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Cable Calculations Worked Examples
Cable Calculations Worked Examples
(see Fig. G65)
The installation is supplied through a 630 kVA transformer. The process requires a high degree of
supply continuity and part of the installation can be supplied by a 250 kVA standby generator. The
global earthing system is TN-S, except for the most critical loads supplied by an isolation transformer
with a downstream IT configuration.
The single-line diagram is shown in Figure G65 below. The results of a computer study for the
circuit from transformer T1 down to the cable C7 is reproduced on Figure G66. This study was
carried out with Ecodial (a Schneider Electric software).
This is followed by the same calculations carried out by the simplified method described in this
guide.
Fig. G65: Example of single-line diagram
Maximum load current (A) 860 Total voltage drop ΔU (%) 0.65
Fig. G66: Partial results of calculation carried out with Ecodial software (Schneider Electric). The calculation is
The same calculation using the simplified method recommended in this guide
Dimensioning circuit C1
The MV/LV 630 kVA transformer has a rated no-load voltage of 420 V. Circuit C1 must be suitable
for a current of:
per phase
Two single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase.These cables
will be laid on cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 433A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 240mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance, for the two conductors in parallel, and for a length of 5
metres, are:
Circuit C3 supplies two 150kW loads with cos φ = 0.85, so the total load current is:
Two single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase. These cables
will be laid on cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 255A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 95mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance, for the two conductors in parallel, and for a length of 20
metres, are:
Dimensioning circuit C7
Circuit C7 supplies one 150kW load with cos φ = 0.85, so the total load current is:
One single-core PVC-insulated copper cable will be used for each phase. The cables will be laid on
cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 255A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 95mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance for a length of 20 metres is:
(see Fig. G67)
When using the adiabatic method, the minimum c.s.a. for the protective earth conductor (PE) can be
calculated by the formula given in Figure G58:
This gives:
A single 120 mm2 conductor is therefore largely sufficient, provided that it also satisfies the
requirements for indirect contact protection (i.e. that its impedance is sufficiently low).
Generally, for circuits with phase conductor c.s.a. Sph ≥ 50 mm2, the PE conductor minimum c.s.a.
will be Sph / 2. Then, for circuit C3, the PE conductor will be 95mm2, and for circuit C7, the PE
conductor will be 50mm2.
For circuit C3 of Figure G65, Figures F41 and F40, or the formula given TN system - Protection
against indirect contact may be used for a 3-phase 4-wire circuit.
(The value in the denominator 630 x 11 is the maximum current level at which the instantaneous
short-circuit magnetic trip of the 630 A circuit-breaker operates).
Voltage drop
The voltage drop is calculated using the data given in Figure G28, for balanced three-phase circuits,
motor power normal service (cos φ = 0.8).
C1 C3 C7
see Fig. G28
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power supply
transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in Ω)
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (MV network, transformer, cable, busbar, and so on...) is
characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element of resistance (R) and an inductive
reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive reactances are not important in short-circuit current
calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a right angled
triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G33.
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to calculate the R and X
values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in the section are
added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated
from
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if predominantly both resistive
(or both inductive) be combined to give a single equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance R3 will
be given by:
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without mutual
inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be notably higher.
(see Fig. G34)
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level PSC, in kA or in MVA[1] is given by the power supply authority
concerned, from which an equivalent impedance can be deduced.
Fig. G34: The impedance of the MV network referred to the LV side of the MV/LV transformer
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance to an
equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
where
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common MV[2] short-circuit levels
in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
Transformers
(see Fig. G35)
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is given by the formula:
where:
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total load-losses as follows:
where
Note: for an approximate calculation, in the absence of more precise information on transformer
characteristics, Cenelec 50480 suggests to use the following guidelines:
Example: for a transformer of 630kVA with Usc=4% / Un = 400V, approximate calculation gives:
Usc (%) Rtr (mΩ) Xtr (mΩ) Ztr (mΩ) Usc (%) Rtr (mΩ) Xtr (mΩ) Ztr (mΩ)
Busbars
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is practically all reactive,
and amounts to approximately 0.15 mΩ/metre[3] length for LV busbars (doubling the spacing
between the bars increases the reactance by about 10% only).
In practice, it's almost never possible to estimate the busbar length concerned by a short-circuit
downstream a switchboard.
Circuit conductors
where
ρ = the resistivity of the conductor material at the normal operating temperature
ρ has to be considered:
20 °C PR/XLPE 90 °C PVC 70 °C
Fig. G35b: Values of ρ as a function of the temperature, cable insulation and cable core material, according to
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less than 50
mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of other information, a value of 0.08 mΩ/metre may
be used (for 50 Hz systems) or 0.096 mΩ/metre (for 60 Hz systems). For busways (busbar trunking
systems) and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the manufacturer should be consulted.
Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and feed
current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, if the total power of motors
running simultaneously is higher than 25% of the total power of transformers, the influence of motors
must be taken into account. Their total contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5m In for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor contribution being
insignificant.
Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance. The resistance is
not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this resistance is sufficient to reduce the
fault-current to some extent. Experience has shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no
relief for its fault-current making duty.
Recapitulation table
(see Fig. G36)
Xa = 0.995 Za
Supply network
Figure G34
Transformer
Figure G35 where
Busbars Negligible for S > 200 mm2 in the XB = 0.15 mΩ/m
[a]
formula:
Three-phase
maximum
circuit current in
kA
[b] If there are several conductors in parallel per phase, then divide the resistance of one conductor by the number of
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at MV terminals of the MV/LV transformers (in kVA).
(see Fig. G37)
0.035 0.351
MV network
Psc = 500
MVA
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactance. Isc : 3-phase maximum short-circuit current Calculations made a
G36
Fig. G37: Example of maximum short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal)
Notes
(see Fig. G7a)
A protective device is necessary at the origin of each circuit where a reduction of permissible
maximum current level occurs.
Possible alternative locations in certain circumstances
(see Fig. G7b)
The protective device may be placed part way along the circuit:
(see Fig. G7c)
Either
The protective device P1 is calibrated to protect the cable S2 against overloads and short-
circuits
Or
a. b.
c.
where
and:
S = kVA rating of the transformer
U20 = phase-to-phase secondary volts on open circuit
In = nominal current in amps
Isc = short-circuit fault current in amps
Usc = short-circuit impedance voltage of the transformer in %.
50 to 750 4 6
800 to 3,200 6 6
Fig. G31: Typical values of Usc for different kVA ratings of transformers with MV windings ≤ 20 kV
Example
Usc = 4%
The value of fault current on an outgoing circuit immediately downstream of the busbars
(see Fig. G32) can be estimated as the sum of the Isc from each transformer calculated separately.
It is assumed that all transformers are supplied from the same MV network, in which case the values
obtained from Figure G31when added together will give a slightly higher fault-level value than would
actually occur.
Other factors which have not been taken into account are the impedance of the busbars and of the
cable between transformers and circuit breakers.
The conservative fault-current value obtained however, is sufficiently accurate for basic installation
design purposes. The choice of circuit breakers and incorporated protective devices against short-
circuit and fault currents is described in Selection of a circuit-breaker .
(see Figure G1)
Following a preliminary analysis of the power requirements of the installation, as described in The
consumer substation with LV metering, a study of cabling[1] and its electrical protection is
undertaken, starting at the origin of the installation, through the intermediate stages to the final
circuits.
The cabling and its protection at each level must satisfy several conditions at the same time, in order
to ensure a safe and reliable installation, e.g. it must:
Carry the permanent full load current, and normal short-time overcurrents
Not cause voltage drops likely to result in an inferior performance of certain loads, for
example: an excessively long acceleration period when starting a motor, etc.
Protect the cabling and busbars for all levels of overcurrent, up to and including short-circuit
currents
Ensure protection of persons against indirect contact hazards, particularly in TN- and IT-
earthed systems, where the length of circuits may limit the magnitude of short-circuit currents,
thereby delaying automatic disconnection (it may be remembered that TT- earthed installations
are necessarily protected at the origin by a RCD, generally rated at 300 mA).
The cross-sectional areas of conductors are determined by the general method described
in Practical method for determining the smallest allowable cross-sectional area of circuit
conductors of this Chapter. Apart from this method some national standards may prescribe a
minimum cross-sectional area to be observed for reasons of mechanical endurance. Particular loads
(as noted in Chapter Characteristics of particular sources and loads) require that the cable supplying
them be oversized, and that the protection of the circuit be likewise modified.
Fig. G1: Flow-chart for the selection of cable size and protective device rating for a given circuit
Definitions
At the final circuits level, this design current (according to IEV "International Electrotechnical
Vocabulary" ref 826-11-10) corresponds to the rated kVA of the load. In the case of motor-starting,
or other loads which take a high in-rush current, particularly where frequent starting is concerned
(e.g. lift motors, resistance-type spot welding, and so on) the cumulative thermal effects of the
overcurrents must be taken into account. Both cables and thermal type relays are affected.
At all upstream circuit levels this current corresponds to the kVA to be supplied, which takes
account of the diversity and utilization factors, ks and ku respectively, as shown in Figure G2.
Current carrying capacity Iz is the maximum permissible that the cabling for the circuit can carry
indefinitely, without reducing its normal life expectancy.
The current depends, for a given cross sectional area of conductors, on several parameters:
Constitution of the cable and cable-way (Cu or Alu conductors; PVC or EPR etc. insulation;
number of active conductors)
Ambient temperature
Method of installation
Influence of neighbouring circuits
Overcurrents
An overcurrent occurs each time the value of current exceeds the maximum load current IB for the
load concerned.
This current must be cut off with a rapidity that depends upon its magnitude, if permanent damage to
the cabling (and appliance if the overcurrent is due to a defective load component) is to be avoided.
Overcurrents of relatively short duration can however, occur in normal operation; two types of
overcurrent are distinguished:
Overloads
These overcurrents can occur in healthy electric circuits, for example, due to a number of
small short-duration loads which occasionally occur co-incidentally: motor starting loads, and
so on. If either of these conditions persists however beyond a given period (depending on
protective-relay settings or fuse ratings) the circuit will be automatically cut off.
Short-circuit currents
These currents result from the failure of insulation between live conductors or/and between
live conductors and earth (on systems having low-impedance-earthed neutrals) in any
combination, viz:
Acting to cut-off the current in a time shorter than that given by the I2t characteristic of the
circuit cabling
But allowing the maximum load current IB to flow indefinitely
The characteristics of insulated conductors when carrying short-circuit currents can, for periods up to
5 seconds following short-circuit initiation, be determined approximately by the formula:
I2t = k2 S2
which shows that the allowable heat generated is proportional to the squared cross-sectional-area of
the condutor.
where
For a given insulated conductor, the maximum permissible current varies according to the
environment. For instance, for a high ambient temperature (θa1 > θa2), Iz1 is less than Iz2
(see Fig. G5). θ means “temperature”.
Note:
Its 3-phase short-circuit fault-current breaking rating is greater than the 3-phase short-circuit
current existing at its point of installation. This corresponds to zone “c” in Figure G6.
Fig. G6: Current levels for determining circuir breaker or fuse characteristics IB ≤ In ≤ Iz zone a I2 ≤
1.45 Iz zone b ISCB ≥ ISC zone c
Applications
Protection by circuit-breaker
By virtue of its high level of precision the current I2 is always less than 1.45 In (or 1.45 Ir) so that the
condition I2 ≤ 1.45 Iz (as noted in the “general rules” above) will always be respected.
Particular case
If the circuit-breaker itself does not protect against overloads, it is necessary to ensure that,
at a time of lowest value of short-circuit current, the overcurrent device protecting the circuit
will operate correctly. This particular case is examined in Calculation of minimum levels of
short-circuit current.
Protection by fuses
The condition I2 ≤ 1.45 Iz must be taken into account, where I2 is the fusing (melting level) current,
equal to k2 x In (k2 ranges from 1.6 to 1.9) depending on the particular fuse concerned.
In < 16 A → k3 = 1.31
In ≥ 16 A → k3 = 1.10
Moreover, the short-circuit current breaking capacity of the fuse ISCF must exceed the level of 3-
phase short-circuit current at the point of installation of the fuse(s).
The use of protective devices which have fault-current ratings lower than the fault level existing at
their point of installation are permitted by IEC and many national standards in the following
conditions:
There exists upstream, another protective device which has the necessary short-circuit
rating, and
The amount of energy allowed to pass through the upstream device is less than that which
can be withstood without damage by the downstream device and all associated cabling and
appliances.
Possible combinations which have been tested in laboratories are indicated in certain manufacturers
catalogues.
The different admissible methods of installation are listed in Figure G8, in conjonction with the
different types of conductors and cables.
trunking) rackets
Bare conductors - - - - - - + -
[b] [a]
Insulated conductors - - + + + - + -
Sheathed Multi- + + + + + + 0 +
cables core
Single 0 + + + + + 0 +
(including -core
armoured and
mineral
insulated)
+ : Permitted.
[a] Insulated conductors are admitted if the cable trunking systems provide at least he degree of protection IP4X or
IPXXD and if the cover can only be removed by means of a tool or a deliberate action.
[b] Insulated conductors which are used as protective conductors or protective bonding conductors may use any
appropriate method of installation and need not be laid in conduits, trunking or ducting systems.
The number given in this table refer to the different wiring systems considered.
Not 40 0 41, 42 0 43 0 0 0
accessible
Window frames 16 0 16 0 0 0 - -
Architrave 15 0 15 0 0 0 - -
Immersed 1 + + + - + 0 - -
Note: The number in each box, e.g. 40, 46, refers to the number of the method of installation in Table A.52.3.
An illustration of some of the many different wiring systems and methods of installation is provided
in Figure G10.
Several reference methods are defined (with code letters A to G), grouping installation methods
having the same characteristics relative to the current-carrying capacities of the wiring systems.
Room
2 Multi-core cables in conduit in a A2
thermally insulated wall
Room
C
30 Single-core or multi-core cables:
horizontally or vertically
31 Single-core or multi-core cables: E or F
or vertically
The current-carrying capacities given in the subsequent tables have been determined so that the
maximum insulation temperature is not exceeded for sustained periods of time.
For different type of insulation material, the maximum admissible temperature is given
in Figure G11.
Mineral (bare not exposed to touch and not in contact with 105 at the seath
combustible material)
Fig. G11: Maximum operating temperatures for types of insulation (table 52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Correction factors
In order to take environment or special conditions of installation into account, correction factors have
been introduced.
The cross sectional area of cables is determined using the rated load current IB divided by different
correction factors, k1, k2, ...:
I’B is the corrected load current, to be compared to the current-carrying capacity of the considered
cable.
Ambient temperature
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the air are based on an average air temperature equal to
30 °C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is given in FigureG12 for PVC, EPR and XLPE
insulation material.
10 1.22 1.15
15 1.17 1.12
20 1.12 1.08
25 1.06 1.04
30 1 1
35 0.94 0.96
40 0.87 0.91
45 0.79 0.87
50 0.71 0.82
55 0.61 0.76
60 0.50 0.71
65 - 0.65
70 - 0.58
75 - 0.50
80 - 0.41
Fig. G12: Correction factors for ambient air temperatures other than 30 °C to be applied to the current-carrying
capacities for cables in the air (from table B.52.14 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on an average ground
temperature equal to 20 °C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is given in Figure G13 for
PVC, EPR and XLPE insulation material.
10 1.10 1.07
15 1.05 1.04
20 1 1
25 0.95 0.96
30 0.89 0.93
35 0.84 0.89
40 0.77 0.85
45 0.71 0.80
50 0.63 0.76
55 0.55 0.71
60 0.45 0.65
65 - 0.60
70 - 0.53
75 - 0.46
80 - 0.38
Fig. G13: Correction factors for ambient ground temperatures other than 20 °C to be applied to the current-carrying
capacities for cables in ducts in the ground (from table B.52.15 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on a ground resistivity equal to 2.5
K•m/W. For other values, the correction factor is given in Figure G14.
Correction factor for cables in buried ducts 1.28 1.20 1.18 1.1 1.05 1 0.96
Correction factor for direct buried cables 1.88 1.62 1.5 1.28 1.12 1 0.90
Note 1: The correction factors given have been averaged over the range of conductor sizes and types of installation
included in Tables B.52.2 to B.52.5. The overall accuracy of correction factors is within ±5 %.
Note 2: The correction factors are applicable to cables drawn into buried ducts; for cables laid direct in the ground the
correction factors for thermal resistivities less than 2.5 K•m/W will be higher. Where more precise values are required
Note 3: The correction factors are applicable to ducts buried at depths of up to 0.8 m.
Note 4: It is assumed that the soil properties are uniform. No allowance had been made for the possibility of moisture
migration which can lead to a region of high thermal resistivity around the cable. If partial drying out of the soil is
foreseen, the permissible current rating should be derived by the methods specified in the IEC 60287 series.
Fig. G14: Correction factors for cables in buried ducts for soil thermal resistivities other than 2.5 K.m/W to be applied
to the current-carrying capacities for reference method D (table B.52.16 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Based on experience, a relationship exist between the soil nature and resistivity. Then, empiric
values of correction factors k3 are proposed in Figure G15, depending on the nature of soil.
Nature of soil k3
Very wet soil (saturated) 1.21
Two insulated conductors or two single-core cables, or one twin-core cable (applicable to
single-phase circuits);
Three insulated conductors or three single-core cables, or one three-core cable (applicable
to three-phase circuits).
Where more insulated conductors or cables are installed in the same group, a group reduction factor
(here noted k4) shall be applied.
Examples are given in Figures G16 to G18 for different configurations (installation methods, in free
air or in the ground).
Figure G16 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of unburied cables or
conductors, grouping of more than one circuit or multi-core cables.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 16 20
Bunched in air, 1.00 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.54 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.41 0.38 Methods A
on a surface, 0 0 5 0 7 2 0 5 to F
embedded
orenclosed
Single layer on 1.00 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.72 0.7 0.7 No further Method C
wall, floor or 5 9 5 3 2 1 0 reduction factor
unperforated tray for more than
nine circuits or
multi-core cables
Single layer fixed 0.95 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.63 0.6 0.6
directly under a 1 2 8 6 4 2 1
wooden ceiling
Single layer on a 1.00 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.73 0.7 0.7 Methods E and F
perforated 8 2 7 5 3 2 2
horizontal or
vertical tray
Single layer on 1.00 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.79 0.7 0.7
ladder support or 7 2 0 0 9 8 8
cleats etc.
Fig. G16: Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit or of more than one multi-core cable (table B.52.17 of
IEC 60364-5-52)
Figure G17 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of unburied cables or
conductors, for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables in free air.
1 2 3
2 0.95 0.84
Fig. G17: Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables to be applied to reference rating
for one circuit of single-core cables in free air - Method of installation F. (table B.52.21 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Figure G18 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of cables or
conductors laid directly in the ground.
(a) for Single-
core cables
Fig. G18: Reduction factors for more than one circuit, single-core or multi-core cables laid directly in the ground.
Harmonic current
The current-carrying capacity of three-phase, 4-core or 5-core cables is based on the assumption
that only 3 conductors are fully loaded.
However, when harmonic currents are circulating, the neutral current can be significant, and even
higher than the phase currents. This is due to the fact that the 3rd harmonic currents of the three
phases do not cancel each other, and sum up in the neutral conductor.
This of course affects the current-carrying capacity of the cable, and a correction factor noted here
k5 shall be applied.
In addition, if the 3rd harmonic percentage h3 is greater than 33%, the neutral current is greater than
the phase current and the cable size selection is based on the neutral current. The heating effect of
harmonic currents in the phase conductors has also to be taken into account.
0 - 15 1.0
15 - 33 0.86
33 - 45 0.86
> 45 1.0[a]
[a] If the neutral current is more than 135 % of the phase current and the cable size is selected on the basis of the
neutral current then the three phase conductors will not be fully loaded. The reduction in heat generated by the phase
conductors offsets the heat generated by the neutral conductor to the extent that it is not necessary to apply any
reduction factor to the current carrying capacity for three loaded conductors.
Fig. G19: Correction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables (table E.52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
IEC standard 60364-5-52 proposes extensive information in the form of tables giving the admissible
currents as a function of cross-sectional area of cables. Many parameters are taken into account,
such as the method of installation, type of insulation material, type of conductor material, number of
loaded conductors.
A1 A2 B1 B2 C D1 D2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Copper
4 24 23 28 27 32 30 33
6 31 29 36 34 41 38 41
10 42 39 50 46 57 50 54
16 56 52 68 62 76 64 70
25 73 68 89 80 96 82 92
4 18.5 17.5 22 21 25 24
6 24 23 28 27 32 30
10 32 31 39 36 44 39
16 43 41 53 48 59 50 53
25 57 53 70 62 73 64 69
35 70 65 86 77 90 77 83
50 84 78 104 92 110 91 99
Note: In columns 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8, circular conductors are assumed for sizes up to and including 16 mm2. Values for
larger sizes relate to shaped conductors and may safely be applied to circular conductors.
Fig. G20: Current-carrying capacities in amperes for different methods of installation, PVC insulation, three loaded
conductors, copper or aluminium, conductor temperature: 70 °C, ambient temperature: 30 °C in air, 20 °C in ground
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power supply
transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in Ω)
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (MV network, transformer, cable, busbar, and so on...) is
characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element of resistance (R) and an inductive
reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive reactances are not important in short-circuit current
calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a right angled
triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G33.
Fig. G33: Impedance diagram
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to calculate the R and X
values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in the section are
added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated
from
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if predominantly both resistive
(or both inductive) be combined to give a single equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance R3 will
be given by:
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without mutual
inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be notably higher.
(see Fig. G34)
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level PSC, in kA or in MVA[1] is given by the power supply authority
concerned, from which an equivalent impedance can be deduced.
Fig. G34: The impedance of the MV network referred to the LV side of the MV/LV transformer
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance to an
equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
where
The upstream (MV) resistance Ra is generally found to be negligible compared with the
corresponding Xa, the latter then being taken as the ohmic value for Za. If more accurate
calculations are necessary, Xa may be taken to be equal to 0.995 Za and Ra equal to 0.1 Xa.
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common MV[2] short-circuit levels
in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
Transformers
(see Fig. G35)
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is given by the formula:
where:
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total load-losses as follows:
where
Note: for an approximate calculation, in the absence of more precise information on transformer
characteristics, Cenelec 50480 suggests to use the following guidelines:
if U20 is not known, it may be assumed to be 1.05 Un
in the absence of more precise information, the following values may be used: Rtr = 0.31 Ztr
and Xtr = 0.95 Ztr
Example: for a transformer of 630kVA with Usc=4% / Un = 400V, approximate calculation gives:
Usc (%) Rtr (mΩ) Xtr (mΩ) Ztr (mΩ) Usc (%) Rtr (mΩ) Xtr (mΩ) Ztr (mΩ)
Fig. G35: Resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution 400 V transformers (no-load voltage =
Busbars
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is practically all reactive,
and amounts to approximately 0.15 mΩ/metre[3] length for LV busbars (doubling the spacing
between the bars increases the reactance by about 10% only).
In practice, it's almost never possible to estimate the busbar length concerned by a short-circuit
downstream a switchboard.
Circuit conductors
where
ρ = the resistivity of the conductor material at the normal operating temperature
ρ has to be considered:
20 °C PR/XLPE 90 °C PVC 70 °C
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less than 50
mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of other information, a value of 0.08 mΩ/metre may
be used (for 50 Hz systems) or 0.096 mΩ/metre (for 60 Hz systems). For busways (busbar trunking
systems) and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the manufacturer should be consulted.
Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and feed
current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, if the total power of motors
running simultaneously is higher than 25% of the total power of transformers, the influence of motors
must be taken into account. Their total contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5m In for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor contribution being
insignificant.
Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance. The resistance is
not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this resistance is sufficient to reduce the
fault-current to some extent. Experience has shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no
relief for its fault-current making duty.
Recapitulation table
(see Fig. G36)
Xa = 0.995 Za
Supply network
Figure G34
Transformer
with
Figure G35 where
[a]
formula:
Circuit Cables: Xc = 0.08 mΩ/m
conductors[b]
[a]
[b] If there are several conductors in parallel per phase, then divide the resistance of one conductor by the number of
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at MV terminals of the MV/LV transformers (in kVA).
(see Fig. G37)
Psc = 500
MVA
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactance. Isc : 3-phase maximum short-circuit current Calculations
Fig. G37: Example of maximum short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal)
Notes
It is then sufficient to select a circuit-breaker with an appropriate short-circuit fault rating immediately
above that indicated in the tables.
If more precise values are required, it is possible to make a detailed calculation or to use a software
package, such as Ecodial. In such a case, moreover, the possibility of using the cascading technique
should be considered, in which the use of a current limiting circuit-breaker at the upstream position
would allow all circuit-breakers downstream of the limiter to have a short-circuit current rating much
lower than would otherwise be necessary (See chapter LV switchgear: functions and selection ).
Method
Select the c.s.a. of the conductor in the column for copper conductors (in this example the c.s.a. is
47.5 mm2).
Search along the row corresponding to 47.5 mm2 for the length of conductor equal to that of the
circuit concerned (or the nearest possible on the low side). Descend vertically the column in which
the length is located, and stop at a row in the middle section (of the 3 sections of the Figure)
corresponding to the known fault-current level (or the nearest to it on the high side).
In this case 30 kA is the nearest to 28 kA on the high side. The value of short-circuit current at the
downstream end of the 20 metre circuit is given at the intersection of the vertical column in which the
length is located, and the horizontal row corresponding to the upstream Isc (or nearest to it on the
high side).
The procedure for aluminium conductors is similar, but the vertical column must be ascended into
the middle section of the table.
In consequence, a DIN-rail-mounted circuit-breaker rated at 63 A and Isc of 25 kA (such as a NG
125N unit) can be used for the 55 A circuit in Figure G38.
A Compact rated at 160 A with an Isc capacity of 25 kA (such as a NS160 unit) can be used to
protect the 160 A circuit.
Note: for a 3-phase system having 230 V between phases, divide the above lengths by
Fig. G39: Isc at a point downstream, as a function of a known upstream fault-current value and the length and c.s.a.
In general, on LV circuits, a single protective device protects against all levels of current, from the
overload threshold through the maximum rated short-circuit current breaking capability of the device.
The protection device should be able to operate in a maximum time to ensure people and circuit
safety, for all short-circuit current or fault current that may occur. To check that behavior, calculation
of minimal short-circuit current or fault current is mandatory.
In addition, in certain cases overload protective devices and separate short-circuit protective devices
are used.
Fig. G42a: Circuit breaker D provides protection against short-circuit faults as far as and including
the load
As shown in Figures G40 and G41, the most common circuits using separate devices control and
protect motors.
Figure G42a constitutes a derogation in the basic protection rules, and is generally used on circuits
of prefabricated bustrunking, lighting rails, etc.
Figure G42b shows the functions provided by the variable speed drive, and if necessary some
additional functions provided by devices such as circuit-breaker, thermal relay, RCD.
Protection to be Protection generally Additional protection if not
provided provided by the variable provided by the variable
speed drive speed drive
Overvoltage Yes
Undervoltage Yes
(short-circuit tripping)
tripping)
Conditions to be fulfilled
The protective device must therefore satisfy the two following conditions:
Its breaking capacity must be greater than Isc, the 3-phase short-circuit current at its point of
installation
Elimination of the minimum short-circuit current possible in the circuit, in a time tc compatible
with the thermal constraints of the circuit conductors, where:
where S is the cross section area of the cable, k is a factor depending of the cable conductor
material, the insulation material and initial temperature.
Example: for copper XLPE, initial temperature 90 °C, k = 143 (see IEC60364-4-43 §434.3.2 table
43A).
Comparison of the tripping or fusing performance curve of protective devices, with the limit curves of
thermal constraint for a conductor shows that this condition is satisfied if:
Isc (min) > Im (instantaneous or short timedelay circuit-breaker trip setting current level),
(see Fig. G43 )
Isc (min) > Ia for protection by fuses. The value of the current Ia corresponds to the crossing
point of the fuse curve and the cable thermal withstand curve (see Fig. G44 and Fig. G45)
In practice this means that the length of circuit downstream of the protective device must not exceed a
The limiting effect of the impedance of long circuit conductors on the value of short-circuit currents
must be checked and the length of a circuit must be restricted accordingly.
The method of calculating the maximum permitted length has already been demonstrated in TN- and
IT- earthed schemes for single and double earth faults, respectively. Two cases are considered
below:
Using the “conventional method”, the voltage at the point of protection P is assumed to be 80% of
the nominal voltage during a short-circuit fault, so that 0.8 U = Isc Zd, where:
where:
The condition for the cable protection is Im ≤ Isc with Im = magnetic trip current setting of the CB.
with U = 400 V
therefore
In general, the value of Im is given with +/- 20% tolerance, so Lmax should be calculated for
Im+20% (worst case).
k factor values are provided in the following table, taking into account these 20%, and as a function
of cross-section for Sph > 120 mm2[1]
The minimum Isc will occur when the short-circuit is between a phase conductor and the neutral at
the end of the circuit.
A calculation similar to that of example 1 above is required, but for a single-phase fault (230V).
Lmax = k Sph / Im with k calculated for 230V, as shown in the table below
In other cases, apply correction factors (given in Figure G51) to the lengths obtained.
Operating current level Im of the instantaneous c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)
magnetic tripping element (in A)
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 1
63 79 133 21 317
2
80 63 104 16 250 41
7 7
100 50 83 13 200 33
3 3
1600 5 8 13 21 33 52 73 99 14 198 2
6
2000 4 7 10 17 27 42 58 79 11 158 2
7
2500 5 8 13 21 33 47 63 93 127 1
3200 4 6 10 17 26 36 49 73 99 1
4000 5 8 13 21 29 40 58 79 1
5000 4 7 11 17 23 32 47 63 8
6300 5 8 13 19 25 37 50 6
8000 4 7 10 15 20 29 40 5
10000 5 8 12 16 23 32 4
12500 4 7 9 13 19 25 3
Fig. G47: Maximum circuit lengths in metres for copper conductors (for aluminium, the lengths must be multiplied by
0.62)
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
6 200 333 533 800
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
1 429 714
Circuit detail
3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit or 1-phase 2-wire 400 V circuit (no neutral)
3-phase 4-wire 230/400 V circuit or 2-phase 3-wire 230/400 V circuit (i.e with neutral) Sph / S neutra
Sph / S neutra
Fig. G51: Correction factor to apply to lengths obtained from Figures G47 to G50
Note: IEC 60898 accepts an upper short-circuit-current tripping range of 10-50 In for type D circuit-
breakers. European standards, and Figure G50 however, are based on a range of 10-20 In, a range
which covers the vast majority of domestic and similar installations.
Examples
Example 1
In Figure G47, the row Im = 500 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 10 mm2 at the value for Lmax of 67
m. The circuit-breaker protects the cable against short-circuit faults, therefore, provided that its
length does not exceed 67 metres.
Example 2
In a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), the protection is provided by a 220 A circuit-
breaker type NSX250N with an instantaneous short-circuit current trip unit type MA set at 2,000 A (±
20%), i.e. a worst case of 2,400 A to be certain of tripping. The cable c.s.a. = 120 mm2 and the
conductor material is copper.
In Figure G47 the row Im = 2,000 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 120 mm2 at the value for Lmax of
200 m. Being a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), a correction factor
from Figure G51 must be applied. This factor is seen to be 1.73.
The circuit-breaker will therefore protect the cable against short-circuit current, provided that its
length does not exceed 200 x 1.73 = 346 metres.
Notes
1. ^ a b For larger c.s.a.’s, the resistance calculated for the conductors must be increased to
account for the non-uniform current density in the conductor (due to “skin” and “proximity”
effects Suitable values are as follows:
150 mm2: R + 15 %
185 mm2: R + 20 %
240 mm2: R + 25 %
300 mm2: R + 30 %
2. ^ Resistivity for copper EPR/XLPE cables when passing short-circuit current, eg for the max
temperature they can withstand = 90°C (cf Figure G35b).
When the duration of short-circuit current is brief (several tenths of a second up to five seconds
maximum) all of the heat produced is assumed to remain in the conductor, causing its temperature
to rise. The heating process is said to be adiabatic, an assumption that simplifies the calculation and
gives a pessimistic result, i.e. a higher conductor temperature than that which would actually occur,
since in practice, some heat would leave the conductor and pass into the insulation.
For a period of 5 seconds or less, the relationship I2t = k2S2 characterizes the time in seconds during
which a conductor of c.s.a. S (in mm 2) can be allowed to carry a current I, before its temperature
reaches a level which would damage the surrounding insulation.
Conductor insulation
PVC ≤ 300 mm2 PVC > 300 mm2 EPR XLPE Rubber 60 °C
Initial temperature °C 70 70 90 60
Aluminium 76 68 94 93
The method of verification consists in checking that the thermal energy I2t per ohm of conductor
material, allowed to pass by the protecting circuit-breaker (from manufacturers catalogues) is less
than that permitted for the particular conductor (as given in Figure G53 below).
Fig. G53: Maximum allowable thermal stress for cables I2t (expressed in ampere2 x second x 106)
Example
Figure G53 shows that the I2t value for the cable is 0.3272 x 106, while the maximum “let-through”
value by the circuit-breaker, as given in the manufacturer’s catalogue, is considerably less ( <
0.1.106 A2s).
The cable is therefore adequately protected by the circuit-breaker up to its full rated breaking
capability.
Electrodynamic constraints
For all type of circuit (conductors or bus-trunking), it is necessary to take electrodynamic effects into
account.
To withstand the electrodynamic constraints, the conductors must be solidly fixed and the
connection must be strongly tightened.
For bus-trunking, rails, etc. it is also necessary to verify that the electrodynamic withstand
performance is satisfactory when carrying short-circuit currents. The peak value of current, limited by
the circuit-breaker or fuse, must be less than the busbar system rating. Tables of coordination
ensuring adequate protection of their products are generally published by the manufacturers and
provide a major advantage of such systems.
Fig. G53b: Example of energy limitation of a MCB for different ratings.
The main earthing terminal is connected to the earthing electrode (see Chapter E) by the earthing
conductor (grounding electrode conductor in the USA).
Connection
PE conductors must:
Not include any means of breaking the continuity of the circuit (such as a switch, removable
links, etc.)
Connect exposed conductive parts individually to the main PE conductor, i.e. in parallel, not
in series, as shown in Figure G54
Have an individual terminal on common earthing bars in distribution boards.
Fig. G54: A poor connection in a series arrangement will leave all downstream appliances
unprotected
TT scheme
The PE conductor need not necessarily be installed in close proximity to the live conductors of the
corresponding circuit, since high values of earth-fault current are not needed to operate the RCD-
type of protection used in TT installations.
IT and TN schemes
The PE or PEN conductor, as previously noted, must be installed as close as possible to the
corresponding live conductors of the circuit and no ferro-magnetic material must be interposed
between them. A PEN conductor must always be connected directly to the earth terminal of an
appliance, with a looped connection from the earth terminal to the neutral terminal of the appliance
(see Fig. G55).
TN-C scheme (the neutral and PE conductor are one and the same, referred to as a PEN
conductor)
The protective function of a PEN conductor has priority, so that all rules governing PE
conductors apply strictly to PEN conductors
Fig. G55: Direct connection of the PEN conductor to the earth terminal of an appliance
Types of materials
Materials of the kinds mentioned below in Figure G57 can be used for PE conductors, provided that
the conditions mentioned in the last column are satisfied.
Water pipes[g]
Metallic cable ways, such as, Possible[d] PE possible[d] Possible
conduits[i]ducts, trunking, trays, PEN not
ladders, and so on… recommended[b][d]
Forbidden for use as PE conductors, are: metal conduits[i], gas pipes, hot-water pipes, cable-armouring tapes[i]or wires[i]
[a] In TN and IT schemes, fault clearance is generally achieved by overcurrent devices (fuses or circuit-breakers) so
that the impedance of the fault-current loop must be sufficiently low to assure positive protective device operation.
The surest means of achieving a low loop impedance is to use a supplementary core in the same cable as the circuit
conductors (or taking the same route as the circuit conductors). This solution minimizes the inductive reactance and
current may be flowing through it at any time (in the absence of an earth fault). For this reason an insulated conductor
[c] The manufacturer provides the necessary values of R and X components of the impedances (phase/PE,
[d] Possible, but not recomended, since the impedance of the earth-fault loop cannot be known at the design stage.
Measurements on the completed installation are the only practical means of assuring adequate protection for
persons.
[e] It must allow the connection of other PE conductors. Note: these elements must carry an indivual green/yellow
striped visual indication, 15 to 100 mm long (or the letters PE at less than 15 cm from each extremity).
[f] These elements must be demountable only if other means have been provided to ensure uninterrupted continuity
of protection.
[h] In the prefabricated pre-wired trunking and similar elements, the metallic housing may be used as a PEN
conductor, in parallel with the corresponding bar, or other PE conductor in the housing.
[i] Forbidden in some countries only. Universally allowed to be used for supplementary equipotential conductors.
Division of source
This technique concerns the use of several transformers instead of employing one high-rated unit. In
this way, a load that is a source of network disturbances (large motors, furnaces, etc.) can be
supplied by its own transformer.
The quality and continuity of supply to the whole installation are thereby improved.
Network islands
Conclusion
The optimisation of the performance of the whole installation governs the choice of earthing system.
Including:
An ideal structure would comprise normal power supply sources, local reserve power supply sources
(see Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems ) and the appropriate earthing arrangements.
The resistance R of such an electrode (in homogeneous soil) is given (approximately) in ohms by:
where
The quality of an earth electrode (resistance as low as possible) depends essentially on two factors:
Installation method
Type of soil
Installation methods
Buried ring
(see Fig. E20)
The electrode should be buried around the perimeter of the excavation made for the foundations. It
is important that the bare conductor be in intimate contact with the soil (and not placed in the gravel
or aggregate hard-core, often forming a base for concrete). At least four (widely-spaced) vertically
arranged conductors from the electrode should be provided for the installation connections and,
where possible, any reinforcing rods in concrete work should be connected to the electrode.
The conductor forming the earth electrode, particularly when it is laid in an excavation for
foundations, must be in the earth, at least 50 cm below the hard-core or aggregate base for the
concrete foundation. Neither the electrode nor the vertical rising conductors to the ground floor,
should ever be in contact with the foundation concrete.
For existing buildings, the electrode conductor should be buried around the outside wall of the
premises to a depth of at least 1 metre. As a general rule, all vertical connections from an electrode
to above-ground level should be insulated for the nominal LV voltage (600-1,000 V).
where
Earthing rods
(see Fig. E21)
For n rods:
Vertically driven earthing rods are often used for existing buildings, and for improving (i.e. reducing
the resistance of) existing earth electrodes.
Copper or (more commonly) copper-clad steel. The latter are generally 1 or 2 metres long
and provided with screwed ends and sockets in order to reach considerable depths, if necessary
(for instance, the water-table level in areas of high soil resistivity)
Galvanised[1] steel pipe ≥ 25 mm diameter or rod ≥ 15 mm diameter, ≥ 2 metres long in each
case.
The total resistance (in homogeneous soil) is then equal to the resistance of one rod, divided by the
number of rods in question.
The approximate resistance R obtained is: if the distance separating the rods > 4L
where
Vertical plates
(see Fig. E22)
Rectangular plates, each side of which must be ≥ 0.5 metres, are commonly used as earth
electrodes, being buried in a vertical plane such that the centre of the plate is at least 1 metre below
the surface of the soil.
Copper of 2 mm thickness
Galvanised[1] steel of 3 mm thickness
where
Measurements on earth electrodes in similar soils are useful to determine the resistivity value to be applied for
the design of an earth-electrode system
Soft clay 50
Jurassic marl 30 - 40
Among the principal factors affecting this resistance are the following:
Frost
Frozen earth can increase the resistivity of the soil by several orders of magnitude. This is
one reason for recommending the installation of deep electrodes, in particular in cold
climates
Ageing
The materials used for electrodes will generally deteriorate to some extent for various
reasons, for example:
Oxidation
Brazed and welded joints and connections are the points most sensitive to oxidation.
Thorough cleaning of a newly made joint or connection and wrapping with a suitable
greased-tape binding is a commonly used preventive measure.
There must always be one or more removable links to isolate an earth electrode so that it can be
tested.
There must always be removable links which allow the earth electrode to be isolated from the
installation, so that periodic tests of the earthing resistance can be carried out. To make such tests,
two auxiliary electrodes are required, each consisting of a vertically driven rod.
Fig. E25: Measurement of the resistance to earth of the earth electrode of an installation by means
of an ammeter
When the source voltage U is constant (adjusted to be the same value for each test) then:
In order to avoid errors due to stray earth currents (galvanic -DC- or leakage currents from power
and communication networks and so on) the test current should be AC, but at a different frequency
to that of the power system or any of its harmonics. Instruments using hand-driven generators to
make these measurements usually produce an AC voltage at a frequency of between 85 Hz and 135
Hz.
The distances between the electrodes are not critical and may be in different directions from the
electrode being tested, according to site conditions. A number of tests at different spacings and
directions are generally made to cross-check the test results.
Use of a direct-reading earthing-resistance ohmmeter
These instruments use a hand-driven or electronic-type AC generator, together with two auxiliary
electrodes, the spacing of which must be such that the zone of influence of the electrode being
tested should not overlap that of the test electrode (C). The test electrode (C) furthest from the
electrode (X) under test, passes a current through the earth and the electrode under test, while the
second test electrode (P) picks up a voltage. This voltage, measured between (X) and (P), is due to
the test current and is a measure of the contact resistance (of the electrode under test) with earth. It
is clear that the distance (X) to (P) must be carefully chosen to give accurate results. If the distance
(X) to (C) is increased, however, the zones of resistance of electrodes (X) and (C) become more
remote, one from the other, and the curve of potential (voltage) becomes more nearly horizontal
about the point (O).
In practical tests, therefore, the distance (X) to (C) is increased until readings taken with electrode
(P) at three different points, i.e. at (P) and at approximately 5 metres on either side of (P), give
similar values. The distance (X) to (P) is generally about 0.68 of the distance (X) to (C).
[a] the principle of measurement is based on assumed [b] showing the effect on the potential
homogeneous soil conditions. Where the zones of influence of gradient when (X) and (C) are widely spaced.
electrodes C and X overlap, the location of test electrode P is The location of test electrode P is not critical
difficult to determine for satisfactory results. and can be easily determined.
Fig. E26: Measurement of the resistance to the mass of earth of electrode (X) using an earth-electrode-testing
ohmmeter
Notes
1. ^ a b Where galvanised conducting materials are used for earth electrodes, sacrificial cathodic
protection anodes may be necessary to avoid rapid corrosion of the electrodes where the
soil is aggressive. Specially prepared magnesium anodes (in a porous sack filled with a
suitable “soil”) are available for direct connection to the electrodes. In such circumstances, a
specialist should be consulted.
The three systems are equivalent in terms of protection of persons if all installation and operating rules are
correctly followed.
The selection criteria for the best system(s) depend on the regulatory requirements, the required continuity of
service, operating conditions and the types of network and loads
In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements (SEA) are equivalent
if all installation and operating rules are correctly followed. Consequently, selection does not depend
on safety criteria.
Above all, the applicable regulations which in some cases impose certain types of SEA
Secondly, the decision of the owner if supply is via a private MV/LV transformer (MV
subscription) or the owner has a private energy source (or a separate-winding transformer)
If the owner effectively has a choice, the decision on the SEA is taken following discussions with the
network designer (design office, contractor).
First of all, the operating requirements (the required level of continuity of service) and the
operating conditions (maintenance ensured by electrical personnel or not, in-house personnel or
outsourced, etc.)
Secondly, the particular characteristics of the network and the loads (see Fig. E17 ).
Electrical characteristics
Fault current - -- -- + --
Fault voltage - - - + -
Protection
Overvoltages
Continuous overvoltage + + + - +
Transient overvoltage + - - + -
Overvoltage if transformer - + + + +
breakdown(primary/secondary)
Electromagnetic compatibility
Continuity of service
Installation
Special devices - + + - -
Number of cables - - + - -
Maintenance
Cost of repairs - -- -- - --
Installation damage + - - ++ -
Very large network with low-quality earth electrodes for exposed conductive parts (> 30 Ω) TN
Type of loads
Loads with a low insulation level (electric furnaces,welding machines, heating elements, TN[i]
immersion heaters, equipment in large kitchens)
Miscellaneous
Installation where the continuity of earth circuits is uncertain (work sites, old installations) TT[s]
[a] When the SEA is not imposed by regulations, it is selected according to the level of operating characteristics
(continuity of service that is mandatory for safety reasons or desired to enhance productivity, etc.). Whatever the
SEA, the probability of an insulation failure increases with the length of the network. It may be a good idea to break
up the network, which facilitates fault location and makes it possible to implement the system advised above for each
type of application.
[b] The risk of flashover on the surge limiter turns the isolated neutral into an earthed neutral. These risks are high for
regions with frequent thunder storms or installations supplied by overhead lines. If the IT system is selected to ensure
a higher level of continuity of service, the system designer must precisely calculate the tripping conditions for a
second fault.
[g] The TN system is not advised due to the risk of damage to the generator in the case of an internal fault. What is
more, when generator sets supply safety equipment, the system must not trip for the first fault.
[h] The phase-to-earth current may be several times higher than In, with the risk of damaging or accelerating the
[i] To combine continuity of service and safety, it is necessary and highly advised, whatever the SEA, to separate
these loads from the rest of the installation (transformers with local neutral connection).
[j] When load equipment quality is not a design priority, there is a risk that the insulation resistance will fall rapidly.
[k] The mobility of this type of load causes frequent faults (sliding contact for bonding of exposed conductive parts)
that must be countered. Whatever the SEA, it is advised to supply these circuits using transformers with a local
neutral connection.
[l] Requires the use of transformers with a local TN system to avoid operating risks and nuisance tripping at the first
[m] Excessive limitation of the phase-to-neutral current due to the high value of the zero-phase impedance (at least 4
to 5 times the direct impedance). This system must be replaced by a star-delta arrangement.
[n] The high fault currents make the TN system dangerous. The TN-C system is forbidden.
[p] An installation supplied with LV energy must use the TT system. Maintaining this SEA means the least amount of
modifications on the existing network (no cables to be run, no protection devices to be modified).
[r] This type of installation requires particular attention in maintaining safety. The absence of preventive measures in
the TN system means highly qualified personnel are required to ensure safety over time.
[s] The risks of breaks in conductors (supply, protection) may cause the loss of equipotentiality for exposed
conductive parts. A TT system or a TN-S system with 30 mA RCDs is advised and is often mandatory. The IT system
Fig. E17: Influence of networks and loads on the selection of system earthing arrangements.
The TT system:
Technique for the protection of persons: the exposed conductive parts are earthed and residual current
devices (RCDs) are used
Operating technique: interruption for the first insulation fault
Note: If the exposed conductive parts are earthed at a number of points, an RCD must be installed
for each set of circuits connected to a given earth electrode.
Main characteristics
Simplest solution to design and install. Used in installations supplied directly by the public LV
distribution network.
Does not require continuous monitoring during operation (a periodic check on the RCDs may
be necessary).
Protection is ensured by special devices, the residual current devices (RCD), which also
prevent the risk of fire when they are set to ≤ 500 mA.
Each insulation fault results in an interruption in the supply of power, however the outage is
limited to the faulty circuit by installing the RCDs in series (selective RCDs) or in parallel (circuit
selection).
Loads or parts of the installation which, during normal operation, cause high leakage
currents, require special measures to avoid nuisance tripping, i.e. supply the loads with a
separation transformer or use specific RCDs (see TT system - Protective measures).
TN system
see (Fig. E13 and Fig. E14)
The TN system:
Main characteristics
IT system
(see Fig. E15)
IT system:
Protection technique:
Interconnection and earthing of exposed conductive parts
Indication of the first fault by an insulation monitoring device (IMD)
Interruption for the second fault using overcurrent protection (circuit-breakers or fuses)
Operating technique:
Monitoring of the first insulation fault
Mandatory location and clearing of the fault
Interruption for two simultaneous insulation faults
Fig. E15: IT system
Main characteristics
The choice of these methods governs the measures necessary for protection against indirect-contact
hazards.
The earthing system qualifies three originally independent choices made by the designer of an
electrical distribution system or installation:
The type of connection of the electrical system (that is generally of the neutral conductor)
and of the exposed parts to earth electrod (s)
A separate protective conductor or protective conductor and neutral conductor being a single
conductor
The use of earth fault protection of overcurrent protective switchgear which clear only
relatively high fault currents or the use of additional relays able to detect and clear small insulation
fault currents to earth
In practice, these choices have been grouped and standardised as explained below.
Each of these choices provides standardised earthing systems with three advantages and
drawbacks:
Connection of the exposed conductive parts of the equipment and of the neutral conductor to
the PE conductor results in equipotentiality and lower overvoltages but increases earth fault
currents
A separate protective conductor is costly even if it has a small cross-sectional area but it is
much more unlikely to be polluted by voltage drops and harmonics, etc. than a neutral conductor
is. Leakage currents are also avoided in extraneous conductive parts
Installation of residual current protective relays or insulation monitoring devices are much
more sensitive and permits in many circumstances to clear faults before heavy damage occurs
(motors, fires, electrocution). The protection offered is in addition independent with respect to
changes in an existing installation
(see Fig. E3)
One point at the supply source is connected directly to earth. All exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to a separate earth electrode at the installation. This electrode may
or may not be electrically independent of the source electrode. The two zones of influence may
overlap without affecting the operation of protective devices.
Fig. E3: TT System
The source is earthed as for the TT system (above). In the installation, all exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to the neutral conductor. The several versions of TN systems are
shown below.
TN-C system
(see Fig. E4)
The neutral conductor is also used as a protective conductor and is referred to as a PEN
(Protective Earth and Neutral) conductor. This system is not permitted for conductors of less than 10
mm2 or for portable equipment.
The TN-C system requires an effective equipotential environment within the installation with
dispersed earth electrodes spaced as regularly as possible since the PEN conductor is both the
neutral conductor and at the same time carries phase unbalance currents as well as 3rd order
harmonic currents (and their multiples).
The PEN conductor must therefore be connected to a number of earth electrodes in the installation.
Caution: In the TN-C system, the “protective conductor” function has priority over the “neutral
function”. In particular, a PEN conductor must always be connected to the earthing terminal of a load
and a jumper is used to connect this terminal to the neutral terminal.
Fig. E4: TN-C system
TN-S system
(see Fig. E5)
The TN-S system (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less than 10 mm2 for
portable equipment.
The protective conductor and the neutral conductor are separate. On underground cable systems
where lead-sheathed cables exist, the protective conductor is generally the lead sheath. The use of
separate PE and N conductors (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less than
10 mm2 for portable equipment.
TN-C-S system
(see Fig. E6 and Fig. E7)
The TN-C and TN-S systems can be used in the same installation. In the TN-C-S system, the TN-C
(4 wires) system must never be used downstream of the TN-S (5 wires) system, since any
accidental interruption in the neutral on the upstream part would lead to an interruption in the
protective conductor in the downstream part and therefore a danger.
Fig. E6: TN-C-S system
No intentional connection is made between the neutral point of the supply source and earth
(see Fig. E8).
Fig. E8: IT system (isolated neutral)
In practice all circuits have a leakage impedance to earth, since no insulation is perfect. In parallel
with this (distributed) resistive leakage path, there is the distributed capacitive current path, the two
paths together constituting the normal leakage impedance to earth (see Fig. E9).
Example (see Fig. E10)
In a LV 3-phase 3-wire system, 1 km of cable will have a leakage impedance due to C1, C2, C3 and
R1, R2 and R3 equivalent to a neutral earth impedance Zct of 3,000 to 4,000 Ω, without counting the
filtering capacitances of electronic devices.
Fig. E10: Impedance equivalent to leakage impedances in an IT system
An impedance Zs (in the order of 1,000 to 2,000 Ω) is connected permanently between the neutral
point of the transformer LV winding and earth (see Fig. E11). All exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to an earth electrode. The reasons for this form of power-source
earthing are to fix the potential of a small network with respect to earth (Zs is small compared to the
leakage impedance) and to reduce the level of overvoltages, such as transmitted surges from the
MV windings, static charges, etc. with respect to earth. It has, however, the effect of slightly
increasing the first-fault current level.
Earthing connections.
In a building, the connection of all metal parts of the building and all exposed conductive parts of electrical
equipment to an earth electrode prevents the appearance of dangerously high voltages between any two
simultaneously accessible metal parts
Definitions
National and international standards (IEC 60364) clearly define the various elements of earthing
connections. The following terms are commonly used in industry and in the literature. Bracketed
numbers refer to Figure E1
Fig. E1: An example of a block of flats in which the main earthing terminal (6) provides the main
equipotential connection; the removable link (7) allows an earth-electrode-resistance check
Earth electrode (1): A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with, and
providing an electrical connection with Earth (cf details in section 1.6 of Chapter E.)
Earth: The conductive mass of the Earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero
Electrically independent earth electrodes: Earth electrodes located at such a distance from
one another that the maximum current likely to flow through one of them does not significantly
affect the potential of the other(s)
Earth electrode resistance: The contact resistance of an earth electrode with the Earth
Earthing conductor (2): A protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal (6) of
an installation to an earth electrode (1) or to other means of earthing (e.g. TN systems);
Exposed-conductive-part: A conductive part of equipment which can be touched and which
is not a live part, but which may become live under fault conditions
Protective conductor (3): A conductor used for some measures of protection against electric
shock and intended for connecting together any of the following parts:
Exposed-conductive-parts
Extraneous-conductive-parts
The main earthing terminal
Earth electrode(s)
The earthed point of the source or an artificial neutral
Extraneous-conductive-part: A conductive part liable to introduce a potential, generally earth
potential, and not forming part of the electrical installation (4).
For example:
Connections
The bonding is carried out by protective conductors and the aim is to ensure that, in the event of an
incoming extraneous conductor (such as a gas pipe, etc.) being raised to some potential due to a
fault external to the building, no difference of potential can occur between extraneous-conductive-
parts within the installation.
The bonding must be effected as close as possible to the point(s) of entry into the building, and be
connected to the main earthing terminal (6).
These connections are intended to connect all exposed-conductive-parts and all extraneous-
conductive-parts simultaneously accessible, when correct conditions for protection have not been
met, i.e. the original bonding conductors present an unacceptably high resistance.
The connection is made by protective conductors with the object of providing a low-resistance path
for fault currents flowing to earth.
Components
(see Fig. E2)
Effective connection of all accessible metal fixtures and all exposed-conductive-parts of electrical
appliances and equipment, is essential for effective protection against electric shocks.
as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
Metallic covering:
Exposed metal parts of class 1 insulated appliances
Metallic wall covering
Non-electrical elements Building services elements other than electrical
metallic fittings associated with cableways (cable Metal pipes, conduits, trunking, etc. for gas,water
In contact with electrical equipment. Metallic fittings in wash rooms, bathrooms, toilets,
etc.
Metallised papers
Component parts not to be considered:
as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
(see Fig. E36)
Distribution takes place via cableways that carry single insulated conductors or cables and include a
fixing system and mechanical protection.
Fig. E36: Radial distribution using cables in a hotel
Busways, also referred to as busbar trunking systems, stand out for their ease of installation, flexibility and
number of possible connection points
Busbar trunking is intended to distribute power (from 20 A to 5000 A) and lighting (in this application,
the busbar trunking may play a dual role of supplying electrical power and physically holding the
lights).
Used for the transmission and distribution of electrical power, busbar trunking systems have all the
necessary features for fitting: connectors, straights, angles, fixings, etc. The tap-off points placed at
regular intervals make power available at every point in the installation.
Fig. E37: Busbar trunking system design for distribution of currents from 25 to 4000 A
Busbar trunking systems are present at every level in electrical distribution: from the link between
the transformer and the low voltage switch switchboard (MLVS) to the distribution of power sockets
and lighting to offices, or power distribution to workshops.
Fig. E38: Radial distribution using busways
Mid-sized premises (industrial workshops with injection presses and metalwork machines or
large supermarkets with heavy loads).
The short-circuit and current levels can be fairly high (respectively 20 to 70 kA and 100 to
1,000 A)
Small sites (workshops with machine-tools, textile factories with small
machines,supermarkets with small loads). The short-circuit and current levels are lower
(respectively 10 to 40 kA and 40 to 400 A)
Sub-distribution using busbar trunking meets user needs in terms of:
Busbar trunking systems are suited to the requirements of a large number of buildings.
Standards
Busbar trunking systems must meet all rules stated in IEC 61439-6.
This defines the manufacturing arrangements to be complied with in the design of busbar trunking
systems (e.g.: temperature rise characteristics, short-circuit withstand, mechanical strength, etc.) as
well as test methods to check them.
The new standard IEC61439-6 describes in particular the design verifications and routine
verifications required to ensure compliance.
By assembling the system components on the site according to the assembly instructions, the
contractor benefits from conformity with the standard.
Flexibility
Simplicity
Design can be carried out independently from the distribution and layout of current
consumers.
Performances are independent of implementation: the use of cables requires a lot of derating
coefficients.
Clear distribution layout
Reduction of fitting time: the trunking system allows fitting times to be reduced by up to 50%
compared with a traditional cable installation.
Manufacturer’s guarantee.
Controlled execution times: the trunking system concept guarantees that there are no
unexpected surprises when fitting. The fitting time is clearly known in advance and a quick solution
can be provided to any problems on site with this adaptable and scalable equipment.
Easy to implement: modular components that are easy to handle, simple and quick to
connect.
Dependability
Continuity of service
The large number of tap-off points makes it easy to supply power to any new current
consumer. Connecting and disconnecting is quick and can be carried out in complete safety even
when energized. These two operations (adding or modifying) take place without having to stop
operations.
Quick and easy fault location since current consumers are near to the line
Maintenance is non existent or greatly reduced
Fig. E39: Example of a set of 14 x 25A loads distributed along 34 meters (for busway, Canalis KS
250A)
Busbar trunking systems are getting even better. Among the new features we can mention:
Increased performance with a IP55 protection index and new ratings of 160 A through to
1000 A (Ks).
New lighting offers with pre-cabled lights and new light ducts.
New fixing accessories. Quick fixing system, cable ducts, shared support with “VDI” (voice,
data, images) circuits.
white color to enhance the working environment, naturally integrated in a range of electrical
distribution products.
conformity with European regulations on reducing hazardous materials (RoHS).
Examples of Canalis busbar trunking systems
Fig. E41: Rigid busbar trunking able to support light fittings: Canalis KBA or KBB (25 and 40 A)
Fig. E43: A busway for medium power distribution: Canalis KN (40 up to 160 A)
Fig. E44: A busway for medium power distribution: Canalis KS (100 up to 1000 A)
Fig. E45: A busway for high power distribution: Canalis KT (800 up to 5000 A).
In buildings all consumers are connected in low voltage. It means that MV distribution consists in:
connection to utility,
distribution to MV/LV substation(s),
MV/LV substation(s) itself.
Fig. D2: Example of single-line diagram
The design of an electrical distribution architecture can be described by a 3-stage process, with
iterative possibilities. This process is based on taking account of the installation characteristics and
criteria to be satisfied.
Internal MV circuits.
Internal MV circuits are dedicated to the supply of the secondary MV/LV substations dispersed in the
installation. They are three typical principles commonly used for this purpose Fig. D11:
Single feeder
Dual feeder
Open ring.
Comparison of these three typical principles of internal distribution is given Fig. D12.
MV circuit configuration
Selection guide
As recommended in IEC60364-8-1 §6.3, MV/LV substation location can be determined by using the
barycenter method:
taking into account service conditions: in dedicated premises if the layout in the workshop is
too restrictive (temperature, vibrations, dust, etc.)
Placing heavy equipment (transformers, generators, etc.) close to walls or to main exits for
ease of maintenance.
In centralized layout, each load is connected directly to the power source. (Fig. D14):
Fig. D14: Example of centralized layout with point to point links
In distributed layout, loads are connected to sources via a busway. This type of distribution is well
adapted to supply many loads that are spread out, where easy change is requested or future new
connection (need of flexibility) (Fig. D15):
Load distribution
Flexibility of design
Operation flexibility
The use of decentralized distribution with busway is a way to merge all the circuits in one: it makes it
possible to take into account the diversity factor (ks), which means cost savings on conductor sizing
(See Fig. D17). The choice between centralized and decentralized solutions, according to the
diversity factor, allows to find an economic optimum between investment costs, installation costs and
operating costs.
No electrical power can be delivered until the generator has reached its rated speed. This type of
device is therefore not suitable for an uninterrupted power supply. Depending, if the generator is
sized to supply power to all or only part of the installation, there is either total or partial redundancy.
A back-up generator runs generally disconnected from the network. A source changeover and an
interlocking system is therefore required (see Fig. D18).
In addition the presence of generators can be decided to reduce the energy bill or due to the
opportunity for co-generation. These two aspects are not taken into account in this guide.
The presence of a back-up generator is essential if the loads cannot be shed (only short interruption
acceptable) or if the utility network availability is low.
Determining the number of back-up generator units is in line with the same criteria as determining
the number of transformers, as well as taking account of economic and availability considerations
(redundancy, start-up reliability, maintenance facility).
Configuration of LV circuits.
Single feeder configuration
Fig. D20
This is the reference configuration and the most simple. A load is connected to one single source.
This configuration provides a minimum level of availability, since there is no redundancy in case of
power source failure.
Fig. D21
The power supply is provided by more than 1 transformer generally connected in parallel to the
same main LV switchboard.
Fig. D22
In order to increase the availability it is possible to split the main LV switchboard into 2 parts, with a
normally open bus-coupler (NO). This configuration may require an Automatic Transfer Switch
between the coupler and transformer incomers.
These 2 configurations are more often used when power demand is greater than 1 MVA.
Fig. D22: Normally open coupled transformers
Fig. D23
Transformers are physically distant, and operated in parallel. They are connected by a busway, the
load can always be supplied in the case of failure of one of the sources. The redundancy can be:
LV ring configuration
Fig. D24
As the previous configuration this type of installation is commonly used in automotive industry or
large site manufacturing industry.
Fig. D25
This configuration is implemented in cases where maximum availability is required. The principle
involves having 2 independent power sources, e.g.:
Configuration combinations
Fig. D26
For the different possible configurations, the most probable and usual set of characteristics is given
in the following table:
Characteristic to be Configuration
considered
Installation characteristics
Characteristic Category
Activity Mechanical
Maintainability Standard
HVAC
Process utilities
Possible flexibility:
stage)
Power demand 3500kVA
Power interruptions
sensitivity Sheddable circuits:
social premises
maintenance premises
printing machines
water)
No interruptions acceptable:
motors, lighting
High sensitivity:
IT
Other constraints
Building with lightning classification: lightning surge
arresters installed
Technological characteristics
Criteria Category
premises)
Criteria Category
Number and distribution of Surface area and power 2 possible solutions: 1 substation or 2 substations
substations distribution
between MLVS
interconnected by a busway
MV Generator Site activity No
Fig. D31: Two possible single-line diagrams
Presence of UPS Criticality UPS unit for IT devices and office workstations
Transformers Service conditions cast resin transfo (avoids constraints related to oil)
Sub-distribution: Prisma
MCB’s.
6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100 and 125 A.
Permissible I2t (let-through energy) in A2s for circuit-breakers type B with rated current up to and
including 63A.
Permissible I2t (let-through energy) in A2s for circuit-breakers type C with rated current up to and
including 63A.
Cables withstanding capacities.
The application of fault current protective devices to cable protection is detailed in BS 7671
and is given by:
I2t k2S2
Where:
I2t is the energy let-through value of the protective device
k2S2 is the energy withstand of the cable.
The code allows the breaking capacity of a circuit-breaker to be less than its associated prospective fault
current when back-up protection is employed in cascading through a suitable upstream protective
devices. Back-up protection consists of an upstream short-circuit protective device (SCPD) that helps a
downstream circuit-breaker to break fault currents greater than its maximum breaking current.
However, where an MCCB, MCB or fuse is the upstream SCPD, and the downstream SCPD is an MCB,
coordination tests can be used to validate that the I2t of the specific combination will not exceed the I2t
value of the downstream MCB at its maximum breaking capacity.
The I 2t of the upstream SCPD “A” and downstream MCB “B” operating together at 20 kA, will be equal
to or less than the I 2t of MCB “B” at 10 kA. The I 2t to be used in the conductor fault current assessment
would be that of MCB “B” at 10 kA.
MCCB’s.
(MCCBs) may have fixed or adjustable protection settings, normally a three position toggle operating
handle giving on-off-tripped indication plus reset function, and a performance level relative to the
incoming supply such that they can be installed at a point close to the supply transformer.
Ratings: 16A to 1600A (may be upto 3200A), with the short circuit withstanding capacities upto 100kA in
selections.
Rated Short-Time Withstand Current.
Circuit-breakers of Selectivity Category B have a short-time delay (STD) allowing timegraded
selectivity between circuit-breakers in series.
Icw is the fault current the circuit-breaker will withstand for the maximum short-time
delay time.
Preferred times are: 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 second.
In order to provide protection against electric shock in accordance with the Wiring, it is
necessary to determine the maximum value of Zs that will give the required disconnection time.
This will give the max. length of the circuits downstream of the device for achieving the
protections at around 80% of the phase – to – N voltages. No tolerance may be required for the
IT – trippings, but a 20% may be considered in the case of instantaneous types.
Calculation Methodology
This calculation is based on IEEE Std 80 (2000), "Guide for safety in AC substation grounding".
There are two main parts to this calculation:
IEEE Std 80 is quite descriptive, detailed and easy to follow, so only an overview will be
presented here and IEEE Std 80 should be consulted for further details (although references
will be given herein).
Prerequisites
The following information is required / desirable before starting the calculation:
Soil resistivity measurements at the site (for touch and step only)
Resistivity of any surface layers intended to be laid (for touch and step only)
Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing
Determining the minimum size of the earthing grid conductors is necessary to ensure
that the earthing grid will be able to withstand the maximum earth fault current. Like a
normal power cable under fault, the earthing grid conductors experience an adiabatic
short circuit temperature rise. However unlike a fault on a normal cable, where the
limiting temperature is that which would cause permanent damage to the cable's
insulation, the temperature limit for earthing grid conductors is the melting point of the
conductor. In other words, during the worst case earth fault, we don't want the
earthing grid conductors to start melting!
The minimum conductor size capable of withstanding the adiabatic temperature rise
associated with an earth fault is given by re-arranging IEEE Std 80 Equation 37:
Where is the minimum cross-sectional area of the earthing grid conductor
(mm2)
is the energy of the maximum earth fault (A2s)
is
is the thermal capacity of the conductor per unit volume(Jcm - 3ºC - 1)
Tm = 1084 ºC
αr = 0.00381 ºC - 1
ρr = 1.78 μΩ.cm
TCAP = 3.42 Jcm - 3ºC - 1.
As described in IEEE Std 80 Section 11.3.1.1, there are alternative methods to formulate
this equation, all of which can also be derived from first principles).
There are also additional factors that should be considered (e.g. taking into account
future growth in fault levels), as discussed in IEEE Std 80 Section 11.3.3.
Touch voltages - there is a dangerous potential difference between the earth and a
metallic object that a person is touching
Step voltages - there is a dangerous voltage gradient between the feet of a person
standing on earth
The earthing grid can be used to dissipate fault currents to remote earth and reduce the
voltage gradients in the earth. The touch and step potential calculations are performed in
order to assess whether the earthing grid can dissipate the fault currents so that
dangerous touch and step voltages cannot exist.
The resistivity properties of the soil where the earthing grid will be laid is an important
factor in determining the earthing grid's resistance with respect to remote earth. Soils
with lower resistivity lead to lower overall grid resistances and potentially smaller
earthing grid configurations can be designed (i.e. that comply with safe step and touch
potentials).
It is good practice to perform soil resistivity tests on the site. There are a few standard
methods for measuring soil resistivity (e.g. Wenner four-pin method). A good discussion
on the interpretation of soil resistivity test measurements is found in IEEE Std 80 Section
13.4.
Sometimes it isn't possible to conduct soil resistivity tests and an estimate must suffice.
When estimating soil resistivity, it goes without saying that one should err on the side of
caution and select a higher resistivity. IEEE Std 80 Table 8 gives some guidance on range
of soil resistivities based on the general characteristics of the soil (i.e. wet organic soil =
10 Ω.m, moist soil = 100 Ω.m, dry soil = 1,000 Ω.m and bedrock = 10,000 Ω.m).
Applying a thin layer (0.08m - 0.15m) of high resistivity material (such as gravel, blue
metal, crushed rock, etc) over the surface of the ground is commonly used to help
protect against dangerous touch and step voltages. This is because the surface layer
material increases the contact resistance between the soil (i.e. earth) and the feet of a
person standing on it, thereby lowering the current flowing through the person in the
event of a fault.
IEEE Std 80 Table 7 gives typical values for surface layer material resistivity in dry and
wet conditions (e.g. 40mm crushed granite = 4,000 Ω.m (dry) and 1,200 Ω.m (wet)).
The effective resistance of a person's feet (with respect to earth) when standing on a
surface layer is not the same as the surface layer resistance because the layer is not
thick enough to have uniform resistivity in all directions. A surface layer derating factor
needs to be applied in order to compute the effective foot resistance (with respect to
earth) in the presence of a finite thickness of surface layer material. This derating factor
can be approximated by an empirical formula as per IEEE Std 80 Equation 27:
Where is the surface layer
derating factor
This derating factor will be used later in Step 5 when calculating the maximum allowable
touch and step voltages.
A good earthing grid has low resistance (with respect to remote earth) to minimise
ground potential rise (GPR) and consequently avoid dangerous touch and step voltages.
Calculating the earthing grid resistance usually goes hand in hand with earthing grid
design - that is, you design the earthing grid to minimise grid resistance. The earthing
grid resistance mainly depends on the area taken up by the earthing grid, the total length
of buried earthing conductors and the number of earthing rods / electrodes.
IEEE Std 80 offers two alternative options for calculating the earthing grid resistance
(with respect to remote earth) - 1) the simplified method (Section 14.2) and 2) the
Schwarz equations (Section 14.3), both of which are outlined briefly below. IEEE Std 80
also includes methods for reducing soil resistivity (in Section 14.5) and a treatment for
concrete-encased earthing electrodes (in Section 14.6).
Simplified Method
IEEE Std 80 Equation 52 gives the simplified method as modified by Sverak to include the
effect of earthing grid depth:
Where is the earthing grid resistance with respect to remote earth (Ω)
The Schwarz equations are a series of equations that are more accurate in modelling the
effect of earthing rods / electrodes. The equations are found in IEEE Std 80 Equations 53,
54, 55(footnote) and 56, as follows:
Where is the earthing grid resistance with respect to remote earth (Ω)
is the mutual earth resistance between the grid conductors and earthing electrodes
(Ω)
And the grid, earthing electrode and mutual earth resistances are:
Where in both
cases, is
the length-to-
width ratio of th
earthing grid.
Step 4:
Maximum Gri
Current
The maximum
grid current is t
worst case eart
fault current tha
would flow via
the earthing gri
back to remote
earth. To
calculate the
maximum grid
current, you
firstly need to
calculate the
worst case
symmetrical
earth fault
current at the
facility that wou
have a return
path through
remote earth (c
this ). This
can be found
from the power
systems studies
or from manual
calculation.
Generally
speaking, the
highest relevan
earth fault level
will be on the
primary side of
the largest
distribution
transformer (i.e
either the
terminals or the
delta windings).
Current Division
Factor
factor must
be applied to
account for the
proportion of th
fault current
flowing back
through remote
earth.
Computing the
current division
factor is a task
that is specific t
each project an
the fault locatio
and it may
incorporate som
subjectivity (i.e
"engineeing
judgement"). In
any case, IEEE
Std 80 Section
15.9 has a good
discussion on
calculating the
current division
factor. In the
most
conservative
case, a current
division factor
of can
be applied,
meaning that
100% of earth
fault current
flows back
through remote
earth.
The symmetrica
grid current
calculated by:
Decrement Fact
The symmetrica
current is not th
maximum grid c
because of asym
in short circuits
namely a dc cur
offset. This is ca
by the decreme
factor, which ca
calculated from
Std 80 Equation
Where is t
decrement facto
Where is th
fault location
The maximum g
calculated by:
Step 5: Touch
The maximum t
touch scenarios
from IEEE Std S
50kg and 70kg:
Touch voltage li
difference betw
the potential of
during a fault (d
50kg person:
70kg person:
50kg person:
70kg person:
Where
The choice of bo
expected weigh
women are exp
to choose 50kg.
Step 6: Groun
Normally, the p
around the site
they are at the
(where the faul
flow of current
gradients in and
difference betw
ground potentia
a maximum po
potentials aroun
fault.
The maximum G
Where
Now we just ne
and step potent
exceed either o
the grid design
However if it do
further analysis
of the maximum
16.5.
Mesh Voltage C
Where :: is
The geometric s
Where is th
is a weighting factor for earth electrodes /rods on the corner mesh
for grids with earth electrodes along the grid perimeter or corners
The geometric f
With
Where is th
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y directions (m)
is the maximum distance between any two points on the grid (m)
Irregularity Fa
The irregularity
The effective bu
For grids wi
Where is th
For grids wi
Where is th
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y directions (m)
Step Voltage Ca
The maximum a
Where :: is
is the irregularity factor (as derived above in the mesh voltage calculation)
The geometric s
Where is th
The effective bu
Where is th
, and
If not, however
Redesign the earthing grid to lower the grid resistance (e.g. more grid conductors,
more earthing electrodes, increasing cross-sectional area of conductors, etc). Once
this is done, re-compute the earthing grid resistance (see Step 3) and re-do the touch
and step potential calculations.
Limit the total earth fault current or create alternative earth fault return paths
Step 1: Soi
The soil resistiv
Step 2: Sur
A thin 100mm l
Step 3: Ear
Figure 1. Propose
A rectangular e
22 earthing rods will be installed on the corners and perimeter of the grid
Step 4: Ma
Suppose that th
kA
Step 5: Tou
Based on the av
The maximum a
V
The maximum a
V
Step 6: Gro
The maximum g
V
Step 7: Ear
Mesh Voltage
The component
and is the number of parallel rows and columns respectively (e.g. 6 and 7)
m
V
m
V.
ntroduction
Number of Earthing Electrode and Earthing Resistance depends on the resistivity of
soil and time for fault current to pass through (1 sec or 3 sec). If we divide the area for
earthing required by the area of one earth plate gives the number of earth pits
required.
There is no general rule to calculate the exact number of earth pits and size of
earthing strip, but discharging of leakage current is certainly dependent on the
cross section area of the material so for any equipment the earth strip size is
calculated on the current to be carried by that strip.
First the leakage current to be carried is calculated and then size of the strip is
determined.
For most of the electrical equipment like transformer, diesel generator set etc., the
general concept is to have 4 number of earth pits. 2 no’s for body earthing with 2
separate strips with the pits shorted and 2 nos for Neutral with 2 separate strips with
the pits shorted.
The Size of Neutral Earthing Strip should be capable to carry neutral current of that equipment.
The Size of Body Earthing should be capable to carry half of neutral Current.
For example for 100kVA transformer, the full load current is around 140A.
The strip connected should be capable to carry at least 70A (neutral current) which
means a strip of GI 25x3mm should be enough to carry the current and for body a
strip of 25×3 will do the needful. Normally we consider the strip size that is generally
used as standards.
However a strip with lesser size which can carry a current of 35A can be used for body
earthing. The reason for using 2 earth pits for each body and neutral and then shorting
them is to serve as back up. If one strip gets corroded and cuts the continuity is
broken and the other leakage current flows through the other run thery by completing
the circuit.
Similarly for panels the no of pits should be 2 nos. The size can be decided on the
main incomer circuit breaker.
For example if main incomer to breaker is 400A, then body earthing for panel can have a strip
size of 25×6 mm which can easily carry 100A.
Number of earth pits is decided by considering the total fault current to be dissipated
to the ground in case of fault and the current that can be dissipated by each earth pit.
Normally the density of current for GI strip can be roughly 200 amps per square cam.
Based on the length and dia of the pipe used the number of earthing pits can be
finalized.
The earth resistance of single rod or pipe electrode is calculated as per IS 3040:
R=100xρ/2×3.14xL (loge(4xL/d))
Where:
ρ = Resistivity of soil (Ω meter),
L = Length of electrode (cm),
D = Diameter of electrode (cm)
Example:
Calculate number of CI earthing pipe of 100mm diameter, 3 meter length. System has
fault current 50KA for 1 sec and soil resistivity is 72.44 Ω-Meters.
Example:
Calculate GI strip having width of 12mm , length of 2200 meter buried in ground at
depth of 200mm, soil resistivity is 72.44 Ω-meter.
Ra=R (1+λa/n) where a=ρ/2X3.14xRxS
Where:
S = Distance between adjustment rod (meter),
λ = Factor given in table below,
n = Number of electrodes,
ρ = Resistivity of soil (Ω meter),
R = Resistance of single rod in isolation (Ω)
Factors for parallel electrodes in line (BS 7430)
2 1.0
3 1.66
4 2.15
5 2.54
6 2.87
7 3.15
8 3.39
9 3.61
10 3.8
For electrodes equally spaced around a hollow square, e.g. around the perimeter of a
building, the equations given above are used with a value of λ taken from following
table.
For three rods placed in an equilateral triangle, or in an L formation, a value of λ =
1.66 may be assumed.
Factors for electrodes in a hollow square (BS
7430)
2 2.71
3 4.51
4 5.48
5 6.13
6 6.63
7 7.03
8 7.36
9 7.65
10 7.9
12 8.3
14 8.6
16 8.9
18 9.2
20 9.4
In practice, the effective earth resistance will usually be higher than calculation.
Demand Factor
Text Book of Design of Elect. Installation- Jain
Utility Demand Factor
Office ,School 0.4
Hospital 0.5
Air Port, Bank, Shops, 0.6
Restaurant, Factory, 0.7
Work Shop, Factory (24Hr Shift) 0.8
Arc Furnace 0.9
Compressor 0.5
Hand tools 0.4
Inductance Furnace 0.8
Demand Factor
Saudi Electricity Company Distribution Standard
Utility Demand Factor
Residential 0.6
Commercial 0.7
Flats 0.7
Hotel 0.75
Mall 0.7
Restaurant 0.7
Office 0.7
School 0.8
Common Area in building 0.8
Public Facility 0.75
Street Light 0.9
Indoor Parking 0.8
Outdoor Parking 0.9
Park / Garden 0.8
Hospital 0.8
Workshops 0.6
Ware House 0.7
Farms 0.9
Fuel Station 0.7
Factories 0.9
Demand Factor
Text Book of Principal of Power System-V.K.Mehta
Utility Demand Factor
Residence Load (<0.25 KW) 1
Residence Load (<0.5 KW) 0.6
Residence Load (>0.1 KW) 0.5
Restaurant 0.7
Theatre 0.6
Hotel 0.5
School 0.55
Small Industry 0.6
Store 0.7
Motor Load (up to 10HP) 0.75
Motor Load (10HP to 20HP) 0.65
Motor Load (20HP to 100HP) 0.55
Motor Load (Above 100HP) 0.50
(2) Diversity factor:
Diversity Factor is ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various sub circuit of a system
to the maximum demand of the whole system.
Diversity Factor = Sum of Individual Maximum Demands /
Maximum Demand of the System.
Diversity Factor = Installed load / Running load.
The diversity factor is always >= 1.
Diversity Factor is always >1 because sum of individual max. Demands >Max. Demand.
In other terms, Diversity Factor (0 to 100%) is a fraction of Total Load that is particular item contributed to
peak demand. 70% diversity means that the device operates at its nominal or maximum load level 70% of the
time that it is connected and turned ON.
It is expressed as a percentage (%) or a ratio more than 1.
If we use diversity value in % than it should be multiply with Load and if we use in numerical value
(>1) than it should be divided with Load.
Diversity occurs in an operating system because all loads connected to the System are not operating
simultaneously or are not simultaneously operating at their maximum rating. The diversity factor shows that the
whole electrical load does not equal the sum of its parts due to this time Interdependence (i.e. diverseness).
In general terms we can say that diversity factor refers to the percent of time available that a machine. 70%
diversity means that the device operates at its nominal or maximum load level 70% of the time that it is connected
and turned ON.
Consider two Feeders with the same maximum demand but that occur at different intervals of time. When
supplied by the same feeder, the demand on such is less the sum of the two demands. In electrical design, this
condition is known as diversity.
Diversity factor is an extended version of demand factor. It deals with maximum demand of different units at
a time/Maximum demand of the entire system.
Greater the diversity factor, lesser is the cost of generation of power.
Many designers prefer to use unity as the diversity factor in calculations for planning conservatism because
of plant load growth uncertainties. Local experience can justify using a diversity factor larger than unity, and
smaller service entrance conductors and transformer requirements chosen accordingly.
The diversity factor for all other installations will be different, and would be based upon a local evaluation of
the loads to be applied at different moments in time. Assuming it to be 1.0 may, on some occasions, result in a
supply feeder and equipment rating that is rather larger than the local installation warrants, and an over-
investment in cable and equipment to handle the rated load current. It is better to evaluate the pattern of usage of
the loads and calculate an acceptable diversity factor for each particular case.
Calculation:
One Main Feeder have two Sub feeder (Sub Feeder A and Sub Feeder B), Sub Feeder-A have demand at a
time is 35 KW and Sub Feeder-B have demands at a time is 42 KW, but the maximum demand of Main Feeder is
70 KW.
Total individual Maximum Demand =35+42=77 KW.
Maximum Demand of whole System=70 KW
So Diversity factor of The System= 77/70 =1.1
Diversity factor can shoot up above 1.
Use of diversity factor:
The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution or sub-
distribution board).
Diversity factor is commonly used for a complete a coordination study for a system. This diversity factor is
used to estimate the load of a particular node in the system.
Diversity factor can be used to estimate the total load required for a facility or to size the Transformer
Diversity factors have been developed for main feeders supplying a number of feeders, and typically 1.2 to
1.3 for Residence Consumer and 1.1 to 1.2 for Commercial Load. 1.50 to 2.00 for power and lighting loads.
Note: Reciprocal of the above ratio (will be more than 1) also is used in some other countries.
Diversity factor is mostly used for distribution feeder size and transformer as well as to determine the
maximum peak load and diversity factor is always based on knowing the process. You have to understand what
will be on or off at a given time for different buildings and this will size the feeder. Note for typical buildings
diversity factor is always one. You have to estimate or have a data records to create 24 hours load graph and you
can determine the maximum demand load for node then you can easily determine the feeder and transformer
size.
The diversity factor of a feeder would be the sum of the maximum demands of the individual consumers
divided by the maximum demand of the feeder. In the same manner, it is possible to compute the diversity factor
on a substation, a transmission line or a whole utility system.
The residential load has the highest diversity factor. Industrial loads have low diversity factors usually of 1.4,
street light practically unity and other loads vary between these limits.
From users to
transformers 2.00 1.46 1.44
Lighting 90%
Heating and air conditioning 80%
Socket-outlets 70%
Lifts and catering hoist
For the most powerful motor 100%
For the second most powerful motor 75%
For all motors 80%
Diversity Factor
Text Book of Principal of Power System-V.K.Mehta
Area Residence Ltg Commercial Ltg Ind. Ltg
Between Consumer 3 1.5 1.5
Between Transformer 1.3 1.3 1.3
Between Feeder 1.2 1.2 1.2
Between S.S 1.1 1.1 1.1
Sum of Maximum Demand of Customer on TC-1 =10 KWx0.65 =6.5 KW
Sum of Maximum Demand of Customer on TC-2 =20 KWx0.75 =15 KW
Sum of Maximum Demand of Customer on TC-3 =30 KWx0.65 =19.5 KW
As Diversity of Consumer Connected on TC-1 is 1.5 so,
Maximum Demand on TC-1 =6.5 KW/1.5 = 4 KW.
As Diversity of Consumer Connected on TC-2 is 1.1 so,
Maximum Demand on TC-2 =15 KW/1.1 = 14 KW
As Diversity of Consumer Connected on TC-3 is 1.5 so,
Maximum Demand on TC-3 =19.5 KW/1.5 = 13 KW.
Individual Maximum Demand on Main Transformer =04+14+13= 31 KW.
Maximum Demand on Main Feeder =04+14+13 / 1.3 =24 KW
Significance of Load Factor and Diversity Factor
Load factor and diversity factor play an important part in the cost of the supply of electrical energy. Higher
the values of load factor and diversity factors, lower will be the overall cost per unit generated.
The capital cost of the power station depends upon the capacity of the power station. Lower the maximum
demand of the power station, the lower is the capacity required and therefore lower is the capital cost of the
plant. With a given number of consumers the higher the diversity factor of their loads, the smaller will be the
capacity of the plant required and consequently the fixed charges due to capital investment will be much reduced.
Similarly higher load factor means more average load or more number of units generated for a given
maximum demand and therefore overall cost per unit of electrical energy generated is reduced due to distribution
of standing charges which are proportional to maximum demand and independent of number of units generated.
Thus the suppliers should always try to improve the load factor as well as diversity factor by inducing the
consumers to use the electrical energy during off peak hours and they may be charged at lower rates for such
schemes.
Main-Tie-Main.
Load Configuration.
Both Bus#1 & Bus#2 are supplying normal loads that mean interruption for PT1 or PT2 is accepted for fault located
between M2-PT2 and main supply.
No critical load (instantaneous interruption is not allowed) connected on Bus #1 and Bus #2. It shall be supplied
from UPS.
Load on Bus #1 has a standby load on Bus#2 or vice versa, so if the bus #2 fail, load on bus #1 is operated.
Basic Operation.
This diagram may be useful for our discussion. The basic M1-T-M2 configuration is shown. During normal
operation M1 & M2 breakers are closed and tie breaker T is opened. Supply coming from PT-1 and PT-2.
This drawing indicate when M2 open, T and M1 CBs are closed (abnormal condition). This condition is done for
maintenance purpose for equipment located between M2 to upstream (main source). Load transfer from
bus #2 to bus #1 can be carried out without interruption done by ATS scheme.
If fault located on bus #2 to tie breaker T or bus #1 to tie breaker T, load transfer is prohibited by ATS
scheme. But for fault located from M2 to upstream load transfer is allowed with deenergizing bus #2 loads
first, then tie-breaker T closed by ATS scheme. Loads may be in service after this tranfer, if the loads is set
in auto position.
We cannot maintain the supply on fault bus (e.g. bus #2 or bus #1) before correction is made.
A redundant bus tie or switch isolator acting as maintenance bypass to ATS operation.
Based on discussion above, I do not know, where we have to install those equipment to maintain supply
for fault on respectively bus.
Normally Closed Tie Breaker Operation.
It is possible to operate tie breaker in closed position, but we have to consider a short-circuit level on that
bus. By calculation (Short-circuit study), a fault on bus #1 or bus #2 the magnitude become double. So, we
have to ensure the equipment s.c. rating (buse, breakers, feeder loads, feeder breakers, and etc) meet the
requirements for tie-in in closed position.
Note:
Temporary closing three breakers for maintenance purpose is allowed within 3 cycles to 1 (one) second is
accepted.
Relay application.
1). Bus differential for bus#1 and bus #2 may be applied (we apply on 4.16 kV systems).
2). Directional relay may be applied on incoming breaker M1 & M2 if the NC for tie breaker T is applied.
3). Restrictive earth fault is applied for transformer with low resistance grounding.
4). Please consider to provide better coordination for instantaneous relay between incoming breaker and
load breakers as well as ground fault protection.
5). Syncheck relay is required for synchronising bus # & bus #2 before closing tie breaker T. We provide
permissive closed for ATS schecme. ATS can only be operated if the upstream system is in synchronising
condition (Generating buses are in remote but located closed to each other).
Conclusions.
1). We cannot maintain load on bus faulted before repairing is made.
2). I do not know the location for instaling redudant bus tie breaker or isolator to prevent faulted bus total
failure.
3). Comprehensive study shall be caried out to operate tie breaker in NC. Especially in selecting electrical
equipment and relay coordination.
4). Pay more attention on safety aspect in establishing the ATS scheme.
http://www.sayedsaad.com/substation/index_SF6circuitbreaker.html.
This article discusses the design issues in implementation that must be considered by
the designer.
This power must be dropped down to a lower voltage level for the controls and DC
power supplies. 110Vac is common in North America, and 220 V AC Is common in
Europe and the Commonwealth countries. It is also common for a control cabinet to
supply a higher voltage to other equipment, such as motors.
Dashed lines indicate a single purchased component. This system uses 3 phase AC
power (L1, L2 and L3) connected to the terminals. The three phases are then
connected to a power interrupter. Next, all three phases are supplied to a motor starter
that contains three contacts, M, and three thermal overload relays (breakers).
Figure 1 – A Motor Controller Schematic
The contacts, M, will be controlled by the coil, M. The output of the motor starter goes
to a three phase AC motor. Power is supplied by connecting a step down
transformer to the control electronics by connecting to phases L2 and L3. The lower
voltage is then used to supply power to the left and right rails of the ladder below. The
neutral rail is also grounded.
The diagram also shows numbering for the wires in the device. This is essential for
industrial control systems that may contain hundreds or thousands of wires. These
numbering schemes are often particular to each facility, but there are tools to help
make wire labels that will appear in the final controls cabinet.
Figure 2 – A Physical
Layout for the Control Cabinet
Once the electrical design is complete, a layout for the controls cabinet is developed, as
shown in Figure 2. The physical dimensions of the devices must be considered,
and adequate space is needed to run wires between components.
In the cabinet the AC power would enter at the terminal block, and be connected to the main
breaker.
The final layout in the cabinet might look like the one shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3 – Final PLC Panel Wiring
When being built the system will follow certain standards that may be company policy,
or legal requirements. This often includes items such as;
Hold downs – the will secure the wire so they don’t move
Labels – wire labels help troubleshooting
Strain reliefs – these will hold the wire so that it will not be pulled out of screw
terminals
Grounding – grounding wires may be needed on each metal piece for safety
A photograph of an industrial controls cabinet is shown in Figure 4:
Figure 4 –
An industrial control cabinet with wire runs, terminal strip, buttons on PLC panel front, etc.
When including a PLC in the ladder diagram still remains. But, it does tend to become
more complex. Figure 5 below shows a schematic diagram for a PLC based motor
control system, similar to the previous motor control example.
This figure shows the E-stop wired to cutoff power to all of the devices in the circuit,
including the PLC. All critical safety functions should be hardwired this way.
Figure 5 – An Electrical Schematic with a PLC.
The voltage drops interfere with the test voltage and thereby disturb the measurement.
Internal test voltage (approx. 40V, AC, <15 mA) is used, as there is no mains voltage
between neutral and protection conductors.
Important advantage of this measurement against Fault Loop test (L–PE) is, that the RCD
does definitly not trip during the measurement, this is due to the low test current.
Used test instrument Eurotest 61557 uses special (patented) measurement principle
to filter the test signal and therefore assures correct measurement results.
Result = Ut / It = RN-PE
Where:
The test result in this case is quite low (maximum a couple of ohms), showing that
a TN-system is involved.
Figure 2
– Resistance measurement between neutral and protection conductor in TN-system
The test result in this case is quite high (in excess of ten ohms), showing that a TT-
system is involved.
Figure 3 –
Resistance measurement between the neutral and the protection conductor in a TT-system
As it could be presumed, that resistance R E is much higher than the sum of all
other resistances, the following can be noted:
Result 1 ≈ RE
Result 2 = Ipsc = 230V × 1,06 / RE
Where:
Attention! – A high test result in itself is not sufficient evidence that an IT-system is involved
(it could be just an interrupted protection conductor in a TN or TT-system).
For non-linear (or distorting) loads, the quadratic sum of the fundamental current and the
harmonic currents must be calculated in order to obtain the actual rms current.
Let’s break the calculation of the power into few parts, so we can easily follow:
But beware, very few loads are totally resistive. Incandescent lighting is losing ground to
solutions that offer higher performance levels, but which are on the other hand less “pure”
from an electrical viewpoint.
The current consumed (Ia) is given by the following formulae. For single-phase:
Where:
The displacement factors are cosφ1 = 0.92 for M1 and cosφ2 = 0.72 for M2 the efficiencies are
η1 = 0.91 and η2 = 0.93 respectively.
The reactive power can in this case be calculated by determining the value of tanφ
from cosφ. the relationship with the tangent is given by the formula:
Calculation of the reactive power:
Active power circuits which corresponds (to the nearest efficiency) to the energy
supplied,
Reactive power so that the compensation devices (capacitors) can be sized,
Apparent power so that the power of the source can be determined and
Current consumed so that the trunking and protection devices can be calculated.
M1 M2 M1 + M2 (Total t)
The THDi (Total Harmonic Distortion) expresses the ratio between the share of all the
harmonic currents and the total current as a percentage.
I1 being the rms value of the fundamental and in In the rms value of the nth order
harmonic. The principle is to apply a current reduction factor that can be calculated
based on the THDi.
For a permissible THDi value of 33%, the current must thus in theory be reduced in
each phase by a factor K:
If the factor is not applied, the current will then be increased by:
This remains acceptable and explains why the standard does not recommend any
derating or oversizing of cross-sections up to 33% THDi.
Above 33%. the standard recommends an increase in the current IB which results in
necessary oversizing of the neutral conductor.
Related to the neutral conductor, it is considered that if all the harmonics are 3rd order
and its multiples, they will be added together and the current due to the harmonics in
the neutral will then be IN = 3 × Iph, which can be expressed using an equivalent
notation, THDn = 3 THDi.
Devices whose load is said to be non-linear do not consume a current that is a reflection
of the voltage applied. This leads to unnecessary power consumption: the distorting power
that generates an additional current, the consequences of which must not be overlooked.
But this current is never expressed directly because it involves a fairly complex
mathematical calculation, the fourier transform, to ascertain its relative overall part (THDi:
total harmonic distortion) or the value order by order: ih2, ih3, ih4, ih5,..ihn.
With no precise measurements, it is difficult to know exactly the current level that
corresponds to each harmonic order. It is therefore preferable to simply increase the
cross-section of the neutral conductor as a precaution, since it is known that the main
3rd order harmonics and their multiples are added together in the neutral. and to adapt
the protection of this conductor.
Standard IEC 60364 indicates the increasing factors to be applied to the cross-section
The current reduction factor KN or rather its inverse which will be used to oversize
the neutral conductor will then be:
With a total 3rd order harmonic distortion of 65%, the current of the phase
conductors must be increased by 119% and that in the neutral conductor by 163%.
If the THDi were to reach 100%, 1/KN would theoretically reach 2.12. This value
would be impossible to reach as it would mean that the harmonic had totally replaced
the fundamental.
The theoretical overcurrent limit for the neutral in relation to the phases is:
These calculations demonstrate that the harmonic currents above all must not be ignored both
in terms of “hidden” power consumption and in terms of sizing the conductors which may
be overloaded. The relative complexity of the calculations leads to the use of generic derating
values which normally cover most cases, just as software is used elsewhere.
Go back to currents and power calculations ↑
This requires a minimum cross-section of 70 mm2 per phase. The neutral conductor
must be sized to withstand a current of 1.45 × 170 A = 247 A, i.e. a cross-section
of 95 mm2.
A circuit breaker must therefore be chosen that is capable of withstanding the current
that may cross the neutral:
The measured current consumed Ia is 0.07 A. As cosφ and the power factor are
different, it is not possible to calculate the value of the tanφ or that of the reactive
power Q (VAR) for the receiver in question.
The measured cosφ and power Q which would be calculated can only be calculated for the
reactive power part connected with the sinusoidal component of the signal, in fact the current
of the fundamental at 50Hz: 0.045 A measured in this case.
The powers relative to this linear and sinusoidal part of the load can be calculated as
follows
It can also be seen that the sinusoidal active power of the device 8.7 W is very similar
to the measured total active power 9 W. It can therefore be deduced that a large part
of power S (16 – 10.3 = 5.7 VA) is consumed without producing any active power. The
fluorescent luminaire and electronic ballast in the example consumes unproductive
power in the form of harmonic currents.
The total harmonic distortion is easy to calculate and represents expressed as a rate.
The spectral decomposition of the signal carried out on this luminaire shows that
the main harmonic is 3rd order (34 mA) but that all the following odd-order
harmonics are present and decaying. The main purpose of the above example is to
demonstrate that active power information (in W) only for a non-linear receiver is very
inadequate.
The cosφ has no real relevance or meaning as it is only applicable to the fundamental
signal. Only the apparent power and power factor (PF or ?\.,) information can really quantify
and qualify the power that must be supplied by the source.
Many modern devices (light bulbs, computer equipment, domestic appliances and
electronic equipment) have this particular feature of consuming non-linear currents.
For domestic use, where only the power in W is billed (sic), the power savings shown
for these products is attractive. In practice, the currents consumed are higher than it
seems and the energy distributor is supplying wasted energy.
non-linear loads thus becomes meaningful and useful here, but also at the design
Important: Unlike linear loads (page 29), for non-linear loads the active powers (in W)
can be added together algebraically, the apparent powers must only be added
together geometrically, and likewise the currents which must be the same order.
The reactive powers Q must not be added together except to as certain the relative
part of the power associated with the sinusoidal fundamental signal and the part
connected with the harmonic signals.
Suppose we have
connected on protection CT of ratio 200/1 A and current setting is 150%.
Hence, pick up current of the relay is, 1 × 150 % = 1.5 A Now, suppose
fault current in the CT primary is 1000 A. Hence, fault current in the CT
secondary i.e. in the relay coil is, 1000 × 1/200 = 5A Therefore PSM of the
relay is, 5 / 1.5 =3.33
Time Setting Multiplier of Relay
The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors :
1. How long distance to be traveled by the moving parts of the relay for
closing relay contacts and
2. How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.
So far adjusting relay operating time, both of the factors to be adjusted. The
adjustment of travelling distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly
known as time setting. This adjustment is commonly known as time setting
multiplier of relay. The time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps
0.05 sec. But by adjusting only time setting multiplier, we can not set the
actual time of operation of an electrical relay. As we already said, the time of
operation also depends upon the speed of operation. The speed of moving
parts of relay depends upon the force due to current in the relay coil. Hence,
it is clear that, speed of operation of an electrical relay depends upon the
level of fault current. In other words, time of operation of relay depends
upon plug setting multiplier. The relation between time of operation and plug
setting multiplier is plotted on a graph paper and this is known as time /
PSM graph. From this graph one can determine, the total time taken by the
moving parts of an electromechanical relay, to complete its total travelling
distance for different PSM. In time setting multiplier, this total travelling
distance is divided and calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05. So when time
setting is 0.1, the moving parts of the relay has to travel only 0.1 times of
the total travelling distance, to close the contact of the relay. So, if we get
total operating time of the relay for a particular PSM from time / PSM graph
and if we multiply that time with the time setting multiplier, we will get,
actual time of operation of relay for said PSM and TSM. For getting clear
idea, let us have a practical example. Say a relay has time setting 0.1 and
you have to calculate actual time of operation for PSM 10. From time / PSM
graph of the relay as shown below, we can see the total operating time of
the relay is 3 seconds. That means, the moving parts of the relay take total
3 seconds to travel 100 % travelling distance. As the time setting multiplier
is 0.1 here, actually the moving parts of the relay have to travel only 0.1 ×
100% or 10% of the total travel distance, to close the relay contacts. Hence,
actual operating time of the relay is 3 × 0.1 = 0.3 sec. i.e. 10% of 3 sec.
Time vs PSM Curve of Relay
This is relation curve between operating time and plug setting multiplier of
an electrical relay. The x-axis or horizontal axis of the Time / PSM graph
represents, PSM and Y-axis or vertical axis represents time of operation of
the relay. The time of operation represents in this graph is that, which
required to operate the relay when time setting multiplier set at 1. From the
Time / PSM curve of a typical relay shown below, it is seen that, if PSM is 10,
the time of operation of relay is 3 sec. That means, the relay will take 3
seconds to complete its operation, with time setting 1. It is also seen from
the curve that, for lower value of plug setting multiplier, i.e. for lower value
of fault current, the time of operation of the relay is inversely proportional to
the fault current. But when PSM becomes more than 20, the operating time
of relay becomes almost constant. This feature is necessary in order to
ensure discrimination on very heavy fault current flowing through sound
feeders.
Calculation of Relay Operation Time
For calculating actual relay operating time, we need to know these following
operation.
1. Current setting.
2. Fault current level.
3. Ratio of current transformer.
4. Time / PSM curve.
5. Time setting.
Step-1 From CT ratio, we first see the rated secondary current of CT. Say
the CT ratio is 100 / 1 A, i.e. secondary current of CT is 1 A. Step-2 From
current setting we calculate the trick current of the relay. Say current setting
of the relay is 150 % therefore pick up current of the relay is 1 × 150% =
1.5 A. Step-3 Now we have to calculate PSM for the specified faulty current
level. For that, we have to first divide primary faulty current by CT ratio to
get relay faulty current. Say the faulty current level is 1500 A, in the CT
primary, hence secondary equivalent of faulty current is 1500/(100/1) = 15
A Step-4 Now, after
calculating PSM, we have to find out the total time of operation of the relay
from Time / PSM curve. From the curve, say we found the time of operation
of relay is 3 second for PSM = 10. Step-5 Finally that operating time of
relay would be multiplied with time setting multiplier, in order to get actual
time of operation of relay. Hence say time setting of the relay is 0.1.
Therefore actual time of operation of the relay for PSM 10, is 3 × 0.1 = 0.3
sec or 300 ms.
Working Principle of Over Current Relay
In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When
normal current flows through this coil, the magnetic effect generated by the
coil is not sufficient to move the moving element of the relay, as in this
condition the restraining force is greater than deflecting force. But when the
current through the coil increased, the magnetic effect increases, and after
certain level of current, the deflecting force generated by the magnetic effect
of the coil, crosses the restraining force, as a result, the moving element
starts moving to change the contact position in the relay.
Types of Over Current Relay
Depending upon time of operation, there are various types of Over
Current relays, such as,
1. Instantaneous over current relay.
2. Definite time over current relay.
3. Inverse time over current relay.
Inverse time over current relay or simply inverse OC relay is again
subdivided as inverse definite minimum time (IDMT), very inverse
time, extremely inverse time over current relay or OC relay.
Instantaneous Over Current Relay
Construction and working principle of instantaneous over current
relay quite simple.
Here generally a magnetic core is wound by current coil. A piece of iron is so
fitted by hinge support and restraining spring in the relay, that when there is
not sufficient current in the coil, the NO contacts remain open. When current
in the coil crosses a present value, the attractive force becomes sufficient to
pull the iron piece towards the magnetic core and consequently the no
contacts are closed.
The preset value of current in the relay coil is referred as pick up setting
current. This relay is referred as instantaneous over current relay, as
ideally, the relay operates as soon as the current in the coil gets higher than
pick up setting current. There is no intentional time delay applied. But there
is always an inherent time delay which can not be avoided practically. In
practice the operating time of an instantaneous relay is of the order of a few
milliseconds. Fig.
Definite Time Over Current Relay
This relay is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing pick up
value of the current. A definite time over current relay can be adjusted
to issue a trip output at definite amount of time after it picks up. Thus, it has
a time setting adjustment and pick up adjustment.
Inverse Time Over Current Relay
Inverse time is a natural character of any induction type rotating device.
This means the speed of rotation of rotating art of the device is faster if
input current is increased. In other words, time of operation inversely varies
with input current. This natural characteristic of electromechanical induction
disc relay in very suitable for over current protection. This is because, in this
relay, if fault is more severe, it would be cleared more faster. Although time
inverse characteristic is inherent to electromechanical induction disc relay,
but the same characteristic can be achieved in microprocessor based relay
also by proper programming.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over Current Relay or IDMT O/C
Relay
Ideal inverse time characteristics can not be achieved, in an over current
relay. As the current in the system increases, the secondary current of
the current transformer is increased proportionally. The secondary current is
fed to the relay current coil. But when the CT becomes saturated, there
would not be further proportional increase of CT secondary current with
increased system current.
From this phenomenon it is clear that from trick value to certain range of
faulty level, an inverse time relay shows exact inverse characteristic. But
after this level of fault, the CT becomes saturated and relay current does not
increase further with increasing faulty level of the system. As the relay
current is not increased further, there would not be any further reduction in
time of operation in the relay. This time is referred as minimum time of
operation. Hence, the characteristic is inverse in the initial part, which tends
to a definite minimum operating time as the current becomes very high.
That is why the relay is referred as inverse definite minimum time over
current relay or simply IDMT relay.
Motor Protection Relay for High Voltage Induction Motor.
Above 90% of motors used in an industry are induction motors, because
they are cheap, robust & easy to maintain. For higher HP (>250HP) motors
we prefer high voltage, because it will reduce operating current and the size
of the motor.
Why we require protection of motors?
To understand this we need to know the cost associated with the failure of
motor, i.e.
Loss of production (Cost of production)
Replacement of motor (Replacement cost)
Cost of repair
Cost of man hours due to this emergency
The basic function of a protective relay is to identify the fault and
isolate it from the healthy part of the system. This will improve the
reliability of power system. For protection of motor, we have to identify
the various causes of failure and to address the same. The various causes of
failure are as below.
Thermal stress on winding
Single phasing
Earth fault
Short circuit
Locked rotor
Number of hot starts
Bearing failure
Thermal Stress on Winding – If a motor runs continuously more
than its rated capacity then this will over heat the winding and insulation.
Subsequently deteriorate the winding insulation resulting in failure of
motor. If the voltage is less than the designed value then also it will over
heat the winding at rated load and fail the motor.
Single Phasing – Loss of one phase supplied to the motor (in case
of 3-phase motor) leads to single phasing. If we start the motor on load,
then the motor will fail due to unbalance.
Earth Fault – If any part of winding comes in contact with the ground
then we can say the motor is earthed. If we start the motor then it will
lead to failure of motor.
Short Circuit – If there is a contact between two phases of a three
phase winding or between the turns of a phase, then this will termed as
short circuit.
Locked Rotor – If the driven equipment is in jammed condition or the
motor shaft is jam, then this is known as locked rotor. If we start the
motor then it will fail.
Number of Hot Start – Each motor is designed to withstand a certain
number of hot starts. Consider a motor is in running condition, if we stop
the motor & immediately start the same, then this is called as hot start.
Depending upon the thermal curve of a motor we have to give certain
time to bring down the temperature of winding.
Bearing Failure – If bearing fails then rubbing of rotor on stator will
occur, resulting physical damage of insulation and winding. The bearing
failure can be avoided by monitoring the bearing temperature. Bearing
temperature detector (BTD) is used for monitoring and tripping of motor
in case of abnormality.
All motor protection relays operate on the basis of current taken by the
motor. Motor protection relay is used for high voltage area having the
following features
Thermal overload protection
Short circuit protection
Single phasing protection
Earth fault protection
Locked rotor protection
Number of start protection
For setting of the relay we require the CT ratio & full load current of the
motor. The setting of different element is listed below
Thermal over Load Element - To set this element we have to
identify the % of Full load current on which the motor is running
continuously. Thermal setting = (Full load current x % of Full load) / CT
ratio.
Short circuit Element - The range available for this element is 1 to 5
times of starting current. Time delay is also available. We normally set at
2 times of I starting with a time delay of 0.1 second.
Single Phasing Element - This element will operate, if there is an
unbalance in current of three phases. It is also called as unbalance
protection. The element is set for 1/3rd of starting current. If it tripped
during starting, then the parameter will changed to 1/2 of starting
current.
Earth Fault Protection - This element measures the neutral current
of star connected CT secondary. The range available for this element is
0.02 to 2 times of CT primary current. Time delay is also available. We
normally set at 0.1 times of CT primary current with a time delay of 0.2
seconds. If tripped during starting of motor, then the time setting can be
raised to 0.5 sec.
Locked rotor protection - The range available for this element is 1
to 5 times of full load current. Time delay is also available. We normally
set at 2 times of FLC. The time delay will be more than the starting time
of the motor. "Starting time means the time require by the motor to reach
its full speed."
Number of hot start protection - Here we will provide the number
of start allowed in specified time duration. By this we will limit the number
of hot start given to the motor.
The schematic diagram to connect a motor protection relay is as below
Modern digital motor protection relays are having some extra features, i.e.
protection against no load running of a motor and thermal protection. In
case of no load running, the relay senses the motor current. If it is less than
the specified value then it will trip the motor. We can also connect the
temperature probe to the relay, which will monitor the bearing and winding
temperature and trip the motor if it exceeds the specified value.
Feeder Protection Relays.
Distance Protection Relay
One of the important protections in Power System Protection is Feeder
Protection. Different types of relays were used for feeder protection
like electromagnetic type relays, static type relays etc. But now a day we are
using Numerical relays for all protections. The benefits of Numerical relays
are,
1. Accurate tripping,
2. Less tolerance,
3. Fault events and counter storage
4. Display of fault parameters on screen
(Fault parameters means current, voltage, resistance and reactance values
during fault and fault distance, Numerical relays can store thousands of
tripping events). The main inputs needed for distance protection
is Voltage and Current from corresponding feeder PT and CT.
According to site condition we will set certain impedance values in relay
settings (i.e., R and X values) for fault detection. Relay will monitor Current
& Voltage in the feeder line (PT and CT secondary), and from these values,
the relay will calculate Impedance value Z. i.e., Z=V/I. In normal load
condition the impedance values on line will be high. But when fault comes on
the feeder line, the impedance will decrease and becomes less than the
impedance setting in the relay, then the distance relay will trip with in 40 ms
in zone 1 (different zones are there and that will be explained later) and
isolate power equipments from fault. I.e., during fault, relay will trip and
shows the fault parameters like fault current, voltage, reactance, resistance
and fault distance on relay screen. Suppose if the fault is on 25km, then
relay will show Fault Distance (FD) = 25km, and thus it becomes easy to
identify the location where there is fault. For Distance protection now a day
Quadrilateral characteristics is used. We already discussed that for fault
identification we have to set different parameters in relay. i.e.,
1. Forward and Backward Resistance (RF, RB),
2. Forward and backward Reactance (XF, XB),
3. RCA (Relay Characteristics Angle) and
4. Line Impedance per km.
These parameters are used for making Quadrilateral characteristics. Suppose
if RCA=70° and we are using parallelogram characteristics (Quadrilateral),
we can plot the graph by setting Forward Resistance (RF) value in positive X
axis, Backward Resistance (RB) in negative X axis, Forward Reactance (XF)
value in positive Y axis, and Backward Reactance (XB) in negative Y axis.
And plot parallelogram with a slope of RCA angle. Thus we will get a
parallelogram graph and the protection zone is inside the parallelogram.
Means during fault the impedance will reach inside the parallelogram then
the relay will trip. In graph there are 4 quadrants of operation
1. First quadrant (R and X values + ve) If the load is inductive and
the fault is in forward direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
2. Second quadrant (R – ve and X + ve) If the load is capacitive and
the fault is in reverse direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
3. Third quadrant (R – ve and X - ve) If the load is inductive and the
fault is in reverse direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
4. Fourth quadrant (R + ve and X - ve) If the load is capacitive and
the fault is in forward direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
Different Zones of operation, fault distance calculation and other feeder
protection relays etc. will be explained in next article... Remark: A model of
quadrilateral characteristics is shown below….
Differential
Relay or
Overall
differential
Relay
13.8/220 KV 3 nos Non-Directional
Overflux
15.75/220 KV O/L Relay
Relay
18/400 KV 1 no Non-Directional
2 -- Buchholz
21/400 KV E/L Relay
Relay
Generator and/or standby E/F +
OLTC
Transformer REF Relay
Buchholz
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
3 nos Non-Directional Relay
O/L Relay Buchholz
220 /6.6KV 3 nos Non-
1 no Non-Directional Relay
3 Station Directional O/L
E/L Relay OLTC
Transformer Relay
and/or standby E/F + Buchholz
REF Relay Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Buchholz
Relay
OLTC
132/33/11KV 3 nos O/L Relay 2 nos O/L Relays Buchholz
5
upto 8 MVA 1 no E/L Relay 1 no E/L Relay Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
132/33/11KV 3 nos O/L Relay
3 nos O/L Relay OLTC
6 above 8 MVA & 1 no Directional E/L
1 no E/L Relay Buchholz
below 31.5 MVA Relay
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
Buchholz
3 nos O/L Relay
132/33KV, 31.5 3 nos O/L Relay Relay
7 1 no Directional E/L
MVA & above 1 no E/L Relay OLTC
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip Relay
WT Trip Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
3 nos Directional O/L
Buchholz
Relay 3 nos Directional
Relay
(with dir.highset) O/L Relay
OLTC
400/220KV 1 no Directional E/L (with dir.highset)
9 Buchholz
315MVA relay. 1 no Directional E/L
Relay
Restricted E/F relay relay.
PRV Relay
3 nos Directional O/L Restricted E/F relay
OT Trip Relay
Relay for action
WT Trip
Relay
Over Load
(Alarm) Relay
Now if we
see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be ′K′
times greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2. Again I2′.N1 = I2.N2
Therefore,
Where, θ2 is the angle between Secondary Voltage and Secondary Current of
transformer. Now we will proceed one further step toward more practical
aspect of a transformer.
Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistive Winding, But No
Leakage Reactance
Now, consider the winding resistance of transformer but no leakage
reactance. So far we have discussed about the transformer which has ideal
windings, means winding with no resistance and leakage reactance, but now
we will consider one transformer which has internal resistance in the winding
but no leakage reactance. As the windings are resistive, there would be
a voltage drop in the windings.
Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary
winding, E2 does not totally appear across the load since it also drops by an
amount I2R2, where R2 is the secondary winding resistance and I2 is
secondary current or load current. Similarly, voltage equation of the
secondary side of the transformer will be
Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistance As Well As Leakage
Reactance in Transformer Windings
Now we will consider the condition, when there is leakage reactance of
transformer as well as winding resistance of transformer.
Resistance drops are in the direction of current vector but, reactive drop will
be perpendicular to the current vector as shown in the above vector
diagram of transformer.
Small and Large Motor Protection Scheme.
The abnormalities in motor or motor faults may appear due to mainly two
reasons -
1. Conditions imposed by the external power supply network,
2. Internal faults, either in the motor or in the driven plant.
Unbalanced supply voltages, under-voltage, reversed phase sequence and
loss of synchronism (in the case of synchronous motor) come under former
category. The later category includes bearing failures, stator winding faults,
motor earth faults and overload etc.
The degree of motor protection system depends on the costs and
applications of the electrical motor.
Small Motor Protection Scheme
Generally motors up to 30 hp are considered in small category. The small
motor protection in this case is arranged by HRC fuse, bimetallic relay and
under voltage relay - all assembled into the motor contractor - starter itself.
Most common cause of motor burn outs on LV fuse protected system is due
to single phasing. This single phasing may remain undetected even if the
motors are protected by conventional bimetallic relay. It can not be detected
by a set of voltage relays connected across the lines. Since, even when one
phase is dead, the motor maintains substantial back emf on its faulty phase
terminal and hence voltage across the voltage relay is prevented from
dropping - off. The difficulties of detecting single phasing can be overcome
by employing a set of three current operated relays as shown in the small
motor protection circuit given below. The current operated relays are very
simple instantaneous relays. There are mainly two parts in this relay one is a
current coil and other is one or more normally open contacts (NO Contacts).
The NO contacts are operated by the mmf of the current coil. This relay is
connected in series with each phase of the supply and backup by HRC fuse.
When the electrical motor starts and runs the supply current passes through
the current coil of the protective relay. The mmf of the current coil makes
the NO contacts closed. If suddenly a single phasing occurs the
corresponding current through the current coil will falls and the contacts of
the corresponding relay will become to its normal open position. The NO
contacts of the all three relays are connected in series to hold - in the motor
contractor. So if any one relay contact opens, results to release of motor
contractor and hence motor will stop running.
is obtained by, Where, I f is the total three phase fault current, v is
the phase to neutral voltage z 1 is the total positive sequence impedance of
the system; assuming that in the calculation, impedance are represented in
ohms on a voltage base.
Symmetrical Component Analysis
The above fault calculation is made on assumption of three phase balanced
system. The calculation is made for one phase only as the current and
voltage conditions are same in all three phases. When actual faults occur in
electrical power system, such as phase to earth fault, phase to phase fault
and double phase to earth fault, the system becomes unbalanced means,
the conditions of voltages and currents in all phases are no longer
symmetrical. Such faults are solved by symmetrical component analysis.
Generally three phase vector diagram may be replaced by three sets of
balanced vectors. One has opposite or negative phase rotation, second has
positive phase rotation and last one is co-phasal. That means these vectors
sets are described as negative, positive and zero sequence, respectively.
4% 2
5% 3
6% 4
7 % and over 5
The general winding faults in transformer are either earth faults or inter-
turns faults. Phase to phase winding faults in a transformer is rare. The
phase faults in an electrical transformer may be occurred due to bushing
flash over and faults in tap changer equipment. Whatever may be the faults,
the transformer must be isolated instantly during fault otherwise major
breakdown may occur in the electrical power system. Incipient faults are
internal faults which constitute no immediate hazard. But it these faults are
over looked and not taken care of, these may lead to major faults. The faults
in this group are mainly inter-lamination short circuit due to insulation failure
between core lamination, lowering the oil level due to oil leakage, blockage
of oil flow paths. All these faults lead to overheating. So transformer
protection scheme is required for incipient transformer faults also. The earth
fault, very nearer to neutral point of transformer star winding may also be
considered as an incipient fault. Influence of winding connections and
earthing on earth fault current magnitude. There are mainly two conditions
for earth fault current to flow during winding to earth faults,
1. A current exists for the current to flow into and out of the winding.
2. Ampere-turns balance is maintained between the windings.
The value of winding earth fault current depends upon position of the fault
on the winding, method of winding connection and method of earthing. The
star point of the windings may be earthed either solidly or via a resistor. On
delta side of the transformer the system is earthed through an earthing
transformer. Grounding or earthing transformer provides low impedance
path to the zero sequence current and high impedance to the positive and
negative sequence currents.
Star Winding with Neutral Resistance Earthed
In this case the neutral point of the transformer is earthed via a resistor and
the value of impedance of it, is much higher than that of winding impedance
of the transformer. That means the value of transformer winding impedance
is negligible compared to impedance of earthing resistor. The value of earth
current is, therefore, proportional to the position of the fault in the winding.
As the fault current in the primary winding of the transformer is proportional
to the ratio of the short circuited secondary turns to the total turns on the
primary winding, the primary fault current will be proportional to the square
of the percentage of winding short circuited. The variation of fault current
both in the primary and secondary winding is shown below.
Star Winding with Neutral Solidly Earthed
In this case the earth fault current magnitude is limited solely by the winding
impedance and the fault is no longer proportional to the position of the fault.
The reason for this non linearity is unbalanced flux linkage.
Protection of Lines or Feeder.
As the length of electrical power transmission line is generally long enough
and it runs through open atmosphere, the probability of occurring fault in
electrical power transmission line is much higher than that of electrical
power transformers and alternators. That is why a transmission line requires
much more protective schemes than a transformer and an
alternator.Protection of line should have some special features, such as-
1. During fault, the only circuit breaker closest to the fault point should
be tripped.
2. If the circuit breaker closest the faulty point, fails to trip the circuit
breaker just next to this breaker will trip as back up.
3. The operating time of relay associated with protection of line should be
as minimum as possible in order to prevent unnecessary tripping of circuit
breakers associated with other healthy parts of power system.
In the above figure, overall time setting of relay at point D is minimum and
successively this time setting is increased for the relays associated with the
points towards the point A. In case of any fault at point F will obviously trip
CB-3 at point D. In failure of opening CB-3, CB-2 will be operated as overall
time setting is higher in relay at point C. Although, the time setting of relay
nearest to the source is maximum but still it will trip in shorter period, if
major fault occurs near the source, as the time of operation of relay is
inversely proportional to faulty current.
Over Current Protection of Parallel Feeders
For maintaining stability of the system it is required to feed a load from
source by two or more than two feeders in parallel. If fault occurs in any of
the feeders, only that faulty feeder should be isolated from the system in
order to maintain continuity of supply from source to load. This requirement
makes the protection of parallel feeders little bit more complex than simple
non direction over current protection of line as in the case of radial feeders.
The protection of parallel feeder requires to use directional relays and to
grade the time setting of relay for selective tripping.
There are two feeders connected in parallel from source to load. Both of the
feeders have non-directional over current relay at source end. These relays
should be inverse time relay. Also both of the feeders have directional relay
or reverse power relay at their load end. The reverse power relays used here
should be instantaneous type. That means these relays should be operated
as soon as flow of power in the feeder is reversed. The normal direction of
power from source to load. Now, suppose a fault occurs at point F, say the
fault current is If. This fault will get two parallel paths from source, one
through circuit breaker A only and other via CB-B, feeder-2, CB-Q, load bus
and CB-P. This is clearly shown in figure below, where IA and IB are current
of fault shared by feeder-1 and feeder-2 respectively.
As per Kirchoff's current law, IA + IB = If.
Now, IA is flowing through CB-A, IB is flowing through CB-P. As the direction
of flow of CB-P is reversed it will trip instantly. But CB-Q will not trip as flow
of current (power) in this circuit breaker is not reversed. As soon as CB-P is
tripped, the fault current IB stops flowing through feeder and hence there is
no question of further operating of inverse time over current relay. I A still
continues to flow even CB-P is tripped. Then because of over current I A, CB-
A will trip. In this way the faulty feeder is isolated from system.
Differential Pilot Wire Protection
This is simply a differential protection scheme applied to feeders. Several
differential schemes are applied for protection of line but Mess Price Voltage
balance system and Translay Scheme are most popularly used.
Merz Price Balance System
The working principle of Merz Price Balance system is quite simple. In this
scheme of line protection, identical CT is connected to each of the both ends
of the line. The polarity of the CTs are same. The secondary of these current
transformer and operating coil of two instantaneous relays are formed a
closed loop as shown in the figure below. In the loop pilot wire is used to
connect both CT secondary and both relay coil as shown.
Now, from the figure it is quite clear that when the system is under normal
condition, there would not be any current flowing through the loop. As the
secondary current of one CT will cancel out secondary current of other CT.
Now, if any fault occurs in the portion of the line between these two CTs, the
secondary current of one CT will no longer equal and opposite of secondary
current of other CT. Hence there would be a resultant circulating current in
the loop. Due this circulating current, the coil of both relays will close the
trip circuit of associate circuit breaker. Hence, the faulty line will be isolated
from both ends.
Busbar Protection | Busbar Differential Protection Scheme.
In early days only conventional over current relays were used for busbar
protection. But it is desired that fault in any feeder
or transformer connected to the busbar should not disturb busbar system. In
viewing of this time setting of busbar protection relays are made lengthy. So
when faults occurs on busbar itself, it takes much time to isolate the bus
from source which may came much damage in the bus system.In recent
days, the second zone distance protection relays on incoming feeder, with
operating time of 0.3 to 0.5 seconds have been applied for busbar
protection. But this scheme has also a main disadvantage. This scheme of
protection can not discriminate the faulty section of the busbar. Now
days, electrical power system deals with huge amount of power. Hence any
interruption in total bus system causes big loss to the company. So it
becomes essential to isolate only faulty section of busbar during bus fault.
Another drawback of second zone distance protection scheme is that,
sometime the clearing time is not short enough to ensure the system
stability. To overcome the above mentioned difficulties, differential busbar
protection scheme with an operating time less than 0.1 sec., is commonly
applied to many SHT bus systems.
Differential Busbar Protection
Current Differential Protection
The scheme of busbar protection, involves, Kirchoff’s current law, which
states that, total current entering an electrical node is exactly equal to total
current leaving the node. Hence, total current entering into a bus section is
equal to total current leaving the bus section.
The principle of differential busbar protection is very simple. Here,
secondaries of CTs are connected parallel. That means, S1 terminals of all
CTs connected together and forms a bus wire. Similarly S 2 terminals of all
CTs connected together to form another bus wire. A tripping relay is
connected across these two bus wires.
Essentially all the CTs used for differential busbar protection are of same
current ratio. Hence, the summation of all secondary currents must also be
equal to zero. Now, say current through the relay connected in parallel with
all CT secondaries, is iR, and iA, iB, iC, iD, iE and iF are secondary currents.
Now, let us apply KCL at node X. As per KCL at node X,
So, it is clear that under normal condition there is no current flows through
the busbar protection tripping relay. This relay is generally referred as
Relay 87. Now, say fault is occurred at any of the feeders, outside the
protected zone. In that case, the faulty current will pass through primary of
the CT of that feeder. This fault current is contributed by all other feeders
connected to the bus. So, contributed part of fault current flows through the
corresponding CT of respective feeder. Hence at that faulty condition, if we
apply KCL at node K, we will still get, iR = 0.
This article discusses the design issues in implementation that must be considered by
the designer.
This power must be dropped down to a lower voltage level for the controls and DC
power supplies. 110Vac is common in North America, and 220 V AC Is common in
Europe and the Commonwealth countries. It is also common for a control cabinet to
supply a higher voltage to other equipment, such as motors.
Dashed lines indicate a single purchased component. This system uses 3 phase AC
power (L1, L2 and L3) connected to the terminals. The three phases are then
connected to a power interrupter. Next, all three phases are supplied to a motor starter
that contains three contacts, M, and three thermal overload relays (breakers).
Figure 1 – A Motor Controller Schematic
The contacts, M, will be controlled by the coil, M. The output of the motor starter goes
to a three phase AC motor. Power is supplied by connecting a step down
transformer to the control electronics by connecting to phases L2 and L3. The lower
voltage is then used to supply power to the left and right rails of the ladder below. The
neutral rail is also grounded.
The diagram also shows numbering for the wires in the device. This is essential for
industrial control systems that may contain hundreds or thousands of wires. These
numbering schemes are often particular to each facility, but there are tools to help
make wire labels that will appear in the final controls cabinet.
Figure 2 – A Physical
Layout for the Control Cabinet
Once the electrical design is complete, a layout for the controls cabinet is developed, as
shown in Figure 2. The physical dimensions of the devices must be considered,
and adequate space is needed to run wires between components.
In the cabinet the AC power would enter at the terminal block, and be connected to the main
breaker.
The final layout in the cabinet might look like the one shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3 – Final PLC Panel Wiring
When being built the system will follow certain standards that may be company policy,
or legal requirements. This often includes items such as;
Hold downs – the will secure the wire so they don’t move
Labels – wire labels help troubleshooting
Strain reliefs – these will hold the wire so that it will not be pulled out of screw
terminals
Grounding – grounding wires may be needed on each metal piece for safety
A photograph of an industrial controls cabinet is shown in Figure 4:
Figure 4 –
An industrial control cabinet with wire runs, terminal strip, buttons on PLC panel front, etc.
When including a PLC in the ladder diagram still remains. But, it does tend to become
more complex. Figure 5 below shows a schematic diagram for a PLC based motor
control system, similar to the previous motor control example.
This figure shows the E-stop wired to cutoff power to all of the devices in the circuit,
including the PLC. All critical safety functions should be hardwired this way.
Figure 5 – An Electrical
Schematic with a PLC.
For both drinking water and wastewater treatment, 4 different sizes of plants have
been distinguished. The size of plants can be expressed in quantity of treated water
per day, or in corresponding number of inhabitants.
Four different types of (waste) water treatment plants have been distinguished,
depending on destination and size:
Electrical Distribution
The most relevant characteristics of the electrical installation are taken into
The impact of such errors may range from simply being a nuisance (tripping occurs
repeatedly on energisation, requiring investigation to locate and correct the errors) through
to failure to trip under fault conditions, leading to major equipment damage, disruption to
supplies and potential hazards to personnel.
The strategies available to remove these risks are many, but all involve some kind
of testing at site. Commissioning tests at site are therefore invariably performed
before protection equipment is set to work. The aims of commissioning tests are:
1. To ensure that the equipment has not been damaged during transit or installation
2. To ensure that the installation work has been carried out correctly
3. To prove the correct functioning of the protection scheme as a whole
The tests carried out will normally vary according to the protection scheme
involved, the relay technology used, and the policy of the client. In many cases, the
The following tests are invariably carried out, since the protection scheme will
not function correctly if faults exist.
Wiring diagram check, using circuit diagrams showing all the reference numbers of the
interconnecting wiring
General inspection of the equipment, checking all connections, wires on relays
terminals, labels on terminal boards, etc.
Insulation resistance measurement of all circuits [details]
Perform relay self-test procedure and external communications checks on
digital/numerical relays [details]
Test main current transformers
Polarity check
Magnetisation Curve
Test main voltage transformers
Polarity check
Ratio check
Phasing check
Check that protection relay alarm/trip settings have been entered correctly [details]
Tripping and alarm circuit checks to prove correct functioning
In addition, the following checks may be carried out, depending on the factors noted
above (not covered in this technical article):
Secondary injection test on each relay to prove operation at one or more setting values
Primary injection tests on each relay to prove stability for external faults and to
determine the effective current setting for internal faults (essential for some types of
electromechanical relays)
Testing of protection scheme logic
All the deliberate earth connections on the wiring to be tested should first be removed,
for example earthing links on current transformers, voltage transformers and
DC supplies. Some insulation testers generate impulses with peak voltages
exceeding 5kV. In these instances any electronic equipment should be disconnected
while the external wiring insulation is checked.
separate circuits. The readings are recorded and compared with subsequent routine
grade, and the site humidity. Generally, if the test is restricted to one cubicle, a
reading of several hundred megohms should be obtained. If long lengths of site wiring
Digital and numerical relays will have a self-test procedure that is detailed in the
appropriate relay manual. These tests should be followed to determine if the relay is
operating correctly.
This will normally involve checking of the relay watchdog circuit, exercising all
digital inputs and outputs and checking that the relay analogue inputs are within
For these tests, the relay outputs are normally disconnected from the remainder of the
protection scheme, as it is a test carried out to prove correct relay, rather than
scheme, operation.
To shorten testing
and commissioning times of SIPROTEC relays, extensive test and diagnostic functions are available to the
user in DIGSI 5
Unit protection schemes involve relays that need to communicate with each
other. This leads to additional testing requirements. The communications path
between the relays is tested using suitable equipment to ensure that the path is
complete and that the received signal strength is within specification. Numerical relays
may be fitted with loopback test facilities that enable either part of or the entire
communications link to be tested from one end.
After completion of these tests, it is usual to enter the relay settings required. This
can be done manually via the relay front panel controls, or using a portable PC and
suitable software.
Whichever, method is used, a check by a second person that the correct settings have
been used is desirable, and the settings recorded. Programmable scheme logic that is
required is also entered at this stage.
SIPROTE
C relay wiring test editor for monitoring and testing of binary inputs, binary outputs and LED (click to
expand)
Polarity checks.
Each current transformer should be individually tested to verify that the primary and
secondary polarity markings are correct (see Figure 1).
Care must be taken that the test equipment is suitably rated. The short-time
current rating must be in excess of the CT secondary current rating, to allow for
measurement of the saturation current. This will be in excess of the CT secondary
current rating. As the magnetising current will not be sinusoidal, a moving iron or
dynamometer type ammeter should be used.
It is often found that current transformers with secondary ratings of 1A or less have a knee-
point voltage higher than the local mains supply. In these cases, a step-up interposing
transformer must be used to obtain the necessary voltage to check the magnetisation curve.
The voltage transformer polarity can be checked using the method for CT polarity
tests. Care must be taken to connect the battery supply to the primary winding, with
the polarity ammeter connected to the secondary winding. If the voltage transformer is
of the capacitor type, then the polarity of the transformer at the bottom of the capacitor
stack should be checked.
Ratio check of VT
This check can be carried out when the main circuit is first made live. The voltage
transformer secondary voltage is compared with the secondary voltage shown on the
nameplate.
Nam
plate of a single phase voltage transformer (photo credit: emadrlc.blogspot.com)
Phasing check of VT
However, this test does not detect if the phase sequence is correct, but the phases are
displaced by 120o from their correct position, i.e. phase A occupies the position of phase C or
phase B in Figure 3.
This can be checked by removing the fuses from phases B and C (say) and measuring
the phase-earth voltages on the secondary of the VT. If the phasing is correct, only
phase A should be healthy, phases B and C should have only a small residual voltage.
Figure 3 – Voltage
transformer phasing check
Correct phasing should be further substantiated when carrying out ‘on load’ tests
on any phase-angle sensitive relays, at the relay terminals. Load current in a known
phase CT secondary should be compared with the associated phase to neutral VT
secondary voltage.
The phase angle between them should be measured, and should relate to the
At some point during commissioning, the alarm and trip settings of the relay
elements involved will require to be entered and/or checked. Where the complete
scheme is engineered and supplied by a single contractor, the settings may already
have been entered prior to despatch from the factory, and hence this need not be
repeated.
The method of entering settings varies according to the relay technology used.
For electromechanical and static relays, manual entry of the settings for each relay
element is required. This method can also be used for digital/numerical relays.
However, the amount of data to be entered is much greater, and therefore it is usual to use
appropriate software, normally supplied by the manufacturer, for this purpose. The
software also makes the essential task of making a record of the data entered much easier.
The maximum allowable step potential is 5,664V, which exceeds the step
voltage calculated above and the earthing system passes the step potential
criteria. Having passed both touch and step potential criteria, we can
conclude that the earthing system is safe. Once the data has been entered, it
should be checked for compliance with the recommended settings as calculated from
the protection setting study. Where appropriate software is used for data entry, the
checks can be considered complete if the data is checked prior to download of the
settings to the relay.
Example 8.4
Consider the network shown in Fig. 8.10. The system parameters are given below
Let us choose a base in the circuit of the generator. Then the per unit impedances of the generator are:
The per unit impedances of the two transformers are
The MVA base of the motor is 40, while the base MVA of the total circuit is 50. Therefore the per unit
impedances of the motor are
For the transmission line
Therefore
Let us neglect the phase shift associated with the Y/ Δ transformers. Then the positive, negative and
zero sequence networks are as shown in Figs. 8.11-8.13.
Fig. 8.11 Positive sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.12 Negative sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.13 Zero sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10.
From Figs. 8.11 and 8.12 we get the following Ybus matrix for both positive and negative sequences
Again from Fig. 8.13 we get the following Ybus matrix for the zero sequence
Alternatively we find from Figs. 8.11 and 8.12 that
(a) Single-Line-to-Ground Fault : Let a bolted 1LG fault occurs at bus-2 when the system is unloaded
with bus voltages being 1.0 per unit. Then from (8.7) we get
per unit
Also from (8.4) we get
per unit
Also I fb = I fc = 0. From (8.5) we get the sequence components of the voltages as
(b) Line-to-Line Fault : For a bolted LL fault, we can write from (8.16)
per unit
Then the fault currents are
(c) Double-Line-to-Ground Fault : Let us assumes that a bolted 2LG fault occurs at bus-2. Then
Hence from (8.24) we get the positive sequence current as
per unit
The zero and negative sequence currents are then computed from (8.25) and (8.26) as
per unit
per unit
Therefore the fault currents flowing in the line are
Example 8.5
Let us now assume that a 2LG fault has occurred in bus-4 instead of the one in bus-2. Therefore
Also we have
Hence
per unit
Also
per unit
per unit
Therefore the fault currents flowing in the line are
We shall now compute the currents contributed by the generator and the motor to the fault. Let us
denote the current flowing to the fault from the generator side by Ig , while that flowing from the motor
by Im . Then from Fig. 8.11 using the current divider principle, the positive sequence currents contributed
by the two buses are
per unit
per unit
Similarly from Fig. 8.12, the negative sequence currents are given as
per unit
per unit
Finally notice from Fig. 8.13 that the zero sequence current flowing from the generator to the fault is 0.
Then we have
per unit
Therefore the fault currents flowing from the generator side are
In the above two examples we have neglected the phase shifts of the Y/ Δ transformers. However
according to the American standard, the positive sequence components of the high tension side lead
those of the low tension side by 30° , while the negative sequence behavior is reverse of the positive
sequence behavior. Usually the high tension side of a Y/ Δ transformer is Y-connected. Therefore as we
have seen in Fig. 7.16, the positive sequence component of Y side leads the positive sequence
component of the Δ side by 30° while the negative sequence component of Y side lags that of the Δ side
by 30° . We shall now use this principle to compute the fault current for an unsymmetrical fault.
Example 8.6
Let us consider the same system as given in Example 8.5. Since the phase shift does not alter the zero
sequence, the circuit of Fig. 8.13 remains unchanged. The positive and the negative sequence circuits
must however include the respective phase shifts. These circuits are redrawn as shown in Figs. 8.14 and
8.15.
Note from Figs. 8.14 and 8.15 that we have dropped the √3 α vis-à-vis that of Fig. 7.16. This is because
the per unit impedances remain unchanged when referred to the either high tension or low tension side of
an ideal transformer. Therefore the per unit impedances will also not be altered.
Fig. 8.14 Positive sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer
phase shift.
Fig. 8.15 Negative sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer
phase shift.
Since the zero sequence remains unaltered, these currents will not change from those computed in
Example 8.6. Thus
per unit
and
Now the positive sequence fault current from the generator Iga1 , being on the Y-side of the Y/ Δ
transformer will lead I ma1 by 30° . Therefore
per unit
per unit
Finally the negative sequence current I ga2 will lag I ma2 by 30° . Hence we have
per unit
per unit
Therefore
Also the fault currents flowing from the motor remain unaltered. Also note that the currents flowing into the
fault remain unchanged. This implies that the phase shift of the Y/ Δ transformers does not affect the fault
currents.
Example 8.7
Let us consider the same power system as given in Example 1.2, the sequence diagrams of which are
given in Figs. 7.18 to 7.20. With respect to Fig. 7.17, let us define the system parameters as:
Transformer T2 : Three single-phase units each rated 100 MVA, 130Y/25 kV, X = 10%
Line C-F : X1 = X2 = 50 Ω , X0 = 75 Ω
Let us choose the circuit of Generator 3 as the base, the base MVA for the circuit is 300. The base
voltages are then same as those shown in Fig. 1.23. Per unit reactances are then computed as shown
below.
Generator G1 :
, X0 = 0.15
Generator G2 :
, X0 = 0.0656
Transformer T1 :
Transformer T2 :
Transformer T3 :
Line B-C :
,
Line C-D :
,
Line C-F :
,
Neglecting the phase shifts of Y/ Δ connected transformers and assuming that the system is unloaded,
we shall find the fault current for a 1LG fault at bus-1 (point C of Fig. 7.17).
From Figs. 7.18 and 7.19, we can obtain the positive and negative sequence Thevenin impedance at
point C as (verify)
Similarly from Fig. 7.20, the Thevenin equivalent of the zero sequence impedance is
per unit
(8.17)
Fig. 8.7 Representation of 2LG fault.
(8.18)
(8.19)
Therefore
(8.20)
(8.21)
(8.22)
(8.24)
The Thevenin equivalent circuit for 2LG fault is shown in Fig. 8.8. From this figure we get
(8.25)
The zero and negative sequence currents can be obtained using the current divider principle as
(8.26)
Example 8.3
Let us consider the same generator as given in Examples 8.1 and 8.2. Let us assume that the generator
is operating without any load when a bolted 2LG fault occurs in phases b and c. The equivalent circuit for
this fault is shown in Fig. 8.9. From this figure we can write
Fig. 8.9 Equivalent circuit of the generator in Fig. 8.4 for a 2LG fault in phases b and c.
Combining the above three equations we can write the following vector-matrix form
Hence
We can also obtain the above values using (8.24)-(8.26). Note from Example 8.1 that
Then
and Vb = Vc = 0. Therefore
Line-to-Line Fault
The faulted segment for an L-L fault is shown in Fig. 8.5 where it is assumed that the fault has occurred at
node k of the network. In this the phases b and c got shorted through the impedance Zf . Since the
system is unloaded before the occurrence of the fault we have
(8.8)
Fig. 8.5 Representation of L-L fault.
(8.9)
(8.10)
(8.11)
Therefore no zero sequence current is injected into the network at bus k and hence the zero sequence
remains a dead network for an L-L fault. The positive and negative sequence currents are negative of
each other.
Now from Fig. 8.5 we get the following expression for the voltage at the faulted point
(8.12)
Again
(8.13)
Moreover since I fa0 = I fb0 = 0 and I fa1 = - I fb2 , we can write
(8.14)
(8.15)
Equations (8.12) and (8.15) indicate that the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel. The
sequence network is then as shown in Fig. 8.6. From this network we get
(8.16)
Example 8.2
Let us consider the same generator as given in Example 8.1. Assume that the generator is unloaded
when a bolted ( Zf = 0) short circuit occurs between phases b and c. Then we get from (8.9) I fb = - I fc .
Also since the generator is unloaded, we have I fa = 0. Therefore from (7.34) we get
Also since V bn = V cn , we can combine the above two equations to get
Then
Also since the neutral current I n is zero, we can write V a = 1.0 and
Single-Line-to-Ground Fault
Let a 1LG fault has occurred at node k of a network. The faulted segment is then as shown in Fig. 8.2
where it is assumed that phase-a has touched the ground through an impedance Zf . Since the system is
unloaded before the occurrence of the fault we have
(8.1)
Fig. 8.2 Representation of 1LG fault.
(8.2)
(8.3)
(8.4)
This implies that the three sequence currents are in series for the 1LG fault. Let us denote the zero,
positive and negative sequence Thevenin impedance at the faulted point
as Z kk0 , Z kk1 and Z kk2respectively. Also since the Thevenin voltage at the faulted phase is Vf we get
(8.5)
three sequence circuits that are similar to the ones shown in Fig. 7.7. We can then write
Then from (8.4) and (8.5) we can write
(8.6)
Again since
(8.7)
Example 8.1
A three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator is running unloaded with rated voltage when a 1LG
fault occurs at its terminals. The generator is rated 20 kV, 220 MVA, with subsynchronous reactance of
0.2 per unit. Assume that the subtransient mutual reactance between the windings is 0.025 per unit. The
neutral of the generator is grounded through a 0.05 per unit reactance. The equivalent circuit of the
generator is shown in Fig. 8.4. We have to find out the negative and zero sequence reactances.
Fig. 8.4 Unloaded generator of Example 8.1.
Since no current flows in phases b and c, once the fault occurs, we have from Fig. 8.4
Therefore
From (7.38) we can write Z1 = j ω ( Ls + Ms ) = j 0.225. Then from Fig. 7.7 we have
Comparing the above two values with (7.37) and (7.39) we find that Z 0 indeed is equal to j ω ( Ls - 2 Ms )
and Z2 is equal to j ω ( Ls + Ms ). Note that we can also calculate the fault current from (8.7) as
Introduction
The sequence circuits and the sequence networks developed in the previous chapter will now be used
for finding out fault current during unsymmetrical faults.
The power system is balanced before the fault occurs such that of the three sequence networks
only the positive sequence network is active. Also as the fault occurs, the sequence networks are
connected only through the fault location.
The fault current is negligible such that the pre-fault positive sequence voltages are same at all
nodes and at the fault location.
All the network resistances and line charging capacitances are negligible.
All loads are passive except the rotating loads which are represented by synchronous machines.
Based on the assumptions stated above, the faulted network will be as shown in Fig. 8.1 where the
voltage at the faulted point will be denoted by Vf and current in the three faulted phases
are Ifa , I fb and I fc .
We shall now discuss how the three sequence networks are connected when the three types of faults
discussed above occur.
.
.
.
.
.
Consi
der a delta system that's three corner points are A, B and C as
shown in the figure. Electrical resistance of the branch between
points A and B, B and C and C and A are R1, R2and R3 respectively.
The resistance between the points A and B will be,
(III) we get,
Subtracting equations (I), (II) and (III) from equation (IV) we get,
separately we get, .
.
When the alternator is short-circuited, the currents in all the three-phases rise rapidly to a high
value of about 10 to 18 times of full load current, during the first quarter cycle. The flux crossing
the air gap is large during a first couple of cycles. The reactance during these first two or three
cycle is least and the short circuit current is high. This reactance is called subtransient
reactance and is denoted by X”. The first few cycles come under subtransient state.
After a first few cycles, the decrement in the r.m.s. value of short circuit current is less rapid than
the decrements during the first few cycles. This state is called the Transient State and the
reactance in this state is called transient reactance X’. The circuit breaker contacts separate in
the transient state.
Finally the transient dies out and the current reaches a steady sinusoidal state called the Steady
State. The reactance in this state is called steady state reactance Xd. Since the short circuit
current of the alternator lags behind the voltage by 90 degree, the reactance involved are direct
axis reactance.
As clear from the figure above, the d.c. components in the three phases are different; hence the
waveforms of the three phases are not identical. If voltage of phase, say, Y, is maximum at the
instant of short circuit, the DC component of short circuit current is zero. Hence the waveform is
symmetrical as shown in figure below.
Where
I = Steady state current, r.m.s. value
I’ = Transient current, r.m.s. value
I” = Sub-transient current, r.m.s. value
Ea = Induced e.m.f. per phase
Xd = Direct axis synchronous reactance
Xd’ = Direct axis transient reactance
Xd” = Direct axis sub-transient reactance
As the short circuit occurs, the short-circuit current attains high value. The circuit breakercontact
starts separating after the operation of the protective relay. The contacts of thecircuit
breaker separate during ‘transient state.’ The r.m.s. value of the current at the instant of the
contact separation is called the breaking current of the circuit-breaker and is expressed in kA.
If a circuit-breaker closes on existing fault, the current would increase to a high value during the
first, half cycle. The highest peak value of the current is reached during the peak of the first
current loop. This peak value is called making current of the circuit breaker and is expressed in
kA. This is the reason making current of Circuit Breaker is higher than the Breaking Current.
Now we will go into the discussion back while taking an example of Electrical circuit.
Consider the circuit given below.
If the battery is ON at t=0 and kept ON.
Inductor voltage = 0
As we know that Inductor does not allow sudden change in currents. So just after the
moment when switch is ON, the current in inductor is zero. That means at t=0+ inductor
acts as open circuit. But as the time passes inductor allows current. This happens until
coil voltage drop is equal to applied voltage.
But after some time, i.e. when coil voltage drop is equal to applied voltage, then current
flowing through the circuit is constant as inductor voltage is zero which means rate of
change of current is zero. This state is called Steady State.
So if we solve the differential equation of the circuit, we’re actually finding the response
as a function of time, which includes both transient and steady state response.
The Relay detects the abnormal condition by continuously monitoring electrical quantities which
are different for healthy and faulty condition. The electrical quantities which may change during
fault condition are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. If one or more of the above
electrical quantities change, that signals the presence, type and location of the fault to the
Relay. After detecting the fault condition, Relay pick-up, its contact will change from NO to NC
or vice versa. So we can wire up a particular kind of Relay contact to Breaker tripping circuit. So
whenever, the Relay picks up, the tripping of Breaker will take place.
A simplified Relay circuit is shown in figure below. Figure below shows one of the three phase
system for simplicity.
As shown in the figure above, Current Transformer CT secondary winding is directly connected
to the Relay coil. Under normal condition, the current through the Relay coil is not sufficient
enough to pull the plunger and close the circuit of Breaker Tripping Coil. Notice here that
Breaker Tripping coil is solely responsible for the tripping of Circuit Breaker. If trip coil of breaker
fails, then tripping of Breaker will not take place. This is the reason, two trip coils are normally
provided in Circuit Breaker to get reliable operation of Breaker. Not only two Trip Coils are
provided in CB rather a Trip Coil monitoring Relay is also used. If case of fault i.e. if it happens
to be any open circuit in Trip Coil, then the Trip Coil Supervision Relay will be flagged to attract
the attention of the operator.
In case of fault, the current through the CT secondary will go up which will cause increased
current through the Relay coil. If it happens that the current through the Relay coil exceeds the
setting value or pick-up value then the coil will get produce sufficient magnetic pull to the
plunger and thus plunger will complete the CB trip circuit. As soon as the CB trip circuit is
complete, current will start flowing in the Trip Coil which in turn will pull a lever to trip the Circuit
Breaker CB.
In the above figure, it is shown that Relay coil is directly pulling the plunger to complete the
Breaker Trip Coil circuit but in actual practice, Relay coil when picked up will change its contact
status. Let us say Relay Normally Open (NO) contact is wired to the Breaker Trip Coil Circuit.
Therefore when the Relay coil is in de-energized state, the circuit of Trip Coil of CB is not
complete and hence no tripping of the CB. During fault condition as the current through the
Relay coil exceeds the pick-up value, the Relay coil will get actuated which in turn will force its
contact to change over i.e. NO contact will change to Normally Close (NC) thereby closing the
Trip Coil circuit of the Breaker.
Since Trip Coil circuit of Breaker is complete, current will flow through the Trip Coil causing CB
to trip.
Output Module:
Output module provided in Numerical Relay is digital contacts which are actuated when
a trip decision is taken by the CPU. These output digital contacts are a pulse which is
generated as a response signal. The timing of pulse can be changed by the user.
Digital Input / Communication Module: Numerical Relay is provided with serial and
parallel ports for the interconnection with control and communication system of the
substation. Digital output contacts of Numerical Relay is used for wiring with the
Auxiliary Relays to extend tripping command to the Circuit Breaker.
Software: Numerical Relay is equipped with software to communicate with external
device to program to Relay or one can program by navigating through the Relay Menu.
Hardware for Metering: In principle, the hardware setup discussed above can be used
for both measurement and protection function. However, considering the order of
difference between current magnitudes in case of fault and load, there can be loss of
accuracy during metering applications. Consider a hypothetical case where in maximum
load current is 100 A and maximum fault current is 20 times this load current i.e. 2000
A. Let a 12 bit unipolar A/D converter be used for sampling current signal. This implies
that resolution of A/D converter is 2000/(212-1)=0.488 A. This resolution may be
inadequate for metering purposes.
One solution is to increase resolution i.e. the number of bits in A/D converter. For
example, one may use 16 bit A/D converter in place of 12 bit A/D converter.
However, increasing the number of bits of A/D converter also affects the selection of
processor. A good design guideline is to choose a processor with double the number of
bits of A/D converter. This ensures that truncation and numerical precision problems
associated with finite precision arithmetic do not cause significant loss of accuracy. For
example, with 16 bit A/D converter, 32 bit processor is the natural choice. Alternatively,
a variable gain amplifier can be used along with the A/D converter. At low currents, high
gain setting is used and at high currents low gain setting is preferred. However, during
the change from one setting to another, loss of information can take place. Therefore, a
simple solution would be to keep metering and protection functionality separate.
In the next post we will be discussing about some interesting features of Numerical
Relay. So be there and follow ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS.
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As we know that Current Transformers (CTs) are always used with secondary winding
connected with Ammeter, Relays or Wattmeter Coils. A precaution which shall always
be taken is that Never open the secondary winding circuit of a Current
Transformer while its Primary Winding is energized.
If the secondary winding circuit of a CT is kept open then it will lead to severe
consequence to the personnel opening the CT secondary and to the CT itself. The
question arises why?
To understand this, first we should know the basic difference between a Power
Transformer and a CT. The basic difference between a Power Transformer and a CT is
that, in Power Transformer the primary current is the reflection of the secondary current
by N1I1 = N2I2while in CT the primary current is dependent on the load current or line
current as Ct is connected in series with the line. So primary current of CT (assuming
constant line current) is constant irrespective of whether the secondary of CT is
connected with burden or not.
During normal operation of CT, the primary and secondary winding produces mmf which
by lenze’s law opposes each other. As the secondary mmf is slightly less than the
primary mmf, the net mmf is small. This net mmf is the working / magnetizing mmf of the
core of CT.
Now, in case secondary winding is kept open then secondary current will be zero while
the primary current of CT will remain same. Therefore the opposing mmf of secondary
will no longer exist. Hence the net mmf is due to primary current only i.e. N1I1 which is
very large. This large mmf will produce large flux in the core and will saturate the core.
Again, due to large flux in the core the flux linkage of secondary winding will be large
which in turn will produce a large voltage across the secondary terminals of the CT. This
large voltage across the secondary terminals will be very dangerous and will lead to the
insulation failure and there is a good chance that the person who is opening the CT
secondary while primary is energized will die due to shock.
Also, because of excessive core flux, the hysteresis and eddy current loss will be very high and
the CT will get overheated. As CT is oil filled, because of overheating, the oil of CT will get boil
and start to vaporize. Because of vaporization of CT oil, the CT housing will get pressurized and
blast. This blasting will lead to fire and smoke. Again, it is not the end here but due to smoke,
the nearby lines will trip due to earth fault which may trip the Power Generating Station.
However, not all short-circuit faults clear themselves. For example, a fallen branch may
lie across the lines and not fall to the ground. A sectionalizer counts the successive
openings and closings of the recloser, and after a pre-set number, it opens. Thus it
isolates a particular section of line where a continuing fault exists, leaving most of the
larger area protected by the recloser still with power.
So both of these are devices that isolate a portion of a power distribution system. But
the first is a safety device, to protect people working on the lines. The second is an
automatic device, to cut off power to a section where a continuing fault has occurred.
Circuit Breaker is switch capable of making or breaking the circuit under no-load as well as on-
load condition. It can make or break circuit either manually or by remote control. A Circuit
Breaker in conjunction with Relay can break the circuit under fault condition.
A Circuit Breaker CB consists of two contacts which are called electrodes, one of which remain
fixed, called fixed contact and another moving contact. Under normal operating condition, this
contact will remain closed to supply power but as soon as fault is sensed by the Relay, trip coil
of Circuit Breaker energizes and the moving contact of CB is pulled apart by some mechanism
to open the CB.
When contacts of CB are separated under fault condition, an arc is stuck between the fixed and
moving contacts. The current is thus able to continue till the arc persists. The production of arc
not only delays the current interruption but it also produces huge amount of heat which if
exceeds a limit may damage the system or CB itself. Therefore, the design of CB is done in
such a way to minimize the arcing period so that
1) Heat produced during arcing may not exceeds the dangerous value.
When a short circuit occurs, heavy current flows through the contacts of circuit breaker before
they are opened by the protective system. At the instant when the contacts begin to open after
getting trip command from the Relay, the contact area decreases rapidly and large fault current
causes increased current density and hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the
medium in between the contacts is sufficient enough to ionize the medium. This ionized medium
acts as a conductor and arc is stuck in between the contacts of the circuit breaker. It shall be
noted here that the potential difference between the fixed and moving contacts is quite small
and just enough to maintain the arc. This arc provides a low resistance path to the current and
thus due to arcing the current in the circuit remain uninterrupted as long as arcing persists.
During the arcing period the current flowing through the contacts of circuit breaker deepens
upon the arc resistance. The greater the arc resistance the smaller will be the current flowing
through the contacts of CB. The arcing resistance depends upon the following factors:
Degree of Ionization:
The more the ionization of medium between the contacts, the less will be the arcing resistance.
Length of Arc:
The arc resistance increases as the length of arc increases i.e. as the separation between the
contacts of Breaker increases the arcing resistance also increases.
The arcing resistance increases with decrease in the cross sectional area of the arc.
As we discussed earlier in this post, ionization of medium in between the contacts and potential
difference across the contacts are responsible for the production and maintenance of arc. Thus
for arc extinction, we can increase the separation between the contacts to such an extent that
potential difference across the contacts is not sufficient enough to maintain the arc. But this
philosophy is impractical as in EHV (Like 220 kV, 400 kV, 765 kV etc.) system; the separation
between the contacts to extinguish the arc will be many meters which is not practically
achievable.
Another way for extinction of arc is to demonize the medium in between the contacts. If the arc
path is demonized the arc extinction will definitely be facilitated. This may be achieved by
cooling the arc or by quickly removing the ionized particles from the space in between the
contacts. This principle of arc extinction is used in all modern Circuit Breakers.
Figure-1
Carefully observe the figure and notice the different parts, though some parts like
SF6 gas chamber, nozzle, valve etc are not shown in the above figure but they will be
shown while discussing the working principle. So, please be patient till then and read
further.
Working principle of SF6 Circuit Breaker
The contacts of SF6 Circuit Breaker are surrounded in an environment of SF6 gas at
some pressure. Actually, the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is directly proportional to its
pressure. In 220 kV, 400 kV and 765 kV applications, the gas pressure is maintained at
6.5 bar. Let’s consider breaker opening operation for better understanding of operating
mechanism. First have a look at the contacts when the breaker is in fully close position
as shown in Figure-1.
Now we will open the breaker and will observe its mechanism step by step.
Step-1: Main Contact Open
As discussed earlier in the post, main contact will open first. This is shown in the figure
above. Observe in figure that, though main contacts are open, arcing contacts are still
close. As main contacts open, the piston in the cylinder moves causes the SF6 gas to
compress due to reduction of volume Vp.
Step-2: Arcing Contacts Open
As soon as arcing contacts separates from contact 1, an arc is strikes. Due to this
arcing, heat is produced. This heat of arc further increases the pressure of SF 6 in the
chamber Vt. Mind that, the pressure of arc extinguisher i.e. SF 6 is increased by the heat
of arc. This is the reason; such breaker is called self compensating type. Here self
compensating means that, the capacity of breaker to interrupt the fault is proportional to
fault current.
Step-3: Arcing Contact separates from Nozzle
When arcing contact separates from the insulating Nozzle, the pressurized SF6 gas in
volume Vt is released in the arc. This causes the arc to extinguish at the moment the
current passes though the natural zero. Thus, the pressurized SF6 gas extinguishes the
arc and hence circuit is interrupted.
In case of small current like in unloaded transformer or reactor, the thermal energy of
arc is not enough to pressurize the SF6 gas. In such case the pressure developed in the
SF6 gas chamber Vp in Step-1 is extinguishes the arc.
Types of SF6 Circuit Breaker
As discussed, in 220 kV, 400 kV and 765 kV applications, the SF6 gas pressure is
maintained at 6.5 bar. You will be amazed that, even though voltage level is increasing,
same pressure of SF6 i.e. 6.5 bar is used for 220, 400 and 765 kV applications. Actually
as we go up at higher voltage level, the number of contacts increases in SF6 circuit
Breaker. Based on this philosophy, SF6 circuit breaker can be classified into following
types:
Single Breaker Circuit Breaker
Double Break Circuit Breaker
Multi Break Circuit Breaker
Single Break SF6 Circuit Breaker
In Single Break Circuit Breaker, only one moving and fixed contacts are present. This
means that, there will only be one interrupter unit in such breaker. Single break SF6
circuit breaker is used for 220 kV applications.
Double Break SF6 Circuit Breaker
In such type of breaker, there are two set of moving and fixed contacts connected in
series. Therefore, to enclose two set of contacts, there must be two interrupt unit in
series. This type of breaker is used in 400 kV applications. In double break circuit
breaker, grading capacitorsare used to equalize the voltage distribution across each
contact. Thus for 400 kV application, the voltage across each contact will be 200 kV.
Therefore it is logical to use SF6 gas at a pressure same as used in 200 kV application.
Ha ha..got it?
Multi Break SF6 Circuit Breaker
In multi break circuit break, more than two set of fixed and moving contacts are used.
Such type of breaker is used in 765 kV applications.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker- Construction and Working.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) is one where vacuum of the order of 10 -6 to 10-10 torr is
used as an arc quenching medium. 1 torr is equivalent to a pressure represented by a
barometric head of 1 mm mercury. Vacuum Circuit Breaker is used for low and medium
voltage applications.
Construction of Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Vacuum Circuit Breaker consists of Enclosure, Contacts, Vapor Condensing Shield,
Metallic Bellows and Seal.
Enclosure. The enclosure is made of impermeable insulating material like glass. The
enclosure must not be porous and should retain high vacuum of the order of 10-7 torr.
Contacts. There are two types of contacts, moving and fixed. The moving contact is
connected with large stem connected to operating mechanism of breaker. Contacts of
Vacuum Circuit Breaker have generally disc shaped faces. The disc is provided with
symmetrical grooves in such a way that the segments of the two contacts are not in the
same line. The magnetic field set-up by the components of currents with such geometry
causes the plasma of the arc to move rapidly over the contacts instead of remaining
stable at one point. The concentration of the arc is thus prevented and the arc remains
in diffused state. The sintered material used for contact tip are generally copper-
chromium or copper bismuth alloy.
Vapor Condensing Shield. These metallic shields are supported on insulating housing
such that they cover the contact region. The metal vapor released from the contact
surface during arcing is condensed on these shields and is prevented from condensing
on the insulting enclosure.
Metallic Bellows. One end of the bellows is welded to the enclosure. The other end is
welded to the moving contact. The bellows permit the sealed construction of the
interrupter and yet permit movement of the contact. Stainless steel bellows are
generally used in vacuum interrupters. Carefully observe every component of Vacuum
Circuit Breaker as shown in figure below.
Arc Extinction in Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB)
The arc interruption process in Vacuum Circuit Breaker interrupter is quite different from
that in other types of circuit breakers. The vacuum as such is a dielectric medium and
arc cannot persist in ideal vacuum. However, the separation of current carrying contacts
causes the vapor to be released from the contacts. Thus, as the contacts separate, the
contact space is filled with vapor of positive ions liberated from the contact material.
The vapor density depends on the current in the arc. During the decreasing mode of the
current wave the rate of release of the vapor reduces and after the current zero, the
medium regains the dielectric strength provided vapor density around contacts has
substantially reduced.
While interrupting a current of the order of a few hundred amperes by separating flat
contacts under high vacuum, the arc generally has several parallel paths. Thus the total
current is divided in several parallel arcs. The parallel arcs repel each other so that the
arc tends to spread over the contact surface. Such an arc is called diffused arc. The
diffused arc can get interrupted easily.
At higher values of currents of the order of a few thousand amperes, the arc gets
concentrated on a small region and becomes self-sustained arc. The concentrated arc
around a small area causes rapid vaporization of the contact surface.
The transition from diffused arc to the concentrated arc depends upon the material and
shape of contact, the magnitude of current and the condition of electrodes. The
interruption of arc is possible when the vapor density varies in phase with the current
and the arc remains in the diffused state. The arc does not strike again if the metal
vapor is quickly removed from the contact zone.
Thus the arc extinction process in vacuum circuit breaker is related to a great extent to
the material and shape of the contacts and the technique adopted in condensing the
metal vapor. The contact geometry is so designed that the root of the arc keeps on
moving so that the temperature at one point on the contact does not reach a very high
value.
The rapid building up of dielectric strength after final arc extinction is a unique
advantage of vacuum circuit breaker. They are ideally suitable for capacitor switching as
they can give restrike free performance.
Degree of Vacuum in VCB Interrupters
The breakdown voltage of contact gap varies with the absolute pressure in the vacuum
circuit breaker interrupter unit. As the absolute pressure is reduced from 10-1 Torr to 10-
3
Torr, the dielectric strength (kV/mm) increases but above 10-4 Torr, the breakdown
strength and pressure characteristic becomes almost flat as shown in figure below.
The dielectric strength in this region is above 12 kV /mm. In vacuum interrupters
vacuum level of the order of 10-6 to 10-10 Torr is used. This is called high vacuum range.
During the passage of time and after arc interruptions, the vacuum level goes on
reducing. However it remains in the range of 10– 5 Torr and 10-8 Torr. Vacuum in the
range of 10-3 is sufficient for interruption.
Notice that, the GIS in above figure is used for outdoor purpose but the same could be
used for indoor purpose. I used this picture to just show you that GIS does not mean
that every equipment is kept in a room filled with SF6 gas rather GIS mean equipment
kept in a module filled with SF6 gas.
Advantages of SF6 Gas Insulated Switchgear
The space occupied by Gas Insulated Switchgear installation is only about 10% of that
of conventional outdoor sub-station. Thus the high cost of GIS is partly compensated by
saving in cost of space.
Protection from pollution. The moisture, pollution, dust etc., have little influence on
Gas Insulated Switchgear. However, to facilitate installation and maintenance, such
substations are generally housed inside a small building. The construction of the building
need not be very strong like convention power houses.
Reduced Switching overvoltages. The overvoltages while closing and opening line,
cables, motors, capacitors etc. are low.
Reduced Installation Time. The principle of modular construction reduces the
installation time to a few weeks. Conventional sub-stations require a few months for
installation.
The gas pressure (4 kg/cm2) is relatively low and does not pose serious leakage
problems.
Increased Safety. As the enclosures are at earth potential, there is no possibility of
accidental contact by service personnel to live parts.
Disadvantage of SF6 Gas Insulated Switchgear
High cost compared to conventional outdoor sub-station.
Excessive damage in case of internal fault. Long outage periods as repair of damaged
part at site may be difficult.
Requirement of cleanliness are very stringent. Dust or moisture can cause internal
flashovers.
Procurement of gas and supply of gas to site is problematic. Adequate stock of gas must
be maintained.
However, in a system with multiple sources or parallel paths, we require earth fault relays to be
directional as discussed in earlier post How to Incorporate Directional Featurein a Relay.
As we discussed in earlier post How to Incorporate Directional Feature in a Relay, that for
making a Relay directional we need Reference Phasor. The reference phasor is called
asPolarizing Quantity. For ground fault relaying both Voltage and Current Polarization can be
used.
We will consider each Voltage and Current Polarization separately for Earth Fault Protection.
Voltage Polarization:
Let the system be initially unloaded and a ground fault occur on phase A.
Therefore Ib = Ic = 0 and Ia = 3I0.
For Single Line to Ground fault there is a drop in voltage of phase A while phase B and C
voltages remain unchanged. Phasor diagram for Voltage and current for SLG fault can be drawn
as below.
In the phasor diagram only 3I0 is shown as Ib = Ic =0 and Ia = 3I0 for Single Line to Ground fault.
Now we will find the Zero Sequence Voltage under the fault.
It is then clear that zero Torque Line which separates the plane into Operate and Do Not
Operate zone leads -3V0by 30 degrees. Thus, for fault in the correct region, 3I0 lags -3V0 hence
falls in operate region. If fault is behind the relay, 3I 0 will lead -3V0 by about 45 to 60 degrees
and hence will lie in do not operate region. Hence, earth fault directional unit will not pick-up.
Current Polarization:
For providing direction feature in earth fault relay we can also use current as refrenec phasor
which is called current polarization. It is an alternative for voltage polarization. It does not
require an additional Potential Transformer (PT).
For balanced system,
Ia+Ib+Ic = 0, phasor sum is taken here.
Therefore, I0 = (Ia+Ib+Ic)/3 = 0 which means absence of Zero Sequence Current in balanced
system.
During ground fault say at phase A, 3I0 flows from ground to neutral of a Wye connection of
Transformer. If we assume for simplicity that Ib = Ic = 0, then 3I0 and Ia are in phase. This
indicates that directional unit for ground relay should pick-up as Ia is in phase with 3I 0. Thus we
place maximum torque line at zero degrees with respect to I0 phasor. The
correspondingOperate and Do Not Operate zones are marked in figure below.
If fault is behind the relay, then the Ia will fall in Do Not Operate region and hence relay will not
pickup as Zero sequence Current through the neutral of Wye connection and Relay will be in
phase opposition.
The Sensitive Earth Fault protection scheme works by measuring the residual current across
the three phases in a system. Measurement of three phase residual current is done either by
using Core Balance Current Transformer (CBCT) or three CTs connected in parallel. In the
ideal condition, the residual current will be zero as all the currents flow through the three
phases. Here Residual current means current flowing through neutral or zero sequence current.
As we know that
IN = 3I0= IR + IY +IB
Solid Grounding
Resistance Grounding
Reactance Grounding
Each of the grounding method serves a specific purpose and based on the suitability of
our need, we use any one of the grounding method.
The solidly grounded system is the most common system arrangement, and one of the
most used. The most commonly used configuration is the solidly grounded star,
because it support single-phase phase to neutral loads. In this type of grounding
method, the star point is directly connected to the ground.
The figure below, shows the relationship between the phase and line voltage for Solidly
Grounded System.
It can be seen from the above figure that the system voltage with respect to ground is
fixed by the phase-to-neutral winding voltage. It means that the line-to-ground insulation
level of equipment need only be as large as the phase-to-neutral voltage, which is
57.7% (100/1.732 = 57.7 %) of the phase-to-phase voltage. It also means that the
system is less susceptible to phase-to-ground voltage transients. This is very
important benefit of Solidly Ground System.
The voltage and current on the other two phases are not affected. Thus a solidly
grounded system supports a large ground fault current. Statistically, 90-95% of all
system short-circuits are ground faults.
To summarize,
The solidly grounded system is the most popular, is required where single-phase phase-
to-neutral loads must be supplied, and has the most stable phase-to-ground voltage
characteristics. However, the large ground fault current is a disadvantage and can be
hindrance to system reliability.
The resistor is sized to be less than or equal to the magnitude of the system charging
capacitance to ground. If the resistor is thus sized, the high-resistance grounded system
is usually not susceptible to the large transient overvoltages that an ungrounded system
can experience.
If no ground fault current is present, the phasor diagram for the system is the same as
for a solidly grounded system. However, if a ground fault occurs on one phase the
system response is as shown in figure below. As can be seen from figure below, the
ground fault current is limited by the grounding resistor.
If the approximation is made that ZA (impedance of winding) and ZF (Fault impedance)
are very small compared to the ground resistor resistance value R, then the ground fault
current is approximately equal to the phase-to-neutral voltage of the faulted phase
divided by R. The faulted phase voltage to ground in that case would be zero and
the unfaulted phase voltages to ground would be 173% of their values without a
ground fault present.
The ground fault current is not large enough to force its removal by taking the system
off-line. Therefore, the high resistance grounded system has the same operational
advantage in this respect as the ungrounded system.
Reactance Grounding:
A Reactance Grounded system is one in which the neutral point is grounded through an
impedance which is highly inductive. Reactance Grounding lies between the effective
grounding and Resonant Grounding (will be discussed in next post). Reactance is
provided to keep the fault current within safe limit. This method of grounding is used
where the charging current is high like in capacitor bank, line reactors used for voltage
control of transmission line etc.
As shown in figure above, there are a total of four Current Transformers (CTs), three CTs
connected in each phase i.e. R, Y and B and one CT connected in neutral. The secondary of
these four CTs are connected in parallel. The parallel connected CT secondary are then
connected to REF Relay Coil. Basically REF protection Relay element is an over current
element.
Under balanced condition i.e. under normal operation the sum of currents through the
secondary of CTs will be zero and current in neutral CT will also be zero. But as soon as a fault
takes place in the secondary winding of Transformer, the current in R, Y and B phase will no
longer be balanced. Also under earth fault a current will flow through the neutral CT. Because of
this unbalance, the summation of current will not be zero but it will have some finite value and
hence the relay will pick up. It shall be noted that for a fault outside the Transformer i.e. for
through fault Restricted Earth Fault Protection will not operate as in this case of through fault,
the vector sum of currents in CT secondary will be zero. This is the reason; such kind of
protection scheme is for restricted zone and hence called Restricted Earth Fault Protection.
Now, it is normal to ask that Differential Protection is also a zone protection and it shall
operate for any internal fault in Transformer, then why do we need extra Restricted Earth
Fault Protection?
This is really a very smart question. See, what happens is, the setting of differential protection is
normally kept at 20%. So, differential relay shall pick if the differential current exceeds 0.2 A.
Now let us consider a case where earth fault occurs just near the neutral point as shown in
figure below.
Since the location of fault is very near to the neutral point, the voltage driving the fault current
will be very less and hence the reflection of such a low current in primary side of transformer will
also will be low. Thus in such case, Transformer differential protection may not operate as its
setting is quite high at 20%. Therefore for protection of Transformer from such a fault we need
more sensitive protection scheme which is implemented by using Restricted Earth Fault
Protection. The sensitivity of REF protection is superior as compared to Differential Protection.
Normally the setting of REF protection is kept as low as 5%. Basically the sensitivity of REF
protection increases as we are using CT in neutral of transformer and whenever an earth fault
take place it is damn sure that current will complete its path through the neutral and hence
increasing the sensitivity of REF protection.
Suppose we are going to energize the Transformer, obviously the Transformer will have an
Inrush current which is around 6 times of full load current. Refer “Transformer Inrush Current”
for detail on Transformer Inrush Current. Figure given below shows waveform of Inrush Current
of Transformer.
Therefore, the Differential protection will operate. Thus we won’t ever be able to energize the
Transformer or we need to bypass the Transformer Differential Protection when we are going to
energize. Is it a good practice to Bypass Transformer Protection? You will say NO.So what we
need to do for preventing the Differential Protection operation due to Inrush Current?
A practical transformers and CTs pose some challenge to Differential Protection. They are as
follows:
The primary of transformer will carry no load current even when the secondary is open
circuited. This will lead to differential current on which the protection scheme should not
operate.
It is not possible to exactly match the CT ratio as per equation. This would also lead to
differential currents under healthy conditions.
If the transformer is used with an off nominal tap, then differential currents will arise as
the CT ratio calculated for a particular Tap (Nominal Tap) will be different for different Tap,
even under healthy conditions.
Thus we see that because of the above reasons a differential current will flow through the
Differential Protection Relay. So Differential Protection will operate which is not expected to
operate for the above said reasons. So
what to do to prevent tripping because
of the differential current caused by the above mentioned reasons?
To prevent the Differential Protection scheme from picking up under such conditions,
aPercentage Differential Protectionscheme is used. It improves security at the cost of
sensitivity.
The current on the X-axis is the average current of primary and secondary winding referred to
primary. It indicates the restraining current called the Biasing Current, I bwhile the corresponding
difference on Y-axis represents the differential current. The Differential Protection Relay will
pick up if magnitude of differential current is more than a fixed percentage of the
restraining current.
Let for differential Protection to operate, Id should be greater than the x% of Ib. Therefore,
Id/Ib> 0.0x
Suppose, the current in the secondary of CT is 1A at normal operating condition. Therefore the
Biasing Current Ib = (1+1)/2 = 1A
Thus as discussed above, the restraining current is more than the differential current,
Differential Protection Relay will not operate.
Now assume a through fault, so the primary side CT current will be 2 A (say) and secondary
side CT gets saturated so current in secondary side CT = 0 A.
It shall be noted here that, in High Impedance Differential Protection, all the CTs are
connected in parallel and then the four wires i.e. R, Y, B and N are connected with the
Relay as shown in figure above. If there is any fault in the bus, the according to
Kirchhoff’s current law, the summation of current will not be zero and a net current will
flow through the Relay coil to operate it. In normal condition, the summation of current
will be zero and hence no current will flow through the Relay coil and hence the Relay
will be stable. Mathematically under normal condition,
I1+ I2 + I3 = 0
As Relay sees only summation of current hence we normally employ an overcurrent
element in High Impedance Differential Protection. This is the main difference between
a high impedance and low impedance differential protection.
Let us consider a through fault i.e. fault outside the zone of protection. To be more
specific, let a fault take place after the CT of any feeder. If all the CT’s maintain the
same nominal ratio for all external faults the assumed scheme is perfectly valid since no
current can flow in the relay coil.
However, when the instantaneous overcurrent relay is set low enough to give useful
sensitivity to internal faults the Relay may in practice operate falsely on external faults
due to a reduction of the nominal ratio of the fault CT resulting from fault CT core
saturation. This reduction of the fault CT nominal ratio results in a “false” differential
relay current that may operate the instantaneous overcurrent relay. The wort condition
will be when a CT gets completely saturated. Thus we need to make Relay insensitive
for through fault. To do this we use Stabilizing Resistor.
How Stabilizing Resistor makes Relay Insensitive to through Fault?
Well, the main cause for the flow of current through the Relay coil in High Impedance
Differential Protection is the Voltage across the terminals of CT. We consider the worst
case here when a CT gets completely saturated for through fault. When a CT gets
completely saturated, it will no longer will be a source of current rather it will behave
purely as a Resistor having a value equal to the CT secondary winding. Thus the fault
current will not go toward the relay rather it will go circulate through the saturated CT
secondary only as current always chooses a path having least resistance. Let the fault
current be IF and the resistance of CT secondary be RCT. Therefore the voltage
developed across the saturated CT will be,
Vs = IFRCTwhen looping of CT secondaries are done at CT Junction Box only.
Or,
Vs = IF(RCT+ 2RL) when looping of CT is done at Panel or near Relay end.
Here looping of CT secondaries means parallel connection of CT secondaries. It may
happen so that we are doing the paralleling at the CT Junction Box (JB) or at Panel
(Relay end). If paralleling is done at Relay end then lead resistance of saturated CT up
to panel shall be considered for the calculation of driving voltage across the common
point of CTs but if paralleling is done at CT JB only then lead resistance of saturated CT
from CT core to CT JB shall only be considered which is very less and can be ignored.
Now, let us assume that the setting of High Impedance Differential Relay for internal
fault be Is. So to make Relay insensitive for through fault, the voltage developed shall
not drive a current Is through the Relay, hence we put a Stabilizing Resistor R stbin series
with the Relay Coil and the value of Stabilizing Resistor Rstbis given as
Rstb= Vs / Is
Rated Normal, Short Circuit Making & Breaking, Short Time Current Rating &
The rated normal current of a circuit-breaker is the r.m.s. value of the current which the circuit
breaker can carry continuously and with temperature rise of the various parts within specified
limits.
The design of contacts and other current carrying parts in the interrupter of the circuit breaker
are generally based on the limits of temperature rise. For a given cross section of the conductor
and a certain value of current, the temperature rise depends upon the conductivity of the
material. Hence, high conductivity material is preferred for current carrying parts. The cross-
section of the conductors should be increased for materials with lower conductivity.
The use of magnetic materials in close circuits should be avoided to prevent heating due to
hysteresis loss and eddy currents. The rated current of a circuit-breaker is verified by
conducting temperature-rise tests.
It may so happen that circuit-breaker may close on an existing fault. In such cases the current
increase to the maximum value at the peak of first current loop. The circuit breaker should be
able to close without hesitation as contacts touch. The circuit breaker should be able to
withstand the high mechanical forces during such a closure. These capabilities are proved by
carrying out making current test. The rated short-circuit making current of a circuit-breaker is the
peak value of first current loop of short-circuit current (I pk) which the circuit-breaker is capable of
making at its rated voltage.
In the above equation, the factor √2 converts the r.m.s. value to peak value. Factor 1.8 takes
into account the doubling effect of short-circuit-current with considerations to slight drop in
current during the first quarter cycle.
You may like to read, Why Making Current of Circuit Breaker is more than Breaking Current?
The short time current of a circuit-breaker is the r.m.s. value of current that the circuit breaker
can carry in a fully closed position during a specified time under prescribed conditions of use
and behavior. It is normally expressed in terms of kA for a period of one second. Adjacent poles
experience mechanical force during the test.
The rated duration of short circuit is generally 1 second and the circuit breaker should be able to
carry short-circuit current equal to its rated breaking-current for one second. During the short-
time current test, the contacts should not get damaged or welded.
The current carrying parts and insulation should not get deteriorated. Generally, the cross-
section of conductors based on normal current rating requirements is quite adequate for
carrying the rated short-circuit current for the duration of 1 second.
The operating sequence denotes the sequence of opening and closing operations which the
circuit-breaker can perform under specified conditions. The operating mechanism experiences
severe mechanical stresses during the auto reclosure duty. As per IEC, the circuit-breaker
should be able to perform the operating sequence as per one of the following two alternatives:
(i) O-t-CO-T-CO
C=closing opeartion
(ii) CO-t’-CO
where t’-15 second for circuit-breaker not to be used for rapid auto reclosure.
Why Transformer Open Circuit Test Conducted on LV side and Short Circuit on
HV Side?.
As we know that Transformer Open Circuit Test is conducted on LV side and that Short Circuit
Test on HV side. To understand the reason behind this, we will consider a Single Phase
Transformer of rating 3300 / 220 Volt, 33 kVA.
Thus the voltage at the LV side of this Transformer is 220 Volt. Therefore, for Open Circuit
Test on LV side the range of Voltmeter will be 220 V.
= 0.06×150 = 6 A
Here note that Excitation Current is taken as 4% of the Full Load Current as the range of
excitation current is 2-6%.
Also, the range of Wattmeter will be 220 V and 6A.
We see that the rating of instruments required for the testing are standard and easily available.
Furthermore, using standard instruments, more accurate results can be obtained.
If the Open Circuit Test is conducted on HV side then a source of 3300 Volt may not be readily
available. At the same time the instrument ranges required will be 3300 V, 0.4 A [4%
of(33×1000) / 3300 = 4% of 10 = 0.4 A] and 3300 V & 0.4A which are not within the range of
ordinary instruments and hence result obtained may not be accurate. Also, it is not safe to work
on HV side from safety point of view.
Now, coming to Short CircuitTest. For a Short Circuit Test conducted on HV side the range of
voltmeter required will be,
= 0.05×3300
= 165 V
Note that voltage required to circulate rated current is around 2-12% of the rated voltage, that is
why we have considered 5% for selection of range of voltmeter.
Thus we observe that the range of instruments required to perform the test fall within the range
of standard instruments which are easily available and accurate.
= 0.05×220
= 11 V
= 150 A
It is for these reasons, Open Circuit Test is conducted on LV side and Short Circuit Test on HV
side.
Short Circuit Test of Transformer is performed on HV side and the supply voltage is so adjusted
that rated current flows through the shorted secondary. As rated current is flowing through the
shorted secondary that means that rated current will also flow in the primary because of
Transformer action.
The supply voltage required for the flow of rated current in the shorted secondary is around 2-
12% of rated voltage. Thus the supply voltage i.e. primary voltage is very less which in turn
means that core losses during short circuit test will be negligible (as core loss is directly
proportional to the square of primary voltage.).
Thus short circuit test gives us information of Ohmic loss of Transformer and the power
measured by the Wattmeter is Ohmic loss. An equivalent circuit of the Short Circuit Test
referred to secondary side is shown in figure below. Mind that shunt branch in the equivalent
circuit is not shown as the core loss taking place during Short Circuit Test is negligible.
Let us assume that,
Vsc, Iscand Psc be the Voltage, Current and Power measured by the Voltmeter, Ammeter and
Wattmeter respectively.
Therefore from the equivalent circuit diagram,
Equivalent leakage impedance referred to HV side,
ZeH = (R1+R2) + j(X1+X2)
= Vsc / Isc
Related Posts:
1. Why Transformer Open Circuit Test Conducted on LV side and Short Circuit on HV
Side?
2. Open Circuit Test of Transformer
3. Transformer Load Test or Back to Back Test or Sumpner’s Test
4. Rated Normal, Short Circuit Making & Breaking, Short Time Current Rating &
Operating Duty Cycle of Circuit Breaker.
The circuit diagram for Open Circuit Test is shown below. As clear from the figure
below, Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter are connected in LV side of the Transformer
and HV side is left open. Rated LV voltage is applied to the LV side of the Transformer
and the reading of Voltmeter, Ammeter & Wattmeter is noted for further analysis.
As the Transformer Secondary i.e. HV side is kept open therefore Transformer will only
take excitation current to set up magnetic flux in the core. Therefore Ammeter A will
read Excitation Current Ie which is around 2-6% of the full load current. As Ie is very
less therefore, Primary leakage impedance drop is negligible and we can say that
applied voltage V1 to LV side is equal to the voltage induced in the Primary winding i.e.
E1. Therefore, the equivalent circuit when referred to Primary side reduces to as shown
in figure below.
In input power as metered by Wattmeter consists of two components, one is Core Loss
and another Ohmic Loss. The exciting current being 2 to 6% of the full load current, the
ohmic loss in the primary (Ie2r1) varies from 0.04 to 0.36% of full load Primary ohmic loss.
In view of this, the ohmic loss in Primary is negligible when compared to the normal
core loss which is being directly proportional to square of applied Voltage. Therefore
wattmeter reading can directly be taken as the core loss in the Transformer. Thus we
see that Open Circuit Test gives us Core Loss of Transformer. The phasor diagram for
Open Circuit Test of Transformer is shown below.
Let,
V1 = Applied Rated Voltage on Primary
Ie = Excitation Current
Pc = Core Loss
The Core Loss, Pc= V1IeCosƟ
So, no load power factor CosƟ = Pc / (V1Ie)
Also from phasor diagram,
Ic = IeCosƟ
Im =IeSinƟ
But Pc = V1Ic
Therefore,
Core Loss Resistance Rc= V1 / Ic
Therefore, from the above two reading efficiency of each Transformer can be determined.
From the above discussion, it is quite clear that, even though Transformer is not connected to
any load in Sumpner’s Test, rated current is flowing in the primary as well as in the secondary of
Transformers and hence full load ohmic and core loss is taking place. If temperature rise of the
two Transformers is to be measured, then two Transformers are kept under rated loss condition
for several hours till maximum stable temperature is reached.
Basically, a breaker is equipped with two trip coils. Both the trip coil energizes if relay
issues a tripping command. On energization of trip coil, breaker mechanism opens the
circuit breaker. Therefore, it is very important to monitor the trip coil healthiness
otherwise during the requirement the breaker may not open to clear the fault.
Figure below, shows the simplified diagram of trip circuit supervision.
Trip Circuit Supervision Relay is provided to monitor the healthiness of trip coil. As there
are two trip coils therefore, there will be two Trip Circuit Supervision Relays and hence
two different circuits. This Relay has three coils namely RLA, RLB and main coil (TCS)
of the Relay as shown in the figure above. Now, breaker may either be open or close,
therefore we need to monitor the healthiness in both the state of the breaker. Thus, trip
circuit supervision is divided as pre-close and post close supervision.
As shown in the figure, contacts A and B are breaker auxiliary contacts. Mind that
theses contacts are connected to the breaker mechanism and therefore their status
depends on the breaker position. If the breaker is open, contact A will be OPEN and
contact B will be CLOSE. Similarly if breaker is close, contact B will be OPEN and
contact A will be CLOSE. Now we will consider pre-close and post close supervision
separately.
Pre-close Trip Circuit Supervision:
Pre-close means that breaker is open. Thus the status of contact A will be OPEN and
that of B will be CLOSE. If you observe the circuit carefully, you will notice that, in this
case current will be flowing through both the coils RLA and RLB. As coils RLA and RLB
are energized, their contact will be close.
Now carefully observe the circuit of TCS Relay. Since RLA and RLB are close, DC
supply will be extended and hence TCS relay will be energized. Therefore, its output
contact 1-2 will be open and hence no window will appear. This means that trip circuit is
healthy. Assume there is any open circuit, in such case as no current could flow through
the coils RLA and RLB, hence relay TCS will not be energized. Because of this
its output contact 1-2 will be close for window annunciation . This means to the operator
that either DC supply has failed or there is some problem in the trip circuit.
Post Close Trip Circuit Supervision:
Post close means that breaker is close. Thus the status of contact A will be CLOSE and
that of B will be OPEN. If you observe the circuit carefully, you will notice that, in this
case current will be flowing through both the coils RLA.
Now carefully observe the circuit of TCS Relay. Since output contact of RLA is close,
DC supply will be extended to TCS relay and hence TCS relay will be energized.
Therefore, itsoutput contact 1-2 will be open and hence no window will appear. This
means that trip circuit is healthy. Assume there is any open circuit, in such case as no
current could flow through the coils RLA, hence relay TCS will not be energized.
Because of this its output contact 1-2 will be close to annunciate window. This means to
the operator that either DC supply has failed or there is some problem in the trip circuit.
It shall be noticed that, as the resistance of relay coil is very less therefore a
high resistanceshall be connected in series so that less current flows through the circuit
to operate the trip coil of the breaker. It shall also be noticed that, in case of protection
trip, separately positive DC voltage is extended to the trip coil of circuit breaker so that
full current flows through the trip coil to operate the breaker as clear from the figure.
a) The substation rating is defined as per the power handling capacity, location and
purpose of substation.
b) Thumb rule for the economical voltage rating has been categorized for different power
range to be received as below:
Load up to 150 MVA – voltage rating of 132 kV.
Load up to 80 MVA – voltage rating of 66 kV.
Load up to 5 MVA – Voltage rating of 33 kV.
Thus, when a substation is of rating 66/11 kV, means substation has been designed to
receive 80 MVA on 66 kV and it will distribute the received power on 11 kV.
Again, substation of rating 33/11kV means, the substation has been designed to receive
5 MVA of power at 33 kV and it will distribute the same on 11 kV.
Advantages & disadvantages of Harmonics in Power System.
Harmonic voltages and currents in a Power System are a result of non-linear electric
loads.
In a normal AC Power System, the current varies sinusoidally at a specific frequency,
usually 50 or 60 Hertz. When a linear electrical load is connected to the system, it draws
a sinusoidal current at the same frequency as the voltage, though usually not in phase
with the voltage.
Current harmonics are caused by non-linear loads. When a non-linear load, such as a
rectifier / inverter, is connected to the system, it draws a current that is not necessarily
sinusoidal. The current waveform can become quite complex, depending on the type of
load and its interaction with other components of the system. Regardless of how
complex the current waveform becomes, as described through Fourier Series analysis,
it is possible to decompose it into a series of simple sinusoids, which start at the power
system fundamental frequency and occur at integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.
Effects of Harmonics:
One of the major effects of power system harmonics is to increase the current in the
system. This is particularly the case for the third harmonic, which causes a sharp
increase in the zero sequence current, and therefore increases the current in the neutral
conductor.
Electric motors experience losses due to hysteresis and losses due to eddy currents set
up in the iron core of the motor. These are proportional to the frequency of the current.
Since the harmonics are at higher frequencies, they produce higher core losses in a
motor than the power frequency would. This results in increased heating of the motor
core, which (if excessive) can shorten the life of the motor.
The 5th harmonic causes a Counter Electromotive Force in large motors which acts in
the opposite direction of rotation. The Counter Electromotive Force is not large enough
to counteract the rotation; however it does play a small role in the resulting rotating
speed of the motor.
Therefore, first attempt is made to make the field waveform sinusoidal as far as possible
and them means of reducing or suppressing the harmonics is adopted. Field waveform
of an Alternator can be made sinusoidal by the following methods:
Small air gap at the pole centre and large air gap at the pole end in an Salient
Pole Synchronous machine tens to make the field flux sinusoidal.
Skew pole faces if possible.
In Turbo-Alternator or cylindrical pole synchronous machine, the air gap is
uniform and hence field winding is distributed in slots in such a manner to make the
field waveform sinusoidal. Figure below shows the Rotor of an Alternator.
Having adopted all the above mentioned methods, the filed waveform along the air gap
periphery is still not purely sinusoidal but it is flat topped. As a result, harmonic emf is
always generated in the Alternator. These harmonics can however be eliminated /
suppressed by the following methods:
The distribution of armature winding along the air gap periphery tends to make
the generated emf waveform sinusoidal.
With chorded coil, harmonics can be eliminated. If the ξ be the chording angle for
fundamental flux wave, then for nth space harmonics the chording angle becomes nξ
electrical. Therefore, pitch factor for nth harmonics,
Kp= Cos(nξ/2)
If we want to eliminate 5th harmonics then, ξ = 36° as
Kp = Cos(180/2)
= 0
Therefore, generated emf E = KpKdπfNphØ
f =Frequency
Ø =Flux
A chording angle of 30° is most useful in an Alternator as it gives the following pitch
factors,
0.966 for fundamental, 0.707 for 3rd harmonic, 0.259 for 5th and 7th harmonics and 0.7.7
for 9th harmonics.
Mind that triplen harmonics is eliminated from the generated line emf by Star
connection, though 5thand 7th harmonics of reduced magnitude are present in the
line emf.
Now, the second harmonics component of field flux wave also induces emf in coil sides
a and a’. The induced emf because of second harmonics in coil sides a and a’ are
maximum as because these are cutting the maximum field flux Øm2. But here it shall be
noted that in both the coil sides the emf induced will oppose each other as both coil
sides are cutting maximum positive filed flux wave of second harmonic component.
Therefore the net / resultant emf because of second harmonic component across the
coil sides A and B = 0
This shows that second / even though even / second harmonic is present in the field flux
wave, second harmonic cannot be there in the output voltage of an Alternator.
It shall however be noted that field flux waveform of an Alternator is symmetrical and
hence it do not have any even harmonics and hence there will not be any even
harmonics in the generated voltage of an Alternator.
Harmonics in Transformer can be suppressed by having lower flux density in core but it
has one disadvantage that, this method of reducing flux density in core will lead to
higher cross sectional area of the core and more number of turn for maintain voltage
ratio.
Because V = 1.414πfNØ
Triplen harmonics are those which are having frequency multiple of 3. Triplen harmonic
current and voltage in the line are suppressed by using Star or Delta connection of the
winding in the Transformer.
As we know that harmonic voltages have more nuisance effect than harmonic current.
Thus every effort is made to suppress the third harmonic voltages in the Transformer.
When any of the Primary or Secondary Winding is connected in Delta, triplen harmonic
voltages are suppressed considerably. In view of this, one of the Transformers winding
either Primary or Secondary must be connected in Delta to suppress triplen harmonics.
It shall be noted that tertiary winding has no any effect on the fundamental frequency
component voltages because the phasor sum of three EMFs mutually displaced by an
angle of 120° is zero in the closed Delta connected tertiary winding.
The third harmonic voltages in the two winding Star-Star Transformer can also be
suppressed by using Star-Delta Earthing Transformer as shown in figure below.
The closed Delta provides a path for the third harmonic currents and hence the EMF
and flux remains sinusoidal.
For Star-Star Transformer, the third harmonic voltages can also be suppressed by using
4 wire supply or earthing Transformer Neutral point if Alternator / Generator neutral is
grounded. The neutral wire in this case provide a path for the flow of third harmonic
current and hence the flux & EMF remain sinusoidal.
A transformer is designed to operate at or below a maximum magnetic flux density in the transformer
core. Above this design limit the eddy currents in the core and nearby conductive components cause
overheating which within a very short time may cause severe damage. The magnetic flux in the core
is proportional to the voltage applied to the winding divided by the impedance of the winding. The
flux in the core increases with either increasing voltage or decreasing frequency. During start-up or
shutdown of generator-connected transformers, or following a load rejection, the transformer may
experience an excessive ratio of Volts to Hertz (V/f), that is, become overexcited. When a
transformer core is overexcited, the core is operating in a non-linear magnetic region, and creates
harmonic components in the exciting current. A significant amount of current at the 5th
harmonic is characteristic of overexcitation.
Assuming Number of turns constant, Flux is directly proportional to V/f. Here V is supply voltage and
f is frequency of supply.
In case of any Transformer, signal for supply voltage V is taken from PT. Let us assume that
Transformer Primary is connected with 220 kV. Thus normal voltage of primary of Transformer will
be 220 kV at a frequency of 50 Hz. Also assume that the PT ratio is 220 kV/110 V.
Therefore,
V/f ratio = 110/50 = 2.2
Thus at a V/f ratio of 2.2 the Transformer will operate satisfactorily. So the question arises which V/f
ratio may cause the overfluxing. For answering this we need to have a look at the Hysteresis curve
of the core material and from the curve we can judge at which flux level Transformer can be subject
for a particular time safely.
Normally the setting of overfluxing is kept 110% of nominal value or 1.1 pu. This means at a flux
level of 1.1×2.2 = 2.42 the Transformer will operate safely but above 2.42 the Transformer core will
be subjected to overflux.
Does this mean that at a V/f ratio of 2.5 Transformer shall be tripped instantaneously? No it
doesn’t mean so. Because Transformer core may tolerate such an overflux for some short time
duration and hence instantaneous tripping is not required. Therefore, wise decision is to give
anINVERSEcharacteristics to the tripping which mean more the ratio of V/f less will be time of
tripping.
Now we consider two cases:
Case1: Transformer Primary voltage rises to 247 kV while frequency is 50.1 Hz
As primary of Transformer rises to 247 kV at a frequency f = 50.1 Hz
The PT secondary Voltage = 247×110/220 = 123.5 V
Hence, V / f = 123.5/50.1 = 2.465
Thus the Relay will pick-up and as the characteristics is inverse, the relay will trip after some time
because we have kept the setting 2.42. If the Primary Voltage is maintaining at 247 kV , then we can
do nothing and the Relay will definitely trip.
Case2: Transformer is provide with Tap Changer
Suppose the Transformer is provided with Tap Changer. As the Transformer is provided with Tap
Changer in the primary side, we can increase the Tap position from the nominal value which will
result in increase in the value of N1 (Primary number of turns) and hence,
But this is not going to help us as we have taken the voltage signal from the PT which is connected
to the Primary side i.e. and primary side voltage is maintained at 247 kV, hence V/f will be same.
Thus we observe that, even though we have Tap Changer, in the present scenario we can do
nothing to prevent tripping of Transformer on overfluxing though the Transformer is not actually in
overflux condition (as we have increased the number of turns in the primary side.)
Therefore, to take advantage of Tap Changer, we can make a provision of taking voltage signal from
the secondary side PT of Transformer Relay. In such case, if the primary turn of Transformer is
increased then its reflection on secondary side PT will be observed proportionally and tripping on
Overflux protection can be prevented.
In case of no load operation of Transformer, we can give voltage signal to the Relay from the
Primary side PT.
In this way the purpose will be served without compromising the overflux protection. Thus we see,
how important is tap changer in preventing tripping of Transformer from Overfluxing.
As we know that
Thus,
V decreases.
2
V increases.
2
V increases.
2
V decreases.
2
Now, whether will we change Primary Number of Turns N1 or Secondary Number of
Turns N2depends whether we have provided Tap on Primary side or Secondary side.
The choice of providing tap on Primary side or Secondary side is based on maintaining
voltage per turn constant as far as possible. The flux in the core of Transformer
depends on voltage applied in the primary,
V1 = 1.414πfN1Ø
Thus the flux in the core shall be maintained constant. If the Primary voltage per turn i.e.
Flux decrease, which means poor utilization of core while in case the Primary voltage
per turn increases that means overflux which may cause heating and saturation of the
core.
Other factors which shall also be taken care while deciding upon the side Taps should
be provided are:
Transformer Taps are provided on HV side as in this case Tag changing Gera
will handle low current and chance of sparking will be less.
If we see the construction of Transformer, we will observe that LV winding are
placed just after the core to limit the insulation requirement to be provided and HV
winding are placed on the LV winding. Thus it is quite difficult to provide the Taps on
the LV winding of the Transformer.
Now after deciding the side where Tap is to be provided in Transformer, next question
is that whether Tap shall be provided in the center of the winding or at the end of
the winding?
A general sense says that Tap shall be provided in the middle of the winding because in
this case the forces on the winding will be less.
Since the current flowing in the Primary and Secondary coils are in opposite direction,
these currents interact with the leakage flux in between the two windings and produce a
radial force repelling each other as shown in the figure below.
Now, suppose the winding is tapped at one end. When some of the winding is cut out by
tap changer, axial force in addition to radial force is also developed as shown in figure
below.
Under short circuit condition, the axial force tending to compress the winding against the
core is very large which may damage the winding insulation. In order to eliminate this,
physical position of the Tapped winding should be in the middle of the Transformer
winding so that no axial force arises after some of the turns are cut out.
Thus we can say that weight of conductor in a winding is directly proportional to its
Ampere Turns i.e. MMF.
Now, we will focus our attention on the weight of conductor required for Auto
Transformer and a Two Winding Transformer.
As discussed in earlier post Basic principle of Auto Transformer, the current carried by
winding AC i.e. IAC= I1 and that of winding BC i.e. IBC = (I2-I1). Also the number of turns for
winding AC is (N1-N2) and that for winding BC is N2.
Therefore,
∝ (N1-N2)xI1+ N2x(I2-I1)
∝ N1I1+N2I2-2N2I1
Therefore,
∝ 2N1I1 – 2N2I1
If we want to compare the weight of conductor required for Auto Transformer and Two
Winding Transformer, then both the Transformers must have same voltage ratio (V2 /
V1), current ratio (I2 / I1), input VA i.e. V1I1and output VA i.e. V2I2.
Assuming all the above parameters to be same for Two Winding and Auto Transformer,
Weight of conductor in Two Winding Transformer WCTWT,
∝ N1I1+ N2I2
So,
∝ 2N1I1 ……………………………………….(2)
= 1 – N2/N1
= (1 – k)
As for step down Auto Transformer k<1, hence the weight of conductor required for
Auto Transformer is less than that required for Two Winding Transformer.
= 1 – (1 – k)
= k
Hence there is net saving of conductor in case of Auto Transformer. Let us assume that
k =0.1, thus the saving in conductor for Auto Transformer will be only 10% but if k = 0.9
then saving in conductor will be 90% which is quite lucrative. Thus we can conclude that
Auto Transformer is more economical when the voltage ratio k is more near to unity.
Another important aspect is core. As the conductor required for Auto Transformer is less
than that required for Two Winding Transformer that means for Auto Transformer lower
window dimension will be required. Thus by using Auto Transformer, there is net saving
in Core material as well as conductor material, the saving will be more and more as we
tend toward voltage ratio unity.
Owing to reduction in conductor and core material, the Ohmic loss in conductor and
core loss is reduced considerably. Therefore an Auto Transformer has higher efficiency
than Two Winding Transformer of same output.
Reduction in conductor material means lower value of winding resistance. Since a part
of winding is common to both the Primary and Secondary circuit in Auto Transformer,
leakage reactance will be less. Because of lower value of leakage reactance, a superior
voltage regulation is achieved with Auto Transformer.
At the instant of starting, a three phase Induction Motor behaves like a Transformer with
its secondary winding shorted. Therefore, Induction Motor during starting takes a high
current from the supply mains. To limit this high starting current of Induction Motor,
different starting methods are used. In this post we will have a look at the Auto-
Transformer Starting Method of Induction Motor.
Here Isc is the current through the stator during direct switching of motor.
Thus we observe that starting current of Motor has reduced and is x times that of
current during DOL (Direct Online) starting.
Again,
Ist.V1= xV1(xIsc)
Therefore,
Per phase starting current from the Supply Mains Ist = x2Isc
Thus per phase starting current from Supply Mains has now became x2 times that of
DOL current. Mind that it has reduced as x is less than 1 so x2 will be much less than 1.
Thus the main advantage of using Auto-Transformer is that it reduces the starting
current from the Supply Mains by x2 times.
Note that starting current is the motor winding is x times while the starting current from
the supply mains has became x2 time of DOL starting current.
Thus starting torque with Auto Transformer is less than the starting torque with DOL
starting by a factor of x2.
Why Star Delta Starter Preferred in Induction Motor?.
The main purpose of any starter is to reduce the requirement of high starting current.
Normally the starting current of an induction motor is 6 to 7 times of the full load current.
If one has an induction motor with a DOL starter, drawing a high current from the line,
which is higher than the current for which this line is designed. This will cause a drop in
the line voltage, all along the line, both for the consumers between the substation and
this consumer, and those, who are in the line after this consumer. This is the reason for
which a starter is to be used.
In a squirrel cage induction motor, the starter is used only to decrease the input voltage
to the motor so as to decrease the starting current.
It is T.P.D.T switch used to first start the motor with the winding connected in star and
then switch for delta connection in running position. TPDT stands for Triple Pole,
Double Throw.
Now, if the stator winding is connected as star, the phase or line current drawn from
supply at start (standstill) = (Vs/Zs)/(1.732)
The voltage per phase in each stator winding is now Vs/1.732. So the starting current is
reduced by 33.3%. Because of the reduction in starting current, starting torque reduces.
Therefore we can conclude that by using Star Delta starter, the starting current is
reduced to approximately two-thirds. Since starting current is reduced, the voltage drops
during the starting of motor in systems are reduced.
As clear from the figure, there will not be any earth fault current in the case where there
is no neutral grounding of the source because of absence of return path. But as we can
see, if the source is having neutral grounding then earth fault current will have a return
path and earth fault current will flow from the point of fault to the source.
After reading the above paragraph, I am sure that a question will strike your
smart brain, why do we do neutral grounding as there won’t be any earth fault
current in absence of neutral grounding?
Yes, it is correct that there will not be any earth fault current in absence of neutral
grounding but neutral grounding has many advantages, they are as follows:
Hope your doubt is clear now. This is the reason Neutral grounding is done in a system.
Grounding a motor star point will create an earth path for earth fault current to flow
through that motor’s star point. If there are 10 motors in a process plant and their star
points are all grounded then obviously there are 10 additional paths for earth fault
currents to flow through.
If all the motors’ star points are grounded in this way the earth fault current detections
by the protection relays will be complicated and it is most likely that Relay will trip at the
incorrect locations because earth fault currents are flowing in many directions toward
multiple grounded neutral points.
Therefore the electrical consumers i.e. the load, including the capacitor banks, even if
they are star connected are not to be grounded.
Motor is a balanced 3-phase load. However when the system supply voltage is
unbalanced caused by unbalanced loads somewhere else or due to network conductors
problem, the motor operating under unbalance voltage will result in unbalance current in
the 3 windings. The same is true for the generator windings under that condition. The
design engineer may then decide that individual machines should be fixed with negative
phase sequence current protection.
Even if there is a neutral voltage shift in the induction motor, we should not ground the
motor’s neutral point. If we ground the induction Motor, it may create nuisance trip on
earth fault protection relays.
Following are the main reasons due to which high voltage Motors stator are connected
in Star:
Following are the main reasons due to which low voltage Motors stator are connected in
Delta:
In Delta connection, the insulation requirement will not be problem as voltage
level is less in LT Motors.
Starting current will not be problem as starting power in all will be less. So no
problem of voltage dips.
Starting torque should be large, as motors are of small capacity and hence Stator
should be connected in Delta to have more current and hence more starting torque.
Sr.
Slip Ring / Wound Rotor
No Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
Induction Motor
.
1) 1. In Squirrel cage induction motors In slip ring induction motors the
the rotor is simplest and most rotor is wound type. In the motor
rugged in construction. the slip rings, brushes are provided.
Compared to squirrel cage rotor the
rotor construction is not simple.
2) Cylindrical laminated core rotor with Cylindrical laminated core rotor is
heavy bars or copper or Aluminum wound like winding on the stator.
or alloys are used for conductors.
3) Rotor conductors or rotor bars are At starting the 3 phase windings are
short circuited with end rings. connected to a star connected
rheostat and during running
condition, the windings are short
circuited at the slip rings.
4) Rotor bars are permanently short It is possible to insert additional
circuited and hence it is not possible resistance in the rotor circuit.
to connect external resistance in the Therefore it is possible to increase
circuit in series with the rotor the torque; the additional series
conductors. resistance is used for starting
purposes.
5) Cheaper cost. Cost is slightly higher.
6) No moving contacts in the rotor. Carbon brushes, slip rings etc are
provided in the rotor circuit.
7) Higher efficiency. Comparatively less efficiency.
8) Low starting torque. It has 1.5 time High starting torque. It can be
full load torque. obtained by adding external
resistance in the rotor circuit.
9) Speed control by rotor resistance is Speed control by rotor resistance is
not possible. possible.
10) Starting current is 5 to 7 times the Less starting current compared to
full load current. squirrel cage Induction Motor.
.
Motor.
A Squirrel Cage Induction Motor (SCIM) only has a cage rotor winding, whereas a
synchronous machine has both a cage (damper) and a wound DC field winding as
shown in figure below.
In smaller synchronous motors the damper winding is used to start the motor just like a
normal SCIM and when close to synchronous speed the DC field is applied and the
rotor locks into and runs at synchronous speed.
Capacitor.
We have already discussed about staring methods of Single Phase Induction Motor. If you miss
that please read here,
1) Revolving Field Theory of Single Phase Induction Motors
2) Starting Methods of Single Phase Induction Motors
The schematic diagram of Capacitor Split Phase Motor is shown in figure below.
Like in resistor split phase motor, there are two windings, Main and Auxiliary winding but the
basic difference between the two method is that in Capacitor Split Phase Motors a capacitor of
suitable value is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. Capacitor is connected in series
with the auxiliary winding to obtain the desired time phase displacement between the auxiliary
winding current Ia and main winding current Im. A centrifugal Switch is also provided the cut out
auxiliary winding when the speed of Single Phase Induction Motor reaches 70 to 80% of
synchronous speed.
You may like to read,
Purpose of Centrifugal Switch in Induction Motor
As can be seen from the phasor diagram of Capacitor Split Phase Motor, there is an angle of β
between the auxiliary winding current Ia and main winding current Im.
Mind that the angle between the auxiliary winding current Ia and main winding current Im is 180°
if there is main winding alone and because of this Single Phase Induction Motor cannot start by
itself.
Also, the torque produced in any machine is directly proportional to IaImSinβ, therefore in this
method of starting, there will be a net starting torque and the motor will start. The value of
Capacitor used shall be selected based on the load starting torque requirement. If the starting
torque requirement of load is more, then angle β shall be made more by selecting higher value
of Capacitor. A maximum starting torque can be obtained by this method of starting if angle β =
90°. But to have β = 90°, the size and cost of Capacitor will increase. Therefore a compromise is
made in between the load starting torque requirement and size & cost of Capacitor.
It shall be noted that, auxiliary winding and Capacitor are in circuit for a short time only, and
therefore these can be designed for a minimum cost. The torque speed curve for Capacitor
Split Phase Motor is depicted in figure below.
It is clear from the figure that starting torque in this method is high. Capacitor Split Phase Motors
have a typical power rating of 100 to 800 Watts. The value of starting Capacitor varies from 20
to 30 microF for 100 Watt Motors and 60 to 100 microF for 750 watt Motors. AC electrolytic
capacitors are mostly used in this method of starting but Motors shall not be frequently started
else electrolytic capacitors may get overheated and damage.
Why 3-Phase Induction Motors are Self-Starting but 3-Phase Synchronous Motors
Not?.
Let us consider a 3-phase induction motor first and see how it rotates. A 3- phase
supply given to the armature of Induction Motor produces a rotating magnetic field. This
rotating magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed Ns = (120xf)/P
This rotating magnetic field links to the rotor coils and induces voltage which in turn
produces current in the rotor. The current carrying rotor being placed in a magnetic field
experiences a torque and hence begins to rotate in the direction of rotating magnetic
field.
Thus we see that Induction Motor is self-starting. It does not require nay external mean
to rotate.
The North Pole of rotor tries to chase the South Pole of stator. But the stator magnetic
field is rapidly rotating at synchronous speed, and before the North Pole of rotor could
lock with South Pole of stator, the stator field has shifted position so that its North
(stator) comes in the vicinity of North Pole of rotor and they repel as shown in figure
below.
Because the rotor has certain inertia and the speed of the rotating magnetic field is too
fast for it to catch up, it ends up vibrating. So Synchronous Motor fails to start.
We can give a reduced frequency supply to the stator, this will reduce the speed
of rotation of the stator magnetic field and the rotor will easily catch up, once the rotor
catches up we may increase the frequency.
We can manually rotate the rotor till it catches speed near to synchronous speed
and eventually locks the rotor field with the stator field.
We can use Amortsieur Windings. The concept is to start the motor as an
induction motor. Initially no DC field excitation is given and the motor operates as an
induction motor. Once it attains some speed near to synchronous speed, DC
excitation is given and the rotor field aligns itself with the stator field, and rotor attains
synchronous speed.
As we know that, if the two winding currents are shifted in time phase, a rotating filed is created
which is necessary for the production of starting torque. In order to achieve this main winding M
is designed to have low resistance but higher reactance whereas the auxiliary winding is
designed to have higher resistance (thin wire) but lower reactance. The use of thin wire for
auxiliary winding is acceptable as auxiliary winding only remain in circuit during starting but the
use of thick wire for main winding is necessary as main winding has to remain in circuit
permanently. As the reactance is directly proportional to the square of number of turns, auxiliary
winding has less number of turns as compared with main winding.
In addition to the above mentioned points, leakage reactance of main winding is increases by
placing it at the bottom of slot whereas auxiliary winding is placed at the top of slot to have low
leakage reactance.
As seen in above discussion, main winding has more reactive impedance as compared to the
auxiliary winding, therefore main winding current Im lags behind the auxiliary winding current Ia
as shown in the phasor diagram below.
Thus from the phasor we see that the angle between the two field produced by main and
auxiliary winding is β. As we know that torque produced is directly proportional to torque angle
which is β here, therefore a n net starting torque will be developed. The auxiliary winding is
disconnected automatically by means of Centrifugal Switch CS at about 70-80% of synchronous
speed. If the Centrifugal Switch fails to operate, auxiliary winding will remain in the circuit and
noisy performance of single phase induction motor will result. Since auxiliary winding is short
time rated, it must get overheated and consequently burn out.
Typical application of Resistor split phase induction motor is for fans, blowers,
centrifugal pumps and refrigerator.
Three phase fault is balanced fault which can also be analyzed using concept of symmetrical
components.
Series faults are classified as:
1) One Open Conductor
2) Two Open Conductors
These faults also disturb the symmetry and therefore these faults are unbalanced faults and
hence shall be analyzed using concept of symmetrical components.
Neutral Voltage during Fault:
The potential of neutral when it is grounded through some impedance or is isolated will not be at
ground potential under unbalance condition as in unsymmetrical fault rather it will have some
finite value with respect to ground.
The potential of neutral is given as Vn = -InZn where Zn is neutral grounding impedance and In
is neutral current. Notice the negative sign before the expression of neutral voltage Vn, it
indicates the flow of current from ground to the neutral point and therefore the potential of
neutral point will be less than the ground potential.
For a three phase system we know that,
Ia + Ib+ Ic = 3Ia0
Notice that only zero sequence current flows through the neutral and therefore voltage drop
across neutral will be only due to zero sequence currents.
HRC Fuse consists of heat resisting ceramic body having metal end caps on which
silver current carrying element is welded in a special manner as shown in figure below.
As clear from the figure above, the fuse element have a portion of Tin Alloy, known as a
Eutectic Material. This alloy is used to give the fuse specific operating characteristics.
Also, constrictions in the fuse element are provided which play a very vital role in the
operation of Fuse. The space between the body surrounding the Fuse element is filled
filling powder such as with Silica Send, Chalk, plaster of peris etc.
Under normal operating conditions the current flowing through the Fuse element does
not provide enough energy to melt the element. The heat produced is absorbed by the
surrounding filling powder. If a large current flows the energy produced melts and
vaporizes the fuse element before the fault current reaches the peak. The chemical
reaction between the fuse element vapour and filling powder results into high resistance
material which helps in extinguishing the arc.
Under high current short circuit conditions the smaller area constricted parts of the fuse
element will melt rapidly and vaporize and will break before the Eutectic Material. That
is why constrictions are provided in the HRC Fuse element.
A Fuse operates when its element melts due to heat produced by I2RF, where RFis Fuse
resistance. This heat produced increases if the current flowing through the Fuse
element increases. Therefore, we can conclude that a Fuse element will melt faster for
large fault current while it will take some time for lower value of fault current. This time-
current relationship of Fuse is known as Characteristics of Fuse and is very useful for
proper selection of Fuse for a particular circuit and for coordination purpose. A typical
Fuse characteristic is shown in figure below.
How to Interpret the Fuse Characteristics?
In the above figure, curve for three Fuses of rating 60 A, 100 A and 200 A are give. We
select Fuse of rating 60 A for the sake of understanding. See, if the current flowing
through the Fuse element is around 350 A then the Fuse element will melt in .02 sec i.e.
20 ms while if the current is around 225 A then it will take 50 ms to melt. Thus we see
that the Fuse characteristic is Inverse Time. Higher the current, lower will be the time to
melt.
A fuse is the small piece of wire connected between the two terminals of insulated
mounted base. Fuse is always connected in the series of the circuit of low voltage
equipment. It is the simplest and cheapest form of protection from overload and short
circuit. The Fuse is expected to carry the normal current without heating and during
overload / short circuit; Fuse gets overheated up to its melting point rapidly and thus
breaking the circuit.
The materials used for the Fuse are Tin, Lead, Silver, Zinc, Copper etc. For small value
of current an alloy of Lead and Tin, in the ration of 37 & 63% are used. But for current
more than 15A, this alloy is not used as the diameter of the wire will be large and after
fusing the metal release will be excessive.
It is the value of current flowing through the Fuse wire at which the Fuse wire will melt.
Fuse Rating:
Fuse rating is given in Ampere. It is basically that value of current at which the Fuse is
expected to operate safely without melting. This value of current will definitely will be
less than the Minimum Fusing Current.
Fusing Factor:
Fusing Factor is defined as the ratio of minimum fusing current to the fuse rating.
Prospective Current:
Prospective Current of Fuse is the value of current which will flow through it just before
the melting of the fuse wire under Short Circuit condition.
This is the time taken by a fuse wire to be broken by melting. It is counted from the
instant; the over current starts to flow through fuse, to the instant when fuse wire is just
broken by melting.
Arcing Time:
After breaking of fuse wire there will be an arcing between both melted tips of the wire
which will be extinguished at the current zero. The time from the instant of arc initiated
to the instant of arc being extinguished is known as Arcing Time of fuse.
Total Operating Time of Fuse is the sum of Pre-arcing and arcing time.
Types of Fuses:
AC Fuse
DC Fuse
This classification of Fuse arises because of arcing. In DC it is quite time taking to
extinguish the arc. Therefore DC Fuses are made with longer wire so as to avoid arc.
Hence DC Fuses are bigger in size. But in AC fuse as the current reduces to zero in
every haft cycle (10 ms assuming 50 Hz frequency), arc is extinguished.
Cartridge fuses are used to protect electrical appliances such as motors air-conditions,
refrigerator, pumps etc, where high voltage rating and currents required. They are
available up to 600 A and 600 V AC and widely used in industries, commercial as well
as home distribution panels.
Blade Type Fuses:
This type of fuses, also called as spade or plug-in fuses comes in plastic body and two
metal caps to fit in the socket. They are used in automobiles for wiring and short circuit
protection.
Other Types of Fuses are SMD Fuses, Axial Fuses, Thermal Fuses, HRC (High
Rupturing Capacity) fuse and High Voltage fuses.
They can’t move it with different speed or different direction. Similar is going to happen
with power source.
Synchronization of two Power Sources means both the sources have the same
Phase Sequence
Voltage Magnitude
Frequency
Phase Angle
There is a setting provided in the Synchronization Check Relay (25 SYN). There are two
terms which are frequently used in Synchronization, Running Line and Incoming Line.
The bus which is already charged and to which we are connecting a source is called
Running Line as shown in figure below.
In above figure if we close the CB-1 then we are synchronizing S1 to the Bus, therefore
S1 is Incoming Line and Bus is Running Line.
When power sources are not synchronized, there are instances where there is a voltage
difference at the same very node where the three sources are connected.
Thus, we are going to connect the R phase of Source S1 to Y phase of Source S2.
Therefore from phase angle 0 to 90 degree, source S2 is stronger in magnitude and
hence current will flow from source S2 to S12 but after 90 to 135 degree, source S1 is
stronger in magnitude of voltage and hence current will flow from S1 to S2. In this
manner a continuous circulation current will flow from one source to another whose
magnitude depends on the system impedance.
This circulating current if high enough will burn the equipment connected. Therefore it is
must that we should Synchronize the two sources.
Well, you will say that we can connect a resistor in ground of system to minimize
the capacitive charging current. Then why do we connect inductor in ground?
Why Inductor is used to eliminate Arcing Ground?
To answer this question, let us consider a single line to ground fault and its phasor
diagram for an ungrounded system as shown below.
From the phasor diagram it is can be easily observed that, the voltage of neutral point
shifts from ground potential to phase voltage Vph but in opposite direction. This is the
reason the direction of VC is reverse in figure above and shown by V’C. The fault current
IC (IC = IA+IB) is perpendicular to the V’C. Thus if we want to eliminate the fault current then
we must connect an element which will take current in a direction opposite to I C.
Carefully observe that IC is leading V’C by 90°.
Now as we are connecting an element in between the neutral point N and ground,
therefore the voltage drop across that element will be V’C. Thus that element must take
current equal to IC and shall lag from V’C by 90°. As inductor takes lagging current,
therefore an inductor is connected in between neutral and ground to eliminate arcing
ground.
What is Petersen Coil?
Petersen Coil is nothing but an inductor used to connect ground of three phase system
to the earth. In other words, the neutral of three phase system is grounded through
Peterson Coil. Basically, such grounding is adopted to minimize the capacitive charging
current during fault in the lines. This also eliminates the arcing ground. The inductor
connected in figure above is Petersen Coil. This type of grounding is also known as
Resonant Grounding.
How does Petersen Coil Work?
As discussed earlier in this post, Petersen Coil must take current equal to the fault
current ICso that it neutralizes the fault current. This is the reason, it is also known as
fault neutralizer.
Let us consider the figure shown above.
The current through the Petersen Coil IL = Vph / ωL
But the fault current IC = 3Vph / XC (how? Please read Arcing Ground)
Therefore to neutralize the fault current,
IL = IC
Hence,
Vph / ωL = 3Vph / XC
⇒1/ωL = 3ωC
⇒L = 1/3ω2C
Thus to neutralize the capacitive charging current, the value of inductance of Petersen
coil shall be 1/3ω2C.
Advantages of Resonant Grounding
The use of Petersen coil reduces the line interruption due to transient line to ground
fault. This is otherwise not possible with other kind of grounding.
The tendency of developing three phase fault from single phase fault is reduces with the
use of resonant grounding.
Working Principle of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker ELCB and Residual Current
Device RCD.
An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used to directly detect the leakage
current to the Earth from an installation and cut the power supply. Basically ELCB is used where
the earth impedance is high. Because of high earth impedance, the voltage difference between
the Metallic part of the Installation and Earth will be quite high and dangerous from human
safety point of view.
It may strike in your smart mind that “What is the difference between Earth Fault current and
Earth Leakage Current?” This is very important to know as we are going to discuss about
safety device used to sense earth leakage current.
Well, according to IEC 60947-2, Earth fault current is the current flowing to earth due to
insulation fault and Earth leakage current is the current flowing from the live parts of the
installation to earth in the absence of an insulation fault.
In case of degradation of electrical insulation, the live conductor may get in touch with the
metallic part of the equipment and because of high earth impedance; the potential difference
between the body of equipment to the Earth will be high enough to result in shock to the working
personnel. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) detects the leakage current to the earth and
trips the associated breaker to isolate the supply.
There are two types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB). One is Voltage Earth Leakage
Circuit Breaker, also called Voltage ELCB and another is Current Earth Leakage Circuit
Breaker, also known as Current ELCB.
Working Principle of Voltage ELCB:
Voltage ELCB is a voltage operated device. It has a coil and if the voltage across the coil
exceeds a predetermined value such as 50 V, the current through the coil will be sufficient
enough to trip the circuit.
Voltage ELCB is connected in between the metallic part of equipment and the Earth. If we take
an example of insulation failure, then the voltage across the coil of Voltage ELCB will drive
enough current to cut the power supply till the manually reset.
Working Principle of Current ELCB:
The working of Current ELCB is quite interesting but easy. Current operated ELCB is also
known as Residual Current Device, RCD. A Residual Current Device (RCD) has a toroidal iron
core over which phase and neutral windings are wound. A search coil is also wound on the
same iron core which in turn is connected to the trip coil. Figure below shows the constructional
detail of RCD or Current ELCB.
Under normal operating condition, the current through the phase winding and neutral winding
are same but both the windings are wound in such a manner to oppose the mmfs of each other,
therefore net mmf in the toroidal iron core will be zero. Let us consider a condition where earth
leakage current exists in the load side. In this case the current through the phase and neutral
will no longer be equal rather phase current will be more than the neutral current. Thus mmf
produced by phase winding will be more than the mmf produced by neutral winding because of
which a net mmf will exist in the toroidal iron core.
Net mmf in Core = mmf by phase winding – mmf by neutral winding
This net mmf in the core will link with the Search Coil and as the mmf is changing in nature
(current is AC), an emf will be induced across the terminals of the Search Coil. This emf will in
turn drive a current through the Trip Coil which will pull (because of current flow through the Trip
Coil, it will behave as an electromagnet and hence will pull the lever to open contact) the supply
contacts to isolate the power supply. Notice that Current ELCB works on Residual Current that
is the reason it is also called Residual Current Device.
A RCD / Current ELCB is also provided with test button to check the healthiness of the safety
device. If you carefully observe the figure, you will notice that, when we press the Test Button,
Load and phase winding are bypassed due to which only mmf because of neutral winding will
exist in the core (as there is no opposing mmf as was the case with both the windings in
service) which will cause RCD to trip to isolate the supply.
Let us first discuss residual voltage in case of single line to ground fault. Let us consider
a solidly grounded system as shown in figure below.
Let us assume that a ground fault takes place in A phase (In many industries and
numerical relays, normally the phases are said as A, B and C instead of R, Y and B,
though they represent the same thing i.e. A phase means R phase, B means Y phase
and C means B phase). Ea, Eb and Ec are the Generator terminal voltage per phase.
Bold letters here represent vector form.
Because of ground fault in A phase, the voltage at the point of fault will become zero but
the voltage of other two healthy phases will remain normal as the neutral is solidly
grounded therefore the neutral potential will be maintained to earth potential.
Va = 0
Vb = V ∠-120°
Vc = V ∠120°
Here V is per phase voltage under normal condition.
Thus the residual voltage of system = Va+Vb+Vc
= 0 + V ∠-120° + V ∠120°
= V ∠-60°
Thus we observe that, there exists a residual voltage in case of single line to ground
fault. This residual voltage is measured by Residual Voltage Transformer.
The primary of Residual Voltage Transformer is connected to three phase system and
its secondary is connected in Broken Delta as shown in figure below.
The output of the secondary windings connected in broken delta is zero when balanced
sinusoidal voltages are applied (as Va+Vb +Vc = 0), but under conditions of unbalance
a residual voltage equal to three times the zero sequence voltage (V0) of the system will
be developed.
To measure this component i.e. 3V0, it is necessary for a zero sequence flux to be set
up in the Residual Voltage Transformer (RVT), and for this to be possible there must be
a return path for the resultant summated flux. Therefore, RVT core must have one or
more unwound limbs linking the yokes in addition to the limbs carrying phase windings.
Usually the core is made symmetrically, with five limbs, the two outermost ones being
unwound. This two outermost unwound limbs provide return path for zero sequence
flux.
In case where three single phase transformer units are used to measure residual
voltage, no extra limbs are requires as each single phase transformer has a core with
closed magnetic path.
It is very important to earth the primary winding neutral of Residual Voltage Transformer
to provide return path for zero sequence current else zero sequence current cannot flow
and hence the flux will contain 3rd harmonic component that is reflected in primary and
secondary voltages of Residual Voltage Transformer. This voltage appearing at the
secondary terminals of RVT is not the residual voltage of the system in any way.
Carefully observe the saturation curve shown above. It is quite clear that beyond point K, we
need to increase current to a larger extent to have some increase in voltage. This because the
curve beyond point K becomes non-linear. The voltage at point K i.e. Vk is called Knee Point
Voltage. This is the reason, in definition it is said that Knee Point Voltage of a Current
Transformer is defined as the voltage at which 10 % increase in voltage of CT secondary
results in 50 % increase in secondary current. This means that an increase in 50% current
will lead to just an increase in 10% voltage. Therefore slope at Knee Point Voltage will be,
Slope = Increase in Voltage / Increase in current
= 0.1/0.5
= 0.2
Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer is of importance in Protection Class CT i.e. where
CT is used for protection purpose. Protection Class CT is normally specified as PS (Protection
Special). PS is defined by knee point voltage of current transformer Vk and excitation current Ie
at Vk/2. The Burden of CT when used for protection purpose is quite high when compared with
Metering Class CT, which means that voltage drop across theburden will be high. But voltage
drop across the burden is equal to the voltage across the CT secondary and if the voltage
across the CT secondary is high then it may drive the CT to saturate in normal condition.
Therefore Knee Point voltage of Protection Class CT must be more than the voltage drop
across the burden to maintain CT core in its linear zone.
Also,
and H = NI
Therefore, there exist hysteresis relationship between Flux and Magnetizing Current.
The Transformer is preferably operated in saturation region which in turn means that for
considerable increment in current causes a slight increase in flux, which gives flux wave
sinusoidal shape, while magnetizing current is peaky. This explains why it is rich in 3rd
harmonic component even though the supply is sinusoidal.
If we observe the waveform of excitation current of Transformer, we see that the wave
form of current is symmetrical which means absence of even harmonics. Remember
that waveform will not be symmetrical if there is any even harmonic component.
The peaks of the magnetizing current and flux will occur simultaneously, while their
zeros will not, due to hysteresis.
Thus I hope it is clear that how harmonic component comes in the excitation current of
Transformer.
Magnetizing Inrush Current during Fault Clearing. An external fault may significantly reduce
the system voltage, and therefore reduce the excitation voltage of the transformer. When this
fault is cleared, the excitation voltage returns to the normal system voltage level. The return of
voltage may force a dc offset on the flux linkages, resulting in magnetizing inrush current. This
magnetizing inrush current will be less than that of energization, as there is no remnant flux in
the core. The current measured by the differential relay will be fairly linear due to the presence
of load current, and may result in low levels of second harmonic current.
Sympathetic inrush current. Energizing a transformer on the power system can cause
sympathetic inrush currents to flow in an already energized parallel transformer. Energizing the
second transformer causes a voltage drop across the resistance of the source line feeding the
transformers. This voltage drop may cause a saturation of the already energized transformer in
the negative direction. This saturation causes magnetizing inrush current to supply the flux. The
magnitude of the magnetizing inrush current is generally not as severe as the other cases.
While charging a Transformer in Power System, harmonic restraining of other connected
Transformers must be taken care as it may otherwise lead to the tripping of other connected
Transformers.
This means, Flux wave will reach its maximum value after 1/4 cycle or π/2 angle reaching
maximum value of voltage wave. Hence as per the waves shown in the figure, at the instant
when, the voltage is zero; the corresponding steady state value of flux should be negative
maximum. But practically it is not possible to have flux at the instant of switching on the supply
of Transformer. This is because, there will be no flux linked to the core prior to switching on the
supply. The steady state value of flux will only reach after some finite time which in turn
depends upon how fast the circuit can take energy. So the flux in the core also will start from its
zero value at the time of switching on the transformer.
As we know that,
e = dφ/dt where φ is the Flux in the core
Therefore assuming e = ESinwt,
Now suppose, Transformer is switched on when Voltage is zero. Therefore Flux will also start
from zero. Therefore, total Flux at the end of first half cycle of voltage wave will be,
Where Øm = Maximum flux in the core in steady state or normal operating condition.
Therefore, the flux in the core of Transformer will be double the maximum value of flux in steady
state condition. This phenomenon is also shown in figure below.
It is clear from the above graph that maximum flux in the core of Transformer will be 2Ø mwhen
the applied voltage is at its zero.
Now what will happen because of this higher value of flux in the core of Transformer?
Transformer core is saturated just above the maximum steady state value of flux Øm. But when
we switch on power supply to the Transformer’s primary, the maximum value of flux will jump to
double of its steady state maximum value Øm. As, after steady state maximum value of flux Øm,
the Transformer core becomes saturated, the current required to produced rest (2Øm-Øm = Øm)
of flux will be very high. So transformer primary will draw a very high current from the source
which is called Magnetizing Inrush Current in Transformer or Inrush Current in Transformer.
The nature of Transformer Inrush Current is shown in figure below.
It should be noted that waveform of Transformer Inrush Current is asymmetric which
means in Transformer Inrush current mainly 2 nd harmonic component will be present. It
shall also be noted from the waveform that as time passes the Magnetizing Inrush
Current of Transformer decays and becomes zero. Normally it takes few millisecond for
Magnetizing Inrush Current to decay to zero.
The Magnetizing Inrush Current of Transformer may be up to 10 times higher than normal rated
current of Transformer. Even though the magnitude of Magnetizing Inrush Currentis so high but
it generally does not create any permanent fault in Transformer as it exists for few
miliseconds. But still Magnetizing Inrush Current in Power Transformer is a problem,
because during the time of Magnetizing Inrush Current the protection scheme of
Transformer may operate and hence may trip the Primary side Circuit Breaker of
Transformer which is not expected.
As the winding is itself a distributed RLC circuit it will behave like RLC filter and gives
different output voltages at different frequencies. That means if we go on increasing the
frequency of the input signal without changing its voltage level we will get different
output voltages at different frequencies depending upon the RLC nature of the winding.
If we plot these output voltages against the corresponding frequencies we will get a
particular pattern for a particular winding as shown in figure below.
But after transportation, heavy short circuit faults, transient switching impulses and
lightening impulses etc, if we do same Sweep Frequency Response Analysis test and
superimpose the present signature with the earlier pattern and observe some deviation
between the two graphs / signature. Thus we can conclude that there is mechanical
displacement / deformation in the Winding / Core.
Thus using SFRA test, we can say whether Transformer windings / core is OK or not.
This method is simple yet reliable.
Buchholz relay `can prevent the development of conditions leading to a fault in the
transformer, such as the falling of the oil level due to leaks, or the penetration of air as a
result of defects in the oil circulating system.
The adoption of other forms of protection does not therefore exclude the use of the gas-
actuated Buchholz relay, as this device is the only means of detecting incipient
faults, which if unnoticed, can cause heavy failures.
Buchholz Relay is installed in between the Main Tank of Transformer and the
Conservator as shown if figure below.
Construction of Buchholz Relay:
Buchholz relay consists of an oil filled chamber. There are two hinged floats, one at the
top and other at the bottom in the chamber. Each float is connected by a mercury
switch. The mercury switch on the upper float is connected to an alarm circuit and
that on the lower float is connected to an external circuit to cause breaker trip. A
simplified construction diagram of Buchholz relay is shown in figure below.
The operation of the Buchholz relay is based upon the fact that every kind of fault in an
oil-filled transformer causes a decomposition of the insulating oil due to overheating in
the fault zone or to the action of an intense electric field, and a generation of bubble of
gas. These reach the relay which is normally filled with oil, through the pipe connecting
the transformer to the conservator where the Buchholz relay is mounted.
Whenever a minor fault occurs inside the transformer, heat is produced by the fault
currents. The produced heat causes decomposition of transformer oil and gas bubbles
are produced. These gas bubbles flow in upward direction and get collected in the
Buchholz relay. The collected gas displaces the oil in Buchholz relay and the
displacement is equivalent to the volume of gas collected. The displacement of oil
causes the upper float to close the upper mercury switch which is connected to an
alarm circuit. Hence, when minor fault occurs, the connected alarm gets activated. The
collected amount of gas indicates the severity of the fault occurred. During minor faults
the production of gas is not enough to move the lower float. Hence, during minor faults,
the lower float is unaffected.
During major faults, like phase to earth short circuit, the heat generated is high and a
large amount of gas is produced. This large amount of gas will similarly flow upwards,
but its motion is high enough to tilt the lower float in the Buccholz relay. In this case, the
lower float will cause the lower mercury switch which will trip the transformer from the
supply i.e. transformer is isolated from the supply.
Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribution networks as a mean for
end user connectivity. 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440 V, 230 V and are generally rated less
than 200 MVA.
Power transformer is used for the transmission purpose at heavy load, high voltage
greater than 33 KV and 100% efficiency. It also having a big in size as compare to
distribution transformer, it used in generating station and Transmission substation at
high insulation level.
The distribution transformer is used for the distribution of electrical energy at low voltage
as less than 33 kV in industrial purpose and 440 – 220 V in domestic purpose. It work at
low efficiency at 50-70%, small size, easy in installation, having low magnetic losses & it
is not always fully loaded.
Power Transformers are used in Transmission network so they do not directly connect
to the consumers, so load fluctuations are very less. These are loaded fully during 24
hours a day, so copper losses and Iron losses takes place throughout day.
The average loads are nearer to full loaded or full load and these are designed in such
a way that maximum efficiency occur at full load condition.
Naturally these transformers have the matched iron losses and copper losses at peak
load i.e. the maximum efficiency point where both the losses match.
Power transformer generally operated at full load. Hence, it is designed such that
copper losses are minimal. However, a distribution transformer is always online and
operated at loads less than full load for most of time. Hence, it is designed such that
core losses are minimal.
In Power Transformer the flux density is higher than the distribution transformer.
The main difference between Power and Distribution Transformer is that Distribution
Transformer is designed for maximum efficiency at 60% to 70% load as normally
doesn’t operate at full load all the time. Its load depends on distribution demand.
Whereas power transformer is designed for maximum efficiency at 100% load as it
always runs at 100% load being near to generating station.
Distribution Transformer is used at the distribution level where voltages tend to be lower
.The secondary voltage is almost always the voltage delivered to the end consumer.
Because of voltage drop limitations, it is usually not possible to deliver that secondary
voltage over great distances.
As a result, most distribution systems tend to involve many clusters of loads fed from
distribution transformers, and this in turn means that the thermal rating of distribution
transformers doesn’t have to be very high to support the loads that they have to serve.
All Day Efficiency = (Output in KWhr) / (Input in KWhr) in 24 hrs which is always less
than power efficiency.
Dry Type Transformers find use in locations where the use oil Filled Transformers
increases the fire hazard such as shopping malls, Hospitals, residential complexes etc.
In dry type transformers air is used as the cooling medium instead of oil.
The insulation used in dry type transformers are designed to withstand higher
temperatures. Dry type transformers are more expensive than conventional
transformers. Vacuum Pressure Impregnation, Epoxy Resin cast are some of the
methods of Insulation adopted in Dry Type Transformer construction.
Comparison between Dry Type and Oil Filled Transformer:
Dry Type Transformers use air as the cooling medium. Oil Type Transformers
are considered a potential fire and safety hazard for indoor application.
Dry Type Transformers can be located closer to the load unlike Oil Transformers
which require special location and civil construction for safety reasons. Locating the
Transformers near the loads may lead to savings in cable costs and reduced
electrical losses.
Oil Type transformers may require periodic sampling of the oil and more
exhaustive maintenance procedures.
Though Dry Type Transformers are advantageous, they are limited by size and
voltage rating. Higher MVA ratings and voltage ratings may require the use of oil
Transformers.
For outdoor applications, Oil Filled Transformers are cheaper than dry types.
In this post we will discuss about Core Loss. Core Loss is again classified into two
types:
Hysteresis Loss
Eddy Current Loss
First we will have a look at how the core of a Transformer looks like. But the Core Loss
take place in any electrical machine which face changing magnetic flux.
Hysteresis Loss:
When the magnetic field strength or the current is increased the flux increase, after a
point when we further increase current the flux gets saturated. When we reduce the
current from saturation to zero side the flux density starts to decrease. But when the
current value reaches zero the flux density should also be zero but it is not zero. For
zero current there is still some flux present in the material, this is known as Residual
Magnetic Flux or Remnant Magnetic Flux. Hence the amount of power is never
recovered back. The power which gets trapped in the core of the material is lost in the
form of heat.
Now we will consider the mathematical part of Hysteresis Loss. The Hysteris Loss in
core is given as
Ph= KhfBmx
Where Kh = Constant which depends on the volume and quality of core material.
f = Frequency of Supply
Thus we see that Core Loss depend on Voltage as well as Frequency of Supply.
Eddy Current Loss takes place when a coil is wrapped around a core and alternating ac
supply is applied to it. As the supply to the coil is alternating, the flux produced in the
coil is also alternating.
By faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the change in flux through the core
causes emf induction inside the core. Due to induction of emf eddy current starts to flow
in the core. Due to this eddy current there will be an associated Ohmic loss which is
called Eddy Current Loss.
Eddy current losses can be reduced by lamination in the core. Thin sheet steels must be
used which are insulated from each other. Due to insulated sheets the amount of
current which flows get reduced and hence the eddy current losses also reduces.
Now we will take a look at the mathematical part of Eddy Current Loss. Eddy Current
Loss is given as
Pe= Kef2Bm2
Where Ke = constant whose value depends on the volume and resistivity of the core
material.
f = Frequency of Supply
It shall be noted that, from the equation of Eddy Current Loss it seems that Eddy
Current Loss depends on the frequency of supply but it is not so rather it only depends
on the Supply Voltage. How?
As Pe = Kef2Bm2
But we know that
So,
a) Unit Scheme: Unit type schemes protect a specific area of the system i.e. a
transformer, transmission line, generator or bus bar. The unit protection schemes are
based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law – the sum of the currents entering an area of the
system must be zero. Any deviation from this must indicate an abnormal current path. In
these schemes, the effects of any disturbance or operating condition outside the area of
interest are totally ignored and the protection must be designed to be stable above the
maximum possible fault current that could flow through the protected area.
From the picture, it is clear that there is some definite time after which the Relay will
operate. It is also clear that the time of operation at Pick-up value is nearly very high
and as the fault current increases the time of operation decreases maintaining some
definite time.
d) Very Inverse Relay:
Very Inverse Relay is one in which the range of operation is inverse with respect to fault
current over a wide range. This happens so as the CT saturation occurs at a later stage
but as soon as CT saturation occur there will not be any flux change and hence the
current output of CT will become zero and hence the time of operation will nearly
become constant.
e) Extremely Inverse Relay:
Extremely Inverse Relay is one in which CT saturation occur still at a later stage as
compared with Very Inverse Relay and hence the characteristic remain inverse up to a
larger range of fault current. The equation describing the Extremely Inverse Relay is I2t
= K where I is operating current and t is time of operation of the Relay.
Here,
K = Time of actuation
α, β = Constant which depends on the type of Relay
I = Fault Current
I0 = Pick-up current
Value of α and β for different types of Relay:
Sr. No. Type of Relay α β
Inverse time over current Relay
1) 0.02 0.14
/ IDMT
2) Very Inverse Relay 1.00 13.5
3) Extremely Inverse Relay 2.00 80.00
Example: Suppose the pick-up current for an IDMT relay is set at 0.8 A and the fault
current is 80 A then the time of actuation can be calculated as
K = 0.14/[ (80/0.8)0.02– 1].
Unit protection usually involves comparison of quantities at the boundaries of the protected zone
as defined by the locations of the current transformers. This comparison may be achieved by
direct hard-wired connections or may be achieved via a communications link. However certain
protection systems derive their restricted property from the configuration of the power system
and may be classed as unit protection, e.g. Earth Fault Protection applied to the high voltage
delta winding of a power transformer. Whichever method is used, it must be kept in mind that
selectivity is not merely a matter of relay design. It also depends on the correct coordination
of current transformers and relays with a suitable choice of relaysettings, taking into account the
possible range of such variables as fault currents, maximum load current, system impedances
and other related factors, where appropriate.
b) Non-unit Protection Scheme: The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific
areas, have no fixed boundaries. As well as protecting their own designated areas,
the protective zones can overlap into other areas. While this can be very beneficial for backup
purposes, there can be a tendency for too great an area to be isolated if a fault is detected by
different non unit schemes.
The most simple of these schemes measures current and incorporates an inverse time
characteristic into the protection operation to allow protection nearer to the fault to operate first.
Pick-up Current, Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) and Time Setting Multiplier (TSM).
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) and Time Setting Multiplier (TSM) are used only for
Electromechanical Relays. These terms or parameters are not so used in Numerical Relays but
they are conceptually used and incorporated in Numerical Relays too but the way of their
implementation is quite different than that of Electromechanical Relays. In this post we will focus
on the concept and implementation of Plug Setting Multiplier and Time Setting Multiplier for
Electromechanical Relays.
As we know that an Electromechanical Relay has a coil which when energized, operates the
Relay to have contact changeover. But there shall be some minimum current which when flows
through the Relay coil, produces enough magnetic force to pull the lever to make contact
change over. Isn’t it? Yes, if you ever get a chance to see electromechanical relay, you will
observe that there is a flapper kind of thing which is attached with the lever. The lever in turn is
attached with contacts. Thus when a specified current flows through the relay coil, then only it
will produce enough magnetic pull to attract the flapper and lever to operate the Relay. A simple
picture of relay demonstrating its construction and operation is shown in figure below.
This minimum current in the Relay coil at which Relay starts to operate is called Pick-up
Current. If the current through the Relay coil is less than the pick-up value then Relay won’t
operate. On contrary, if the current through the Relay coil is more than the Pick-up current,
Relay will operate. In industries, we normally perform Relay Pick-up and Drop-off Test to check
the healthiness of relays.
Hope your concept of Pick-up current of Relay is clear now. Now we will move on to Current
Setting of electromechanical relays.
Current Setting of Electromechanical Relays: Current Setting of relay is nothing but adjusting
its pick-up value. Suppose we are using a CT of ratio 1000/1 A and the pick-up current needs to
be set at 1.2 A. Then we will simply put the plug provided on relay coil to 120% or 1.2. Thus we
can say that
Pick-up current = Plug Position x Rated CT Secondary Current.
The plug or tapping is provided on the Relay Coil so that changing the position of Plug changes
the number of turns of the relay coil as shown in figure below.
As shown in figure above, the plug is kept at 5. This means that pick-up current of relay will be 5
times of rated CT Secondary current. Likewise, if we put the plug at 8.75 then pick-up current of
relay will be 8.75 times of the rated CT Secondary current.
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM):
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) is defined as the ratio of fault current to the pick-up current of the
relay. Thus,
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = Fault Current / Pick-up Current
= Fault Current / (Plug Position x Rated CT Secondary Current)
Suppose we are using CT of 100/5 A, a fault current of, say 250 A is flowing through the
network protected by the relay. Assume that Current Setting or the position of plug is at 5 then
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = 250 / (5×5) =10
It shall be noted here that we shall not bother about PSM for instantaneous relay rather we shall
consider PSM for relays having characteristics of Inverse Time, Very Inverse Time etc.
For Detail on Relay Characteristics read Over Current Relay and Its Characteristics
Time Setting Multiplier (TSM): Again it is worthwhile to mention that we shall not bother about
TSM for instantaneous relay rather we shall consider TSM for relays having characteristics
of Inverse Time, Very InverseTime etc.
A Relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation of the Relay. This
adjustment is known as Time Setting Multiplier or TSM. Normally a Time Setting Dial is provided
which is calibrated from 0 to 1 s in step of 0.05 s. For practical exposure, let us consider a relay
as shown in figure below. Please Zoom the image to clearly view every part of the Relay for
better understanding.
As can be seen from the figure, there is a Time Setting Dial which is rotated to set the time of
operation of the relay. Lets say we want to set the time on Time Setting Dial to 0.5 s, then we
need to rotate the dial till 0.5 s on the dial matches with the fixed mark provided. So our TSM is
0.5 here in the case.
How to find the time of operation of Relay?
Well, assume that plug is set at 5 and TSM at 0.5 s. For finding the actual time of operation of
relay we need to refer the Graph between the Operating Time and PSM which is generally
provided on the Relay cover itself but in our figure it is not given. So we consider a graph
between Operating Time and PSM as shown below.
For our case, PSM = 10 (Please see the calculation and case considered above in our
discussion of PSM) and TSM = 0.5 s.
From the Graph, the time of operation of Relay for PSM = 10 is 3 s.
Therefore,
Actual Time of Operation of Relay = 3s x TSM
= 3 x0.5 s =1.5 s
Thus we can say that actual time of operation of Relay is equal to the time obtained from the
PSM & Operating Time Graph multiplied by TSM.
Zone 1 does not cover the entire length of the primary line because it is difficult to distinguish
between faults which are close to bus B like fault at F1, F2, F3 and F4. In other words, if a fault
is close to bus, one cannot ascertain if it is on the primary line, bus or on back up line. This is
because of the following reasons:
CTs and PTs have limited accuracy. During fault, a CT may partially or complete
saturate. The resulting errors in measurement of impedance seen by relay, makes it difficult
to determine fault location at the boundary of lines very accurately.
There are infeed and outfeed effects associated with working of distance relays.
A distance relay scheme uses only local voltage and current measurements for a bus
and transmission line. Hence, it cannot model infeed or outfeed properly. Because of infeed
and outfeed effect the, the Relay may sense fault in 100% length of line even though the
location of fault is actually not in 100% of line. Therefore a margin of 20% is given for the
accuracy of measurement and infeed / outfeed effect.
Next, Question which will definitely strike you that why do we keep the setting of Zone-2
150%? Why not more than 150%?
Zone-2 setting in Distance Relay is kept at 150 % to avoid Overlap Problem. See the picture
below.
As clear from the picture above, if the reach of Zone-2 of a relay R1 is extended too much, then
it can overlap with the Zone-2 of the relay R3. Under such a situation, there exists following
conflict. If the fault is on line BC (and in Z2 of R3), relay R3 should get the first opportunity to
clear the fault. Unfortunately, now both R1 and R3 compete to clear the fault. This means that
Z2 of the relay R1 has to be further slowed down. As Zone-2 protection already have a time
delay, due to overlapping we need to further introduce some time delay which will degrade the
performance of Relay for Zone-2.
Hence, a conscious effort is made to avoid overlaps of Z2 of relay R1 and R3. Setting Zone-2 of
R1 to maximum of 150% of primary line impedance or primary line impedance plus 50% of
smallest line impedance usually works out good compromise without getting into Z2 overlap
problem.
For practical physical and economic reasons, this ideal zoning in protection is not always
possible to achieve because accommodation for current transformers being in some cases
available only on one side of the circuit breakers, as shown in figure below.
This leaves a section between the Current Transformers and Circuit Breaker CB-A that is not
completely protected against faults. As shown in figure above, a fault at F would cause the
busbar protection to operate and open the circuit breaker but the fault may continue to be fed
through the feeder. The feeder protection, if of the unit type, would not operate, since the fault is
outside its zone. This problem is dealt with by intertripping or some form of zone extension, to
ensure that the remote end of the feeder is tripped also.
The section of Power System which is not covered under any zone of protection is called Dead
Zone or Blind Zone and special kind of protection shall be provided to take care of fault in Dead
Zone. Normally overcurrent element is used for the protection of Dead Zone with some suitable
logic interlock. The logic interlock depends on the configuration of power system and the
condition in which Dead Zone is created. Let us take an example to have more insight. Carefully
observe the figure below.
Transformer is fed by the Bus when the Breaker CB-A is close. Now suppose we want to take
Transformer under maintenance, so for isolating the Transformer we will open CB-A and DS.
After opening DS, it may be required to close the CB-A to feed some other connected feeder.
As the Breaker is closed, a portion up to DS is charged. Now suppose a fault take place in
between DS and CT-3. Assuming that CT-1, CT-2 and CT-3 are meant for protection of Zone in
between the CTs using Differential protection, so a fault outside this zone will not be protected
and hence zone in between CT-3 and DS is unprotected and called Dead Zone.
Read:
Difference between Isolator and Breaker.
Over Current Relay and Its Characteristics
What will be the logic for implementing protection of this Dead Zone?
One may say, if the DS is open and CT-3 senses an overcurrent then Relay shall issue a
tripping command to CB-A. That is all, Dead Zone is no more Dead rather it is protected. Notice
that in this case Dead Zone or Blind Zone is created in a particular condition where the DS is
open and CB-A is close.
As clear from the figure above, an Ammeter is connected in series with the field circuit to
measure the field current and a Voltmeter is connected across the armature terminals to note
down the voltage generated. Figure (b) shows the plot between If and Ef. It can be seen from the
graph that the relationship between the field current I fand no load generated voltage Ef is linear
up to certain value of field current but as the the field current increases the relationship no
longer remains linear. The linear part of the relationship is because, at small value of filed
current the whole mmf is required by the air gap to create magnetic flux but as the value of mmf
exceeds some certain value, the iron parts get saturated and hence the relationship between
the flux (No load generated emf is proportional to flux) and field current no longer remain linear.
Next assume that if there were no saturation (assuming no iron part is present rather only air
gap is present), the relationship between the field current and no load voltage would have been
a straight line and that is why the straight line ob in the figure is called Air Gap Line.
Thus we observe that because of saturation in iron parts of machine, the no load generated
voltage Efdoes not increase in the same proportion as the increase in field current.
Short Circuit Test of Synchronous Machine:
For performing Short Circuit Test on an Alternator, the machine is driven at rated synchronous
speed and the armature terminals are short circuited through an Ammeter as shown in figure
below.
Now the field current If is gradually increased from zero until the armature short circuit current
reaches its maximum safe value i.e. 125 to 150% of its rated current value. Readings of field
current If and short circuit current are noted and plotted.
If you see the above plot of Short Circuit Test, you notice that the short circuit characteristics of
a synchronous machine is a straight line.
Why Short Circuit Characteristics of Synchronous Machine is Straight Line?
For short circuit test, as the armature terminals are shorted, therefore terminal voltage Vt = 0.
Therefore the air gap emf Er shall only be enough to provide the leakage impedance drop in the
armature i.e.
Er = Ia(Ra + jXal) where Xal = Armature Leakage Reactance
As we know that, for a Synchronous machine the value of Xal is of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 per
unit and Ra (Armature Resistance) is negligible thus we can write as
Xal = 0.15 (Taking average value of 0.1 and 0.2)
Ra = 0
then Er = Ia (Ra +jXal) = 0.15Ia
Taking rated current of armature, Ia = 1 pu
Therefore, Er = 0.15 pu
You must read Per Unit System in Electrical Engineering
Thus we observe that during short circuit test, the air gap generated emf Er is only 0.15
pu which mean that air gap flux must also be 0.15 pu. As the resultant air gap flux is
only 0.15 of its rated value under normal voltage condition, such a low value of air gap
flux does not saturate the iron parts of synchronous machine and hence the short circuit
characteristics is a straight line. It shall also be noted here that, in case of short circuit
test the armature mmf is almost entirely demagnetizing in nature which results in very
low value of air gap flux.
Transformer Testings.
For the purpose of quality assurance and ensuring that the finished transformer
conforms to customer requirements and is ready for service a barrage of tests are
performed on the transformer. These can be broadly classified into the following 3
types:
1) Routine Tests:
These are standard tests performed necessarily on all transformers. They are further
divided into two subcategories:
a) Winding Resistance
b) No load loss and No load Current
c) Load Loss and Impedance
d) Turns ratio on all taps and all phases
2) Type Test:
This test is done on one unit of a particular design. It verifies the response of the design
to the expected boundary conditions of the design. Hence it is not necessary to perform
it on all units manufactured. Generally the testing and certification for the validation of a
design to the conformity of these tests is considered for a period of five years. There are
two tests that come under this paradigm:
a) Short-Circuit Test
b) Unbalanced Current Test
c) Magnetic Balance Test
d) Measurement of Zero Sequence Impedance
e) Measurement of noise level
As seen from the above list there are a total of 15 tests to be performed on a
transformer.These tests are to be performed in the same sequence as it has been
written above.
The routine tests need to be performed on all transformers that are manufactured,
whereas type and special tests have to be performed under the conditions that have
been mentioned.
It is necessary to perform the above tests in the same order because; each test can
cause slight changes in the mechanical and electrical characteristics of the transformer.
For example it can cause some of the insulated material to come under excessive levels
of dielectric stress which may not be a regular occurrence under normal working
conditions. They can cause modifications to the geometry of the core coil assembly
thereby affecting the building factor. Also, if the tests are performed in a haphazard
fashion without taking into account the parametric variations induced due to the
previous tests, then probably the test results are not indicating the correct or operational
values.
It is recommended to perform tests on Transformer as per the relevant BIS and IEEE
standards.
The purpose of WTI is to indicate the winding temperature of HV and LV winding of the
Transformer and operates the alarm, trip and cooler control contacts (For detail on Cooler Unit
visit Transformer Cooling Classes).
As can be seen from the above figure, Black needle shows the current winding temperature
while the Red needle shows the highest winding temperature reached for a particular day. This
Red needle needs to be reset manually.
Also, for setting winding temperature for Alarm and Trip, two knobs are provided. The Green
knob shows the setting of winding temperature for Alarm and Red knob shows the Trip
temperature setting as shown in figure.
Winding temperature indicator consists of a sensor bulb placed in an oil filled pocket in the
transformer tank cover. The bulb is connected to the Instrument housing by means of two
flexible capillary tubes. One capillary is connected to the measuring bellow of the instrument
and the other to a compensating bellow.
The Winding Temperature Indicator, WTI is provided with a maximum temperature indicator.
The heating resistance is fed by a current transformer associated to the loaded winding of the
transformer. The increase in the temperature of the resistance is proportionate to that of the
winding. The sensor bulb of the instrument is located in the hottest oil of the transformer,
therefore, the winding temperature indicates a temperature of hottest oil plus the winding
temperature rise above hot oil Level the hotspot temperature.
Winding Temperature of Transformer may rise due to increased loading of Transformer or due
to some internal fault. Normally the Winding Temperature Indicator, WTI gives alarm at 85 °C
and Trip signal at 95 °C in India.
Iph > 5% IN
Here VNand IN are Nominal Voltage and Nominal Current respectively. Thus if the phase
voltages are normal and if phase current increases from the setting then SOFT protection will
sense it a fault and will issue three phase trip command provided all other conditions as
mentioned in case1 and case2 for SOTF are met.
In the figure above, R1 is an over current relay which is used for the protection of Transmission
Line. If there is a fault at F1,
Therefore the setting of over current Relay should be more than 14113.5 A.
Therefore for the protection of Transmission Line, the setting of Relay shall be kept less than
12702 A. But for earlier case we saw that setting of Relay R1 shall be more than 14113.5 A thus
overall the setting shall be > 14113.5 but <12702 A which is impractical. Therefore over
current Relay is not suitable here and it depends on the source impedance.
Distance protection is therefore used for the protection of Transmission Line. It is simple to
apply and fast in isolating the faulty section from the healthy network. Distance Protection
provides primary as well as back-up protection to the protected line. I will show this back-up
protection function latter in this post.
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance
measurement it is justified to use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of a line up to a
predetermined point. This predetermined point is called Reach of the Relay.
Such a relay is described as a distance relay and is designed to operate only for faults occurring
between the relay location and the selected reach point, thus giving discrimination for faults that
may occur in different line sections. The basic principle of distance protection involves the
division of the voltage at the relaying point by the measured current. The apparent impedance
so calculated is compared with the reach point impedance which is settable in the Relay. If the
measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on
the line between the relay and the reach point and issues trip command to the concerned
Breaker Trip Coil either through Master Trip Relay or directly (in case of single pole tripping of
breaker, assuming single pole Auto Reclosure is allowed).
If measured value of impedance V/I is less than setting z then Relay assumes a fault as clear
from the above diagram.
Here there are three sub-stations namely A, B and C. For sub-station A, the distance protection
is divided into three zones Z1a, Z2a and Z3a which are called Zone-1, Zone-2 and Zone-3
protection. Similarly for sub-station D the three zones will be Z1d, Z2d and Z3d.
Zone-1 is normally set to 80% of total length of Line (here line length is AB between two
consecutive substation). Zone-2 is set to 150 % of total line length and Zone-3 set at 120% of
(100% line length + 100% of Longest Line from Remote substation i.e. B). It should be noted
that all Zones are setting is done in terms of impedance.
Assume the distance between A and B = 200 KM
It won’t be…..because you need to consider CT & PT ratio for calculating the impedance
as the Relay is sensing current and voltage through CT and PT only.
So the required setting for Zone-1 = 48.8×0.28 = 13.66 ohm. Which means if the distance
Relay senses Impedance less than 13.66 Ohm then it will pick-up for Zone-1.
In the same manner, Setting for Zone-2 = (150% of 61) × CT/PT ratio
= 1.5×61×0.28 = 25.62 ohm
Which means if the distance Relay senses Impedance less than 25.62 Ohm then it will
pick-up for Zone-2.
Setting for Zone-3 = 120% of (Impedance of Line AB+ Impedance of Longest Line from
substation B)
Which means if the distance Relay senses Impedance less than 41 Ohm then it will pick-
up for Zone-3.
So we now know how to calculate the setting for different Zones of Distance Protection.
Now suppose our substation is A and we are providing distance protection so Relay is located
at A. For fault in Zone-1, obviously we need to isolate the fault without any time delay. Now say
our breaker at A opened but as we are connected to the substation B so their breaker at B shall
also trip so as to isolate the fault completely otherwise fault will be feed from substation B side
even though our breaker at A opened. Thus if fault in Zone-1 occurs then Distance Relay shall
trip Breaker at A and send a signal to Remote Substation B by receiving which Remote
substation B shall trip their breaker at B. This signal is called Carrier Signal which is sent
through Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) Line. This is the purpose of PLCC. I will
post on PLCC latter so be there.
Thus for Zone-1, time delay = 0. Got it? (If no then write in comment box I will be happy to clear
your doubt)
Next, suppose there is a fault in Zone-2 then our breaker at A shall not trip rather Remote
Substation breaker at C shall trip (If fault is in section CD in figure above) as it will be in their
Zone-1. So we need to introduce some time delay in our Distance Relay to operate for Zone-2
fault. This time delay is usually kept around 350 ms. If within 350 ms Remote substation breaker
at B trips then our Breaker at A won’t trip but if suppose because of any Reason Remote
Substation breaker at C fail to trip then our breaker at A will definitely trip.
See how Zone-2 is working as Back-up protection for line CD. Got it friend?
Now if there is a fault in the remaining 20% of line which is protected by Zone-1 at our
substation A then it will be sensed by our Relay at A in Zone-2 but for Remote substation B it
will be Zone-1 so their breaker at B will instantaneously trip but our breaker at A also need to
trip otherwise our substation will continue to feed the fault by receiving carrier signal.
Now coming to Zone-3, if there is a fault in Zone-3 then our breaker at A is not supposed to trip
rather Remote substation breaker at C &D is supposed to trip. Therefore we introduce some
time delay for the operation of Zone-3 which is typically of the order of 1s. If because of any
reason breaker at C & D fail to trip within 1s then our Distance relay will operate to open our
Breaker at A.
There is one more Zone in modern Distance Relay which is called Reverse Zone or Zone-4. As
the name Reverse Zone implies it is back-up protection of the Substation where Distance Relay
is installed, in our case to the substation A. The setting for zone is normally 10% of the
impedance of protected line.
a) Primary protection
b) Back-up protection
The primary protection is the first line of defense and is responsible to protect all the power
system elements from all the types of faults. The backup protection comes into play only when
the primary protection fails.
In the event of failure or non-availability of the Primary Protection some other means of ensuring
that the fault is isolated must be provided. These secondary systems are referred to as Back-up
Protection. Back-up protection may be considered as either being local or remote. Local back-
up protection is achieved by protection which detects an un-cleared primary system fault at its
own location and which then trips its own circuit breakers, e.g. Time Graded Overcurrent
Relays.
What is Time Grading?
Protection systems in successive zones are arranged to operate in times that are graded through
the sequence of equipment so that upon the occurrence of a fault, although a number of
protection equipment respond, only those relevant to the faulty zone complete the tripping function.
The others make incomplete operations and then reset. The speed of response will often depend
on the severity of the fault, and will generally be slower than for a unit system.
As shown in figure above, if a fault occurs then Relay C is supposed to trip instantaneously, but in
case of failure of operation of Relay C to isolate the fault, Relay B shall issue trip command after a
time delay of 350 ms. In the worst case when both theRelays B & C fails, Relay A shall operate
after 1 sec. This is Time Grading where a time is provided for main Relay to operate.
Remote back-up protection is provided by protection that detects an un-cleared primary system
fault at a remote location and then issues a local trip command, e.g. the second or third zones
of a distance relay. In both cases the main and back-up protection systems detect a fault
simultaneously, operation of the back-up protection being delayed to ensure that the primary
protection clears the fault if possible. Normally being unit protection, operation of the primary
protection will be fast and will result in the minimum amount of the power system being
disconnected. Operation of the back-up protection will be, of necessity, slower and will result in
a greater proportion of the primary system being lost.
The extent and type of back-up protection applied will be related to the failure risks and relative
economic importance of the system. For distribution systems where fault clearance times are
not critical, time delayed remote back-up protection may be adequate. For EHV systems, where
system stability is at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly, multiple primary protection systems,
operating in parallel and possibly of different types (e.g. distance andunit protection), will be
used to ensure fast and reliable tripping. Back-up overcurrent protection may then optionally be
applied to ensure that two separate protection systems are available during maintenance of one
of the primary protection systems. Back-up protection systems should, ideally, be completely
separate from the primary systems. For example a circuit protected by a current differential
relay may also have time graded overcurrent and earth fault relays added to provide circuit
breaker tripping in the event of failure of the main primary unit protection. To maintain complete
separation and thus integrity, current transformers, voltage transformers, relays, circuit breaker
trip coils and d.c. supplies would be duplicated. This ideal is rarely attained in practice. The
following compromises are typical:
b) Voltage transformers are not duplicated because of cost and space considerations. Each
protection relay supply is separately protected (fuse or MCB) and continuously supervised to
ensure security of the VT output. An alarm is given on failure of the supply and, where
appropriate, prevents an unwanted operation of the protection.
c) Trip supplies to the two protections should be separately protected (fuse or MCB). Duplication
of tripping batteries and of circuit breaker tripping coils may be provided. Trip circuits should be
continuously supervised.
d) It is desirable that the main and back-up protections (or duplicate main protections) should
operate on different principles, so that unusual events that may cause failure of the one will be
less likely to affect the other.
Numerical relaysmay incorporate suitable back-up protection functions (e.g. a distance relay
may also incorporate time-delayed overcurrent protection elements as well). A reduction in the
hardware required to provide back-up protection is obtained, but at the risk that a common relay
element failure (e.g. the power supply) will result in simultaneous loss of both main and back-up
protection.
Based on the time duration of fault existing in the Power System, faults can be classified into three
categories as
Transient Fault
Semi-Transient Fault
Permanent Fault.
Transient fault exists only for very short duration and these can the removed faster if the line is
disconnected from the system momentarily so that arc extinguishes. After the arc is deionized, line
can be reclosed to resume the service. Thus, in this way the interruption in the Power Supply is
reduced and loss of revenue is also saved.
It has been found that 80% of the fault in Power System are Transient in nature, 12% are Semi-
transient and remaining 8% are only permanenet fault. Semi-transient fault are those fault which
take some finite time to clear by itself. For example, suppose a bord spanning the two lines sit then it
will cause a fault which will clear by itself after the burning of cause of fault,after some time say 1sec.
Thus we will expect, Autorecloser to take place for 1 sec i.e. Breaker shall close after a time delay of
1 sec.Here note that the time after which fault clears by itself is called DEAD TIME. Therefore,
in our example DEAD TIME = 1 sec.
But for Permanent Fault, Autorecloser will not help as the cause of fault continuously exists so if we
incorporate the Autorecloser the Breaker will again trip after the Autorecloser. So how many
attempts will the Realy take to Autoreclose and after how much time it will take another
consecutive attempt to Autoreclose?
“Here we come to another concept, called RECLAIM TIME. RECLAIM TIME is the time after which
Relay will take another consecutive attempt to Autoreclose. This RECLAIM TIME is typically set at
25 sec. The number of attempt for Autorecloser is set in the Relay which is 4 for MiCOM P444
Distance Protection Relay. This means that Relay will take four Autorecloser shots and at the end of
fourth shot, if still fault is existing, the Line will be taken out.” In figure below, a Numerical Relay is
shown.
Thus we see that for permanent fault Autorecloser won’t help as we need to attend the fault and
rectify it.
Autorecloser can be Single pole or Three pole. Here Pole means Breaker of any of the three phase
i.e. either R, Y or B phase. Single Pole Autorecloser take place during Line to ground fault. It shall be
noted that Autorecloser facility is provided only in Line Breaker and that to by Distance Protection
Relay.
Zone-1 protection operated AND Carrier Channels are healthy AND Three Pole Tripping has
not taken place.
OR
This seems surprising that only a single pole of Breaker trips during Zone-1 fault. But it’s true. The
phase, say B phase, in which Line to ground fault has taken place will only trip and reclose after the
DEAD TIME. If within the RECLAIM TIME, another fault take place then Three Phase trip will occur.
During the DEAD TIME period, power is fed to the system via the two healthy phases.
In case of Three Pole Autorecloser, all the three phases are opened independently irrespective of
type of fault be it Single L-G or L-L or L-L-L fault and reclosed after the DEAD TIME. During the
DEAD TIME period, no power can be transmitted and therefore system is liable to operate unstably.