakers that dampen rotation flow. Even with proper vortex breakers, the interface
can be sucked down into the drain if the liquid height above the drain is small and
the draining velocity is large. The minimum phase height needed to feed the drain
is a function of the drain diameter, draining velocity, and the ratio of phase densities
above and below the interface.

A useful guideline is to have a minimum of two times the nozzle diameter in liquid
depth if the interface is gas/liquid, and three times the nozzle diameter if the inter-
face is liquid/liquid, assuming the nozzles are sized for typical liquid velocities. If
these minimum dimensions are maintained and vortex breakers are installed over
the outlet nozzles, the problem of outlet reentrainment can be minimized. Figure
900-13 shows some common designs for vortex breakers. When the separator is
three-phase, additional considerations are necessary to control levels.
Fig. 900-13 Outlet Vortex Breaker Designs
958 Weir Buckets and Interface Controls

Three types of outlet control for three-phase separators are shown in Figure 900-14.
These arrangements can be used in horizontal or vertical vessels. The weir plate is
simple and relatively inexpensive; however, the interface controller is activated by
the difference in densities of oil and water. The controller must be sensitive. If the
liquids are slightly emulsified or the controller is not set properly, carry-over will
result (oil-in-water or water-in-oil).
The oil bucket acts as a “U” tube, blocking the oil from reaching the weir. Water
spills over the weir as it tries to attain the same hydrostatic pressure that the oil and
water height are creating on the other side of the bucket. One advantage of this
arrangement is that the controls sense the difference between liquid and gas;
however, more internal structure and vessel volume are required. Making the bucket
and weir adjustable adds flexibility.
The open pipe arrangement is a simple and inexpensive dumping method. However,
here too, interface control instrumentation must be sensitive to small changes in
density. It is also a disadvantage to have such a limited oil height above the oil
outlet. A slight drop in oil will cause gas to be sucked in, even with a nonvortexing

Fig. 900-14 Three Types of Outlet Control for Three-Phase Separators
(a) Weir Plate
(b) Oil Bucket and Weir Plate
(c) Open Pipe

flow. Placing a horizontal pipe on top of the outlet as shown in Figure 900-14c will
help; the bottom of the pipe is slotted, allowing the oil level to drop within a few
inches of the slots without a problem. However, weir arrangements still give a
greater safety margin. When foam is present, a greater safety margin is essential
because the weight of foam distorts liquid level gage indications. A pad of emul-
sion and dirt may build up at the oil-water interface over a period of time distorting
liquid level gage readings and controller outputs. Therefore, a drain at this interface
may be specified. A toadstool interface collector is one of the better draining
devices.
960 Design Principles and Process Considerations

To size and design a separator, certain data and information must be known about
the process fluids and operating conditions. You need to know the service that the
separator is to perform and the performance requirements. Often it is helpful to
know something about the system into which the unit will fit. Special construction
and design specifications, if applicable, must be followed. Then all the information
must be interpreted to select the best design and to correctly size the separator.
Often design data are incomplete and assumptions must be made. Information
about type of service and the relationship to the whole system can be useful in
making good assumptions.
A range of different separator designs can be used or adapted to fit each need.
There are vertical and horizontal designs, longitudinal or cross flow, an assortment
of mist extractor types, and designs with and without slug catching sections.
961 Approximate Flash Calculations

Flash calculations are normally too involved to be done by hand. They are usually
done either on computer or in a programmable calculator. Sometimes it is necessary
to get a quick estimate of the volume of gas that is expected to be flashed from an
oil stream at various pressures.
Figure 900-15 was developed by flashing several crude oils of different gravities at
different pressure ranges. The curves are approximate. The actual shape depends on
the initial separation pressure, the number and pressure of intermediate flashes, and
the temperature.
Example: Suppose a 30° API crude with a GOR of 500 is flashed at 1,000 psia,
500 psia, and 50 psia before going to a stock tank. Roughly 50% of the gas, which
will eventually be flashed from the crude, or 250 ft 3/BBL will be liberated as gas in
the 1,000 psia separator. Another 25% (75% to 50%), or 125 ft3/BBL will be sepa-
rated at 500 psia and 23% (98% to 75%), or 115 ft3/BBL will be separated at
50 psia. The remaining 10 ft3/BBL (100% to 98%) will be vented from the stock
tank.
Note that Figure 900-15 is only to be used where a quick approximation is accept-
able. It cannot be used for estimating gas flashed from condensate produced in gas
wells.

Fig. 900-15 Approximate Flash Calculation Chart. Use for approximation only
962 Process Information and Facility Design

Produced Fluid Data
1. The volumes (maximum and minimum) of all fluids requiring separation
should be obtained:
a. Gas, reported in million standard cubic feet/day (MMSCFD).
b. Oil, reported in barrels/day (BPD).
c. Water, reported in barrels/day (BPD).
Define these data on an individual well stream basis and on a total facilities basis. If
possible, the data should take the form of a detailed production forecast. See Figure
900-16 for a typical plot of a production facilities fluids forecast. Confirm whether
the data include any additional fluids from artificial lift or pressure maintenance
plans.
2. A complete laboratory analysis report of all hydrocarbon components and
water components, as well as the sampling conditions, is essential to optimize
the separation system.
3. Define the wellhead conditions for the following operating modes:
a. Flowing at start-up: pressure (psig); temperature (°F).

Fig. 900-16 Production Fluids Forecast
b. Flowing at economic limit: pressure (psig); temperature (°F)

c. Shut-in pressure at start-up (psig).
These data are largely dependent on reservoir characteristics and are influenced by
artificial lift and reservoir pressure maintenance plans.
4. Production characteristics should include, as applicable, information regarding
such characteristics as:
a. The quantity and characteristics of wax (%).
b. The tendency of the oil to form emulsions (settling time, minutes).
c. Quantity of sand carried by the inlet fluids (lb/1000 BBL).
d. Slugging from flow imbalances or pigging operations (% of production
flow rate).
e. Future reservoir composition for changing gas/oil/water ratios.
f. Quantity and composition of salts in inlet production fluids (lb/1000 BBL).
g. Acidity.
Required Export Characteristics

All production facilities will have a product quality specification that applies specif-
ically to that facility, whether it is for natural gas, condensate, or crude oil. These

specifications are important decision points that, in many cases, will be paramount
in selecting the total separation system. Examples of criteria to be established are:
1. Gas gross heating value (Btu/ft3)
2. Gas inert components such as N2, CO2 (volume %)
3. Gas dew points for water and hydrocarbon (°F)
4. Moisture content (volume % for oil and lb/MMSCFD for gas)
5. Delivery pressure of export gas or oil (psig)
6. Oil BS&W content (%)
7. Gas sulfur content (grains/100 scf)
8. Oil vapor pressure (psia or Reid Vapor Pressure in psia)
9. Dissolved salts in crude oil (lb/1000 BBL)
10. Oil-in-water. Although it is not a product for export, the residual hydrocarbon
content in the final produced water stream must be known and should be
expressed in parts per million (ppm or mg/l).
Typical export specifications might be:
1. Oil
– 1% to 3% BS&W
– 20 lb salt/1000 BBL oil
– 11 to 13 psia Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP)
2. Gas
– 7 lb/MMSCF, water
– 0.25 grains/MMSCF, H2S
– 900 to 1300 Btu/1000 ft3, lower heating value (LHV)
Obviously, however, these specifications will be site and contract specific.
Future Conditions
The majority of production conditions can, with proper planning, be accommodated
to an acceptable level over the life of the facility. A common pattern for well
production shows, during the early stages, a larger gas/oil ratio (GOR) and smaller
amount of produced water and, in the later stages, a reversal of that condition. This
trend will not be experienced in the application of gas lift or water-flood programs,
where the requirement of those programs can usually be predicted and accounted
for in the design.
System Selection
The purpose of this section is to provide the user with a method to make initial
general decisions regarding the overall separation system. The discussion is general

in nature and emphasizes separator plans. Final system selection should be based
upon a weighted combination of field experience, process simulation, engineering
judgment, and an economic evaluation.
Selection of oil and gas treating systems generally results from optimization of
facility costs, product recovery, and operational considerations. Typically, the
process engineer utilizes the defined inlet stream and performs a preliminary mol-
balance for the system to establish: (1) the basic number of stages required to
achieve mandatory product specifications, and (2) system optimization to maximize
operational requirements while minimizing utility and facility costs. Preliminary
equipment sizes for process vessels can be obtained in some cases. However, for
detailed analysis, process equipment vendors should be contacted for the propri-
etary design aspects of such items as crude oil dehydrators or desalters. Correct and
careful input to the process conditions supplied to equipment vendors is essential,
especially when a “process guarantee” is part of the purchase contract. Use the
selection guidelines outlined in this section to establish the preliminary system.
Number of Separation Stages

Stage separation is the term given to the “step” reduction of pressure on the liquid
until it reaches the export point. The liquid flows from the first stage separator into
one or more lower stages and, finally, into the stock tank or pump station. Each
separator is considered one stage, as is the final pressure level.
Stage separation is used for two basic purposes:
• To increase stock tank recovery by minimizing vaporization (the more stages
used, the more stock tank oil produced from each barrel of reservoir oil)
• To reduce the amount of gas that the stock tank must handle
The question of how many stages (two, three, four or even five) remains to be
answered; economics is the key consideration, and the law of diminishing returns
applies. Actual production tests provide reliable solutions to the question. However,
in the absence of actual tests, calculations provide the only means to reasonably
determine the optimum number of stages and the optimum operating pressure of
each stage. This tedious operation is usually performed by computer (many flash
calculations are performed until the computer converges upon the optimum
solution).
A rule-of-thumb method for determining the optimum number of stages and oper-
ating pressure is given below. The first and last stage pressures are usually deter-
mined by other considerations. The second stage pressure equals the first stage
pressure divided by the pressure ratio, and so forth for each stage. The pressure
ratio per stage should not exceed the following, although in all rules-of-thumb,
exceptions will be found:
• 5—for gas-condensate production
• 7—for crude oil separation where the stock tank oil gravity is greater than
50° API

• 10—for crude oil separation where the stock tank oil gravity is less than
40° API
Select the number of stages so as not to exceed the pressure ratios above. The
following equations are used to determine the optimum operating pressures of the
intermediate stages:
1
---
P1n
R =  ------ 
 Ps 
(Eq. 900-3)
P m = Pm + 1 R ( P1 = P2 R )
(Eq. 900-4)
n – (m – 1)
P m = Ps R
(Eq. 900-5)
where:
n = Number of interstages = (number of stages -1)
R = Pressure ratio
P1 = First-stage pressure, psia
P2 = Second-stage pressure, psia
m = Arbitrary stage number
Pm = Pressure of stage m, psia
Ps = Stock tank pressure, psia
Application of the above equations to a three-stage separation problem where P1 =
400 psia and Ps = 14.2 psia gives:
400 0.5
R =  ----------  = 5.3
 14.2 
(Eq. 900-6)
P2 =(14.2)(5.3)2-1 = 75.3 psia
As might be expected, there are many instances where the use of flash calculations
will not agree with the results of the above equations. These equations assume that
the ratio per stage should be constant, but a complete analysis of a separation
problem often shows that the ratio between the last stage and the stock tank or final
pressure is considerably smaller than between the other stages.

When accurate oil and gas analyses are available, computer simulations can predict
values very close to the optimum; field experimentation can provide further
refinement.
Flowing Wellhead Pressure (FWHP)

Flowing wellhead pressure sets the maximum operating pressure of the highest
stage pressure. The decline potential of the FWHP has a very great impact upon the
number of separation stages. On new field developments, when the reservoir
decline properties are unknown, value judgments are often made on the number and
pressure levels of stage separation. Multiple stages or trains of separation may be
necessary to provide different backpressures to various wells with differing FWHP.
FWHP is set by reservoir characteristics.
Factors Affecting Number of Separation Trains

The following factors must be considered when deciding on the number of separa-
tion trains.
1. Throughput
2. Number of reservoirs
3. Gas/oil ratio
4. Wax content
5. Sand content
6. Turndown requirements
7. Required on-line availability
8. Deck space and weight considerations (offshore applications)
The number of separation trains is influenced by total volumetric oil, gas, and water
throughput, a function of the peak crude production, anticipated water production
with time, and gas/oil ratio. Separator capacities may be limited by the physical size
and lifting weight of the vessel. (See Figure 900-16.)
More than one separation train may be justified if the reservoir production potential
is uncertain and an overdesigned topside facility has minor overall economic
impact. This decision requires an informed judgment based on the direction of
unproven reserves, and is beyond the scope of most engineering calculations. The
economic impact of two or three trains should be evaluated to provide management
with the information to make this decision.
Number of Reservoirs
The number of separation trains is also influenced by the number of production
reservoirs. If more than one reservoir is being produced, and the available flowing
wellhead pressure cannot match the other reservoir, a second separation train may
be needed. See Figure 900-17.

Fig. 900-17 Typical Production System for Two Reservoirs of Different Pressures
If the available FWHP from the second reservoir is sufficient to match the second
stage of separation of the first reservoir, then the second reservoir production can be
separated in the second stage of a single train of production separators.
Gas/Oil Ratio (GOR)

The gas/oil ratio influences the diameter of separators and also the decision to
retain a single train. At a higher gas/oil ratio, vessel diameter may increase for the
same amount of crude produced because gas flow rates may control vessel size.
Wax Content
The wax content may influence the number of separation trains. Production could
be interrupted by shutdown of the separation train if wax buildup occurs and the
separation train vessels need to be steamed or cleaned in some other manner. Thus,
if wax content is high and processing conditions require heating, upsets in the
heating system could occur and more than one train of crude separation would be
favored.
A bucket-type liquid weir should be used when waxy crudes are expected. The
bucket weir eliminates buoyancy problems of level control when there is a small
difference in the specific gravity between the crude oil and water. Internal level
devices should be used. Wax could set up in the instrument bridle and prevent floats
and controls from working properly. If a vessel with external controls is to be used
for a waxy crude, the bridle should be heat traced to prevent waxy solids formation.
(See Figure 900-18.)
Sand Content
If the sand content of the reservoir fluid is severe and not controllable by gravel
packing at the reservoir face, cleanout of the crude separators may be required.
Under these maintenance conditions, more than one separation train would be
favored to avoid interrupting crude production.
Turndown
The turndown ability of a large single train of crude separation is a concern.
Although separation improves as the flow rate is reduced, control valves and associ-
ated instrumentation have a limited turndown. This problem can be overcome by

Fig. 900-18 Typical Horizontal Three-Phase Separator, Bucket and Weir Design
use of dual control valves on the liquid and gas outlets sized to accommodate the
full flow range. Another method to accommodate low flow rates is to use the test
separator as a startup separation vessel until full crude production permits the larger
single train operation.
Availability
Equipment components can be evaluated to determine statistical reliability, a factor
which may support the case for more than one train of separation. In the past,
however, this evaluation has not been an overwhelming reason to decide for two or
more trains. Other considerations, as discussed herein, will affect this decision.
Usually, redundancy of vessels does not in itself improve availability of the process
unless the characteristics of the fluid being processed force frequent cleanouts (e.g.,
sand, scale clogging). However, redundancy of instruments, such as valves, filters,
and pumps, can improve availability, since these items have relatively high failure
rates.
Space/Weight Considerations
Multiple train concepts usually are not as space or weight efficient as single train
concepts. However, “piggy backing” of vessels minimizes this difference in
restricted space applications, such as retrofit systems offshore.
Selection of Primary Separators

Selection of separator types for production facilities centers around configuration
(horizontal vs vertical) and the number of phase separations (as discussed below).

Vertical vs Horizontal
There is relatively little difference between the total system cost of horizontal and
vertical configurations because of savings in plot area or structural loadings. The
list below compares advantages for each of these two types of separators.
• Vertical separators
– Have large liquid capacities.
– Are less susceptible to malfunction due to dirt, mud, wax, etc.
– Are much easier to clean out than horizontal vessels.
– Liquid level is easier to control.
– Are more efficient in liquid removal.
– Are very versatile in operation. A properly sized vertical separator can be
easily modified to almost any possible operational problem.
• Horizontal separators
– Have a much higher allowable gas velocity for the same cross-sectional
area.
– Are less costly per unit volume of gas capacity.
– Are easier to ship mounted on skid assemblies than vertical vessels.
– Have more area available for settling when oil and water are being
separated.
– Are easier to pipe up than vertical separators.
– Allow more surface area for the coalescence of very unstable foam.
– Have good flexibility.
– Series stages can often be stacked to minimize plot area.
– Have greater liquid/vapor interface area.
– Economic ratio of length to diameter (L/D) is usually 3.5 to 1 to 4.0 to 1
but may be 5 or more to 1 if liquid viscosity is a controlling factor.
Two-Phase vs Three-Phase
Two-phase units are used for very high gas/liquid ratios: e.g., early production units
with a “gas cap”; compressor suction and discharge scrubbers; gas/liquid applica-
tions for final Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) control.
Three-phase units are often operated as two-phase units when high gas/oil ratios
and/or sanding problems are encountered in the early production stages. Significant
advantages may be gained from designing all primary separation units for three-
phase operation, because this approach provides significant flexibility for the
predictable changes in gas/oil/water ratios that will be encountered during the
facility life. Provided that all other technical parameters are equal, three-phase sepa-
rators are larger than two-phase separators.

970 Separation Theory

Oil/gas/water production from oil wells must be treated to meet requirements for
sales or safe transport. This is achieved with the use of separation systems, the heart
of which is the separator. A separator is a pressurized vessel used for separation of
oil, gas, and water. Additional equipment, such as pumps, dehydrators, etc., is often
required to achieve final treatment.
This section discusses basic separation theory and shows how this theory is applied
in the design of separation equipment. The discussion focuses on the equipment
and processes in common use in the oil-field, in plants, and in refineries.
Raw reservoir oil and gas fluids are multiple component hydrocarbon fluids which
usually are in a two-phase state (liquid and gas both present), with water and other
impurities also present. Separation of liquid and gas fluids and water removal are
necessary to meet pipeline specifications for the stable, dehydrated, single-phase
fluids. An optimum oil/gas/water separation system is one that achieves a compro-
mise between gas and oil product recovery at optimum operating temperatures and
pressures and at minimum cost. The selection of an optimum oil and gas separation
system requires an understanding of multicomponent system behavior, the princi-
ples of oil/gas/water separation, and separation efficiency factors.
971 Mechanisms of Particle Collection

The three basic separation methods are:
1. Gravity separation
2. Centrifugal force
3. Impingement and coalescence
For gas and liquid mixtures, the difference between the density of the two
substances is most often used in process applications to effect separation. There are
a number of ways density difference can be used to effect separation, such as by
gravity, or through centrifugal and impingement processes. The falling (or rising)
velocity of a particle or droplet in a viscous medium is a function of the forces
exerted on it. Whether these forces are from gravity or fluid momentum, the princi-
ples governing particle behavior, as a function of density, are the same.
972 Gravity Separation

Gravity separation is the most prevalent means of separation and takes advantage of
the difference in densities of the phases. A particle falling by gravity will accelerate
until drag forces balance gravitational forces. After that, it will continue to fall at a
constant velocity known as the terminal or free settling velocity, as given by the
equation below for rigid spherical particles.

Turbulent Flow (Newton's Law)
0.5
4gD p ( ρ 1 – ρ g )
V t = -------------------------------------------
3 ( ρ g )C
(Eq. 900-7)
where:
C = Drag coefficient, dimensionless
Dp = Average particle diameter, ft
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 32 ft/sec2
Vt = Particle terminal velocity, ft/sec
ρ = Fluid density, lb/ft3
ρl = Density of liquid, lb/ft3
ρg = Density of gas, lb/ft3
Newton's Law defines the drag force resisting the motion of the particle during
turbulent flow as the drag coefficient, C. In the turbulent flow region (500 < Re
< 200,000), C has an average value of 0.44 for spheres.
Laminar Flow (Stokes' Law)

If the flow is laminar (viscous), the relationship developed by Stokes applies, and
Equation 900-8 defined for gas/liquid separation becomes:
2
gD p ( ρ 1 – ρ g )
V t = ------------------------------------
18µ
(Eq. 900-8)
where:
µ = Viscosity of gas, lb/ft • sec
973 Centrifugal Force

When a two-phase flowing stream changes direction, the phase having the greatest
mass density tends to continue in a straight line. The resulting collision of the more
dense material with the confining wall separates it from the less dense phase.
Stokes' Law may be applied to this process if the flow is laminar and the effect of
gravity, g, is replaced by a, the acceleration due to centrifugal force.
974 Impingement and Coalescence

Impingement occurs when an entrained particle strikes an obstruction in its normal
flow path rather than the containing wall as in centrifugal force separation. The
impinged obstruction acts as the collecting surface. As the fluid approaches an

impingement surface, such as a fiber, it curves around, but the momentum of the
entrained droplet tends to move it straight ahead to collide with the fiber.
The term entrainment refers to the small particles carried by the gas which require a
mist extractor to remove. Reentrainment is liquid which has been separated from
the gas, then picked up again and carried out.
The process of impingement of liquid droplets in a gas stream onto a solid surface
is used in a number of mist extractor designs (see Section 950 above). The liquid
droplets, being denser than the continuous gas phase, tend to continue to travel in
their direction of motion when the continuous gas phase is diverted by a solid
surface. This momentum of the entrained droplets causes impingement of the liquid
particles onto the solid surface.
After the particles have impinged on the solid surface, surface tension holds the
liquid particles onto the surface and prevents reentrainment; other particles
impinging on the surface cause coalescence, with subsequent gravity separation of
the liquid. See Figure 900-2.
980 Fluid Properties
981 Formation and Characteristics of Oil-Water Mixture

Water and oil are immiscible liquids, with water generally the heavier of the two.
Placed in a common container, the water easily separates from the oil by settling to
the bottom. In actual production, the water may indeed be easily separated from the
oil, while in other cases separation may be very difficult. Oil-water mixtures are
categorized into two general groups: free water mixtures and emulsions. Free water
is water which easily separates from the oil phase. Emulsified water is difficult to
separate, and its removal is sometimes costly and complex. Actually, the stability of
the mixtures is relative. A distinction between free water and emulsified water has
meaning only in relation to the mixture's response to various dehydration methods.
982 Free Water

Water produced with crude and considered “free” exists either as a continuous mass
or slug, or as an unstable dispersion of droplets suspended in the crude by turbu-
lence. Free water may be the natural contents of the producing formation, or it may
be drive water from a secondary recovery scheme (i.e., water flood, steam flood)
which penetrates into the producing zone. The water remains free when the inter-
face between the phases is sharp and the droplet size relatively large. The droplets
are free to move and respond readily to the separating effect of gravity; and if two
dispersed droplets of water collide, they coalesce easily.
In fact, the coalesced state of the drops is the more stable condition. This is easily
demonstrated by studying the shape of a water droplet. The spherical shape of the
droplet in the absence of external stress has the greatest volume for the least surface
area of any geometrical form. A droplet can momentarily take on some other shape,

but that shape, being less stable than the spherical shape, does not continue to exist.
The ratio of volume to surface area is, therefore, an indication of relative stability.
This stability is explained by defining the term “free energy.” A droplet which is
other than spherical in shape is said to possess free energy which tends to dissipate
and force the droplet into a spherical shape. The coalesced state is more stable
because it has a smaller surface area for the same volume, and therefore less free
energy. Two uncoalesced droplets are said to have higher “free energy.”
983 Fluid Equilibrium

The most common application for gas-liquid separation and treating equipment is
on produced hydrocarbon flow streams. These hydrocarbon systems are produced
by withdrawing fluids from underground formations. A typical sample consists of a
mixture of many different hydrocarbon components. Those of low molecular
weight are often referred to as “light” components or “light ends.” They have
higher vapor pressures than the heavier components with greater molecular
weights. In the underground formation, the fluids may exist as both liquids and
gases; the equilibrium is determined by the formation pressure and temperature.
When a well is drilled and the fluids are produced, decreases in pressure in the
system cause more of the components to vaporize. This vaporization continues
throughout the production and processing sequence whenever the process pressure
drops below the fluid vapor pressure. If a fluid is at or above its vapor pressure, it is
said to be “stable” at the existing temperature and pressure, providing these condi-
tions persist long enough to allow completion of the equilibrium and phase
separation.
In cases where all or most of the produced hydrocarbons are light, they may exist
totally as a gas phase. The reservoir for these fluids is thought of as a gas reservoir
and “gas wells” are drilled into it. When the components are largely heavier, the
principal produced fluid is crude oil, although some gas is always vaporized from
the oil as it is produced. An oil well is one which produces crude oil, with natural
gas as a secondary product. The ratio of gas to hydrocarbon liquid produced stream
can vary from very low for a stream of heavy crude with almost no gas, to infinity
for a dry gas stream. This ratio is used frequently to describe a hydrocarbon stream.
Gas/oil ratio, abbreviated GOR, is given in English units as standard cubic feet of
gas per barrel of oil (scf of gas/bbl oil).
A produced oil-gas mixture flowing through a typical process system undergoes a
series of pressure changes. Friction losses create a continuous drop while flow-
through valves and other restrictions result in instantaneous decreases in pressure.
Simultaneous with these pressure variations, the fluid temperature is changing with
gradual ambient cooling and process heating or cooling. With changes in pressure
and temperature, the equilibrium between gas and oil is disturbed. With successive
stages, as the pressure drops, more gas will be released until the crude oil is stabi-
lized in a near gas free condition.

984 Fluid Shear

In a continuous phase, oil or water droplets exist in a relatively fragile condition. In
the process of moving these fluids, pressure decreases (or increases) across control
valves or dump valves, or pumps impart energy into the flowing fluid. As the parti-
cles in the fluid receive this energy, they break apart into many smaller particles.
Shear effects become significant when droplet sizes become so small that gravity
separation is no longer effective.
985 Fluid Gravity vs Temperature

When a produced hydrocarbon liquid is made up of a relatively large number of
heavy molecules, its specific gravity will be greater than for a liquid consisting of
primarily lighter molecules. A system of characterizing hydrocarbon liquids has
been developed and is in common use. Oil gravity is expressed in terms of “degrees
API.” The definition for this system is:
°API = (141.5/SG) - 131.5

(Eq. 900-9)
where:
°API = Degrees API
SG = Specific gravity of oil at 60°F and atmospheric pressure
A light oil has a higher API gravity than a heavy oil. If a fluid has a specific gravity
of 1.0, its API gravity is 10° API. Crude oils most commonly are in the range of
10° to 50° API.
As a general rule, heavy oils, that is those with low API gravity, are produced from
relatively low pressure formations, have a low GOR, and often a large amount of
produced water forming a very stable emulsion. Light oils are more likely produced
at high pressure with a higher volume of associated gas, and less water content, of
which a smaller portion is emulsified. As a general rule, low gravity (heavy) oils
exhibit a higher viscosity at a given temperature than higher gravity oils. Figure
900-19 shows typical viscosity curves for various gravities of crude oil. It should be
noted, however, that gravity and viscosity, while exhibiting a general relational
trend, are not directly related functions. The viscosities of several different oils of
the same gravity may vary widely.
986 Multiphase Flow

When gas, oil and water are present together, the stream is called a three-phase
stream. When a stream is called a two-phase flow stream, the emphasis is on a gas-
liquid mixture, but does not necessarily mean no water is present with the oil. It is
simply emphasizing the presence of only gas or only liquid. Therefore a flow
stream referred to as two-phase may actually be three-phase.
With two- or three-phase flow through long pipelines, bulk separation often occurs
between gas and liquid. Large “slugs” of liquid separated by large “bubbles” of gas

Fig. 900-19 Typical Viscosity/Temperature Curves for Various Crude Oils
cause the flow to be intermittent. In very long, large lines, slug cycles of many
seconds are common. This can create problems in process equipment if not
accounted for in their design. On the other hand, in streams with high water
content, of medium or high gravity oil, and very low flow stream velocities with
little gas, water separation may occur in the line. The water may flow along the
bottom of the line causing a high rate of corrosion there.
Gas affects the formation of oil-water emulsions. As gas is flashed, agitation
occurs, beginning in the formation and continuing through producing and
processing. This agitation can be severe, adding a great deal of energy to the emulsi-
fying process.
Gas also affects the separation of oil and water. If gas bubbles are rising through an
oil-water mixture, turbulence is created which interferes with the settling of water
droplets. For that reason gas is usually separated first, then water. If the gas sepa-
rator is designed as a three-phase vessel to also remove water, that water removal is
usually of secondary importance and is expected to be very incomplete. A typical
process train has successive reductions in pressure and with each reduction a separa-
tion of gas. However, the amount of gas removed typically decreases at the lower
pressures so that at the last step, very little free gas is present. Corresponding sepa-
ration of water will be least efficient in the first stage of gas separation. The emul-
sion treater or oil dehydrator is usually the end process. The actual dehydration
must occur in as near to gas-free oil as possible. This process is not only necessary
for performance, but is also the most economical. Because water separation typi-
cally requires the largest process vessels, it is least expensive if the vessels are of
low pressure, which is the condition that exists at the end of the process train.

990 Liquid/Liquid Separation
991 Liquid Retention Time

The length of time a fluid particle in a flow stream remains in a vessel is called
retention time. The longer the liquid retention time in the separator, the more time
available for settling and coalescing water droplets from the oil, and the more effi-
cient the separation. Inasmuch as increased retention time is a function of separator
volume, more separator volume may aid the ability of the separator to handle
process surges and increase hold-up time ahead of downstream pumping.
The bulk average retention time of a process can be calculated by dividing the fluid
volume of the vessel by the volume flow rates of the fluid stream assuming plug
flow. For a given flow rate, a long retention time will require a larger vessel than a
short retention time. It is therefore economic to decrease the retention time as much
as the process performance will allow.
992 Factors That Affect Separation Efficiency

The following factors affect separation efficiency:
1. Particle diameter
2. Retention time
3. Gas velocities in process vessel
4. Gas and liquid densities
5. Pressure
6. Temperature
7. Viscosity
8. Flow rate surges
9. Foam
10. Emulsions
11. Turbulence
12. Surface and interfacial tension
Particle diameter is one of the most important properties affecting separation effi-
ciency because it is the predominant factor in determining the settling velocity in all
applications. Any design allowing high efficiency in the separation of small parti-
cles will allow a higher efficiency in the separation of larger particles if the
maximum liquid handling capacity is not exceeded.
In liquid/liquid separation, techniques are being developed for determining liquid
particle size and distribution. Particle size and distribution are constantly changing,

as fluid flow in pipelines and separators is a dynamic process. Separation by gravity

is logically limited to particles of relatively large size.
An entrained liquid system is basically unstable, the particles either coalescing or
fragmenting if given sufficient time. The time needed to fragment or to coalesce is
inversely proportional to size and directly proportional to the amount of interpar-
ticle contact. Impingement separators are based upon interparticle contact.
993 Pressure and Temperature

As the operating pressure of a production separator increases, its wall thickness
must also increase dramatically. Thinner walled vessels may be obtained by using
higher-strength steels, by increasing the length-to-diameter ratios (not space-effi-
cient), or simply by limiting the stage pressure. As a rule of thumb, vendors of large
vessels should be able to fabricate wall thicknesses to 1.5 inches. Thicker walled
separators can be fabricated, but are expensive and need long delivery time. Pres-
sure also affects the actual flowing volume. An increase in pressure increases
capacity. Both the gas and liquid densities are affected because more of the lighter
components of the gas are driven into the liquid phase, thereby changing the density
of both phases.
By Stokes' Law (Equation 900-8), the settling velocity of water particles is
inversely proportional to the oil viscosity. The sensitivity to temperature of hydro-
carbon viscosity suggests that raising the process temperature would decrease the
viscosity, thereby increasing settling rates. Actually, heating crude oil to be sepa-
rated benefits the separation process in several ways and was the earliest aid used in
gravitational separation of water. Here are some of the ways that heating facilitates
the process:
• Higher process temperature lowers oil viscosity.
• Up to about 175°F the specific gravity difference between oil and water is
increased with increasing process temperature.
994 Viscosity
To properly size a separator, the viscosities of the oil and water phases must be
known. The oil phase viscosity will typically have a much larger influence on
vessel size than the water phase viscosity because oil viscosity is usually several
times greater than water viscosity. Oil viscosities also vary over a much wider range
and usually vary more with temperature. Due to these factors it is important to have
good oil viscosity data.
The best condition is to have oil viscosity versus temperature data for the particular
oil to be separated. Alternately, data from other wells in the same field can usually
be used without significant error. The viscosity versus temperature data may be
plotted as a straight line on special ASTM graph paper. Then the viscosity may be
predicted at any other temperature.

If two data points are known, the Walther equation may also be used instead of
ASTM graph paper. This equation plots as a straight line on ASTM graph paper.
The advantage of the Walther equation is that any calculator may be used to predict
oil viscosities without the special graph paper. To determine the oil viscosity at a
third temperature from two data points, the following three equations should be
solved in order:
ln [ ln ( µ 1 + 0.7 ) ] – ln [ ln ( µ 2 + 0.7 ) ]
M = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
lnT 1 – lnT 2
(Eq. 900-10)
B = ln [ln (µ1 + 0.7)] - (M ln T1)

(Eq. 900-11)
µ3 = exp[exp(M ln T3 + B)] - 0.7

(Eq. 900-12)
where:
µn = Oil viscosity at Tn, centipoise, cp
Tn = Temperature corresponding to µn, °R
M = Slope of straight line
B = Intercept of straight line
For cases where only one datum point is available, Equations 900-11 and 900-12
may be used by assuming a value for the slope. This method predicts oil viscosities
with good accuracy over small temperature ranges of 20°F to 40°F. For most cases
the slope will have a value in the range of -3.5 to -4.0.
If no data are available, the oil viscosity may be estimated by a variety of methods
from the temperature and oil gravity. These methods, however, are not very accu-
rate, as viscosity is a function of oil composition and not strictly of oil gravity. That
is to say, two oils with the same gravity at the same temperature may have different
viscosities that are orders of magnitude apart.
In the absence of data, Figure 900-20 may be used to estimate oil viscosities. This
graph plots kinematic viscosity in centistokes versus temperature in degrees
Celsius. To obtain the oil viscosity in centipoise at a particular temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit, the following conversions are required:
T(°C) = (5/9)(T°F-32)
(Eq. 900-13)
µ = υ(SG)
(Eq. 900-14)

Fig. 900-20 Estimate of Kinematic Viscosity (centistokes) vs Temperature (°Celsius) for

Various Oils
where:
T(°C) = Temperature, °C
υ = Kinematic viscosity, centistokes, cs
The Beggs and Robinson correlation may also be used to predict oil viscosity. This
correlation predicts oil viscosity based on the temperature and the oil gravity. The
data set used to develop this correlation included 460 oil systems with gravities
between 16° and 58° API at temperatures between 70°F and 295°F.
µo = 10x - 1
(Eq. 900-15)
where:
µo = Viscosity of oil phase, cp
T = Temperature, °F
x = yT -1.163
y = 10z
z = 3.0324 - 0.02023G
G = Oil gravity, °API

This correlation is good for predicting dead-oil viscosities. Unfortunately, three-

phase separators contain oils at their bubble point. Therefore, this correlation tends
to predict high oil viscosities and should only be used as a last resort.
The viscosity of the water phase may be estimated from the following equation:
1 2 0.5
--- = 0.021482 [ D + ( 8078.4 + D ) ] – 1.2
µ
(Eq. 900-16)
where:
D = 0.5556 T - 26.21
T = Temperature, °F
This equation does not apply if the heavy phase in the separator is not water. For
example, in a glycol dehydration system, the heavy phase is a glycol-water mixture,
and the viscosity must be obtained from charts based on the mixture composition.
995 Foam
Foam is a mixture of gas dispersed in a liquid and has a density less than the liquid
but greater than the gas. One type of foam is called bubble foam. A foaming crude
oil requires a greater interface area and longer retention time to remove the gas
from the liquid.
Bubble foam may be caused by a pressure reduction which causes the lighter liquid
components of the crude oil to flash and escape from the liquid as a gas. Bubble
foam may also be formed by aeration of the liquid in the flowline. Bubble foam can
be dispersed by the use of impingement baffles and residence time.
A second type of foam is chemical foam, a phenomenon of surface tension. The
surface tension of the bubble is so strong that the bubble will not break. This type
of foam is caused by iron sulfide particles, asphaltenes, and resins in the crude oil.
As a general rule, all oil foams. However, oil is seldom considered to be foamy
unless a separator is designed too small and carryover results. Oil producers,
however, generally insist on the smallest vessel possible, and thus the space avail-
able for natural foam decay is reduced. Generally, foam is a more serious problem
when oil viscosity is high. Therefore low and medium gravity applications, espe-
cially in relatively low temperature service, can be expected to foam. If foam is a
significant factor, then vertical vessels may not be advisable. Horizontal vessels are
preferred in order to spread the foam layer out, decreasing foam height and giving
more exposure to the free gas phase.
Sizing separators to accommodate foam is an inexact process that depends largely
on experience and field data. Foam may occupy a large portion of the vessel
volume; in extreme cases perhaps over half the volume may be taken by foam. It is
best to size foamy oil separators by drawing from field test results and, interpreting
them for the application.

Special types of internals are often used to help break down foam. Particular atten-
tion must be given to the inlet momentum absorber and to the defoaming elements.
996 Emulsions
An emulsified oil/water mixture consists of very tiny droplets of one phase
dispersed throughout the other in a manner that makes separation difficult. The
droplets are called the discontinuous phase and the surrounding fluid is referred to
as the continuous phase. In crude oil/water mixtures the oil may be either the contin-
uous or the discontinuous phase. The oil phase depends on the volume ratio of the
two fluids and the interface chemistry. The more common emulsion produced is a
water-in-oil emulsion; that is, the oil is the continuous phase. An oil-in-water emul-
sion is referred to as a reverse emulsion. This discussion is concerned only with
normal water-in-oil emulsions.
Formation of an Emulsion
When oil and water exist in the same producing formation they are stratified and
the water is essentially “free.” Yet when a produced oil-water mixture is examined,
it is often found that the water droplets are very small; and further, they seem to
remain that way and can thus be defined as an emulsion.
The coalesced state of an oil-water mixture is the most stable state. Additional
energy is required for an emulsion to form. Any mechanical energy input device,
such as a pump, can therefore produce the needed energy to create an emulsion,
although the necessary energy may already be present in the fluid in the form of
hydraulic energy. A flow restriction, such as a valve, orifice, a bend in a pipe, or
simple viscous friction can convert some of the energy in the flow to formation
energy. Forcing the fluids through the porous formation can shear the two phases
together, create new interface surfaces, and produce an emulsion even before the
mixture enters the well bore.
Emulsion Stability
As mechanical energy breaks the water into increasingly smaller droplets in the oil,
the free energy of the mixture is raised. The resulting dispersion may consist of
droplet sizes as small as a few microns in diameter (1 micron = 10-6 meter). It is
obvious that the surface-area to volume ratio of this dispersion is very large; there-
fore, it would appear that immediate and rapid coalescence would take place. In
other words, it would appear that this very “tight” emulsion would be unstable. On
the contrary, however, experience has demonstrated that crude oil emulsions can
sometimes be very stable. Several factors contribute to this stability and hinder
coalescence and separation by the gravitational pull on the heavier water droplets.
The interface between the phases (the surface of the water droplet) is complicated
and exhibits a peculiar localization of chemical, electrostatic, and physical activity.
This activity is not entirely understood. When a small water droplet is torn from a
large one, a new interface surface is created. Initially this surface is “clean” and is
actually no more than the meeting of two phases. Soon, however, certain substances
present in the continuous oil phase become attracted to it. These substances collect

on the droplet surface and build a tough, leathery film around it, similar to a plastic
bag filled with water. The substances that form the film around the droplet are
referred to as “stabilizing” agents because they block the ability of the water drop-
lets to return to their coalesced state. See Figure 900-21.
Fig. 900-21 Water Droplets in an Oil Phase
The ratio of the dispersed phase to the whole affects the mixture's stability. If the
water content is high, initial coalescence will be more easily achieved. As more of
the water is removed from the field, coalescence becomes more difficult.
When an emulsion is first formed it is relatively unstable. Its stability increases with
time as the film around each droplet of water grows thicker and tougher. When such
an emulsion remains untreated for a relatively long period of time, it becomes
“aged” and is much more difficult to resolve than when it was first formed.
Droplet size is a very important factor. When droplets are very small they offer a
greater total surface area for the collection of stabilizing agents. The separating
force of gravity is also less effective. A very “tight” emulsion is much more stable
than one made up of larger droplets.
To summarize, the factors primarily affecting the stability of an emulsion can be
categorized as follows:
• Stabilizing agents
• Electrostatic charge
• Water ratio
• Viscosity of continuous phase
• Specific gravity difference of phases
• Age of emulsion
• Droplet size

These factors vary in relative importance, but the presence of the stabilizing agent
is always required.
Stabilizing Agents
The common stabilizing agents responsible for an emulsion and attendant problems
are:
• Heavy paraffinic compounds
• Heavy napthenic acids
• Petroleum acids
• Asphaltic compounds
• Organic solids
• Inorganic solids
The single most significant characteristic of all stabilizing agents, in relation to
emulsion formation, is their strong attraction to the oil/water interface. Some of the
most stable emulsions are created by the intrusion of a foreign substance in the
production rather than by a naturally occurring stabilizer. An example is the tempo-
rary “problem” emulsion produced immediately after a well is acidized for scale
removal, or the tough emulsion produced from a newly drilled well which is stabi-
lized by the drilling mud.
997 Flow Rate Surge or “Slugs”

Separator designs must include surge capacity to account for nonsteady-state flow
rate which inevitably occurs in normal production operation and to provide suffi-
cient liquid storage capacity to allow instruments and operators to react to external
operational upsets.
A liquid surge volume is added to the vessel liquid capacity when required. This
surge factor can typically be from 0% to 50% depending both on the well character-
istics and the physical layout of the separation equipment.
API 14E, Design and Installation of Offshore Production Platforms, gives typical
surge factors for use in offshore service when more specific data are not available.
(See Figure 900-22.)
998 Turbulence
Theoretically, good water-oil separation efficiency depends on the presence of
smooth, laminar flow in the liquid region of the vessel. Excessive turbulence
promotes mixing of the two liquid phases, reducing or negating the effect of settling
velocity of the water droplets in the oil. Proper configuration of vessel internals
helps to promote stable flow. The degree of turbulence in the flowing stream within
the separator is of considerable importance. The action of excess turbulence results
in carrying potentially separate liquid particles in the eddy currents. A normal
measure of turbulence in any flowing stream is the dimensionless Reynolds
Number, R.

Fig. 900-22 Typical Surge Factors

Service Factor
Facility handling primary production from its own platform 20%
Facility handling primary production from another platform 30%
or remote well in less than 150 feet of water
Facility handling primary production from another platform 40%
or remote well in greater than 150 feet of water
Facility handling gas lifted production from its own platform 40%
Facility handling gas lifted production from another plat- 50%
form or remote well
Reynolds Number (R) = D v ρ/η

(Eq. 900-17)
where:
D = Four times the pipe hydraulic radius (cross-sectional area divided
by the wetted perimeter), ft
v = Gas velocity, ft/sec
ρ = Gas density, lb/ft3
η = Gas viscosity, lb/ft • sec
All other factors remaining constant, the Reynolds Number varies directly with the
hydraulic radius. Hence, the effect of turbulence can be minimized by inserting
internal subdivisions in the separator, as illustrated in Figure 900-23.
Fig. 900-23 Turbulence Control by Mechanical Subdivision of Cross Section of Separator

Vessel
Unless the Reynolds Number is controlled, there will be an ever wider divergence
from reasonably “calm” flow as vessel size increases. Normally, the larger the
hydraulic radius of the flow path at constant velocity the greater the magnitude of

the eddy current effect. This means that as vessel size increases, the allowable
maximum superficial velocity that would produce good separation under given
conditions in a small vessel would have to be reduced, thus offsetting the increase
in separation capacity expected from increased size. This circumstance highlights
the importance of controlling turbulence, especially in larger vessels.
999 Sour Service

The designation of sour crude applies when the H2S content in the oil has a partial
pressure above 0.05 psia. This corresponds to an H2S content of 63 grains/100 ft3
or 0.1 mole % at 50 psia. Several processing and corrosion prevention measures
must be exercised when handling sour production. The corrosion prevention
measures affect valves, piping, and steel selection for vessels. The addition of
filming-type corrosion inhibitors to prevent H2S corrosion in the downhole tubulars
or inlet manifold usually creates foaming conditions which must be taken into
account when sizing the crude separator, as discussed above.
The processing needs for sour crude separation are related to the fact that H2S in
the gas phase retains more water and raises the hydrate temperature of the gas. The
following design factors must be considered when processing sour crude:
1. Foaming tendency of the crude, with the addition of corrosion inhibitors, will
increase the diameter of the crude separation vessels.
2. The volume of water in the gas phase may require that the inlet fluid be heated
to prevent hydrate formation exacerbated by the H2S.
3. A H2S stripper or chemical scavenger may be required to remove H2S from the
crude oil with safe disposal of the H2S gas.
4. Disposal of sour water from the crude separation stages may require the addi-
tion of a sour water stripper with safe disposal of the effluent gas.
5. Heat requirements of upstream wellhead heaters will be increased because of
the additional equilibrium water content to prevent hydrate formation.
6. Maximum velocity criteria of piping and vessel nozzles must be carefully
examined to minimize corrosion/erosion.
7. Additional safety sensors and shutdown devices need to be employed to mini-
mize risk.
Carbon dioxide is also a consideration in the design of the crude separation system.
CO2 becomes corrosive at a partial pressure of approximately 10 psia. If water is
present, CO2 and water will form carbonic acid, a weak acid, corrosive to steel.
CO2 also contributes to hydrate formation.

900 Production Separators

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

900 Production Separators

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

900 Production Separators

910 Introduction 900-4

Chevron Corporation 900-1 March 1990

947 Steam Separators

March 1990 900-2 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 900-3 March 1990

912 General Background

920 Design of Production Separators

922 Gas Plant Process Vessels and Compressor Knockout Drums

March 1990 900-4 Chevron Corporation

923 Oilfield Production Separators

924 Crude Oil Dehydration

930 PC Based Programs

Chevron Corporation 900-5 March 1990

931 Comparison with Company Design Procedure

932 Input to the Bookware Programs

March 1990 900-6 Chevron Corporation

• Minimum water retention time

933 Program Output

934 Cautions on Using the Bookware Programs

Chevron Corporation 900-7 March 1990

940 Common Oilfield Separators

Fig. 900-1 Typical Field Separation Plant

A production separator (also called a bulk separator or primary separator) is used to

March 1990 900-8 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 900-2 Impingement and Droplet Growth in a Typical Filter Coalescer

942 Gas Traps and Sand Traps

Chevron Corporation 900-9 March 1990

Fig. 900-3 Typical Two-Phase Vertical Separator (Gas Trap)

943 Three-Phase Horizontal Separators

March 1990 900-10 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 900-4 Typical Three-Phase Horizontal Separator

944 Test Separators

945 Filter Separators (Coalescers)

946 Slug Catchers

Chevron Corporation 900-11 March 1990

Fig. 900-5 Typical Filter Separator (Coalescer)

947 Steam Separators

948 Flash Separators

949 Flare Knockout or Vent Scrubbers

950 Separator Internal Components and Functions

March 1990 900-12 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 900-6 Basic Two-Phase Separator

951 Primary Separation Section and Inlet Diverters

Chevron Corporation 900-13 March 1990

Fig. 900-7 Typical Configurations of Inlet Devices

952 Secondary Separation and Vessel Intervals

March 1990 900-14 Chevron Corporation

A second function of the liquid retention section in three-phase separators is to sepa-

953 Mist Extractors

Fig. 900-8 Wire Mesh Mist Extractor Configurations

Fig. 900-9 Liquid Particle Characteristics

Chevron Corporation 900-15 March 1990

The gas velocity for Newton's Law can be expressed as:

954 Serpentine Vanes

March 1990 900-16 Chevron Corporation

955 Dixon Plates

Chevron Corporation 900-17 March 1990

Fig. 900-12 Parallel “Dixon” Plate Mist Extractor

956 Centrifugal Mist Extractors

957 Vortex Breakers

March 1990 900-18 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 900-13 Outlet Vortex Breaker Designs