Performance CHAPTER 1 - CERTIFICATION & STATISTIC! AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATION STATISTICS AND SAFETY MARGINS PERFORMANCE CLASSES... Class 4 Aircraft. Class B Aircraft. Class C Aircraft. PERFORMANCE CAPABILITY AND MTOM ‘THE PERFORMANCE MANUAL... CHAPTER 2- THE BASICS seen Jer THRUST The Variation of Thrust with Speed. Variation of Thrust with Altitude wu. Variation of Thrust with Temperature Variation of Fuel Flow... Effect of Altitude. Effect of Temperature. Effect of Ram Jet Power. PROPELLER THRUST PROPELLER POWER DRAG é Speed Stability... The Effect of Flay The Effect of Mass. The Effect of Speed. The Effect of Altitude and Temperature The Effect of Icing, . Wing Icing. Tailplane icing Rudder Icing. TURNING... : FUEL CONSUMPTION ‘THE RUNWAY DISTANCES AVAILABLE. RUNWAY SLOPE DEFINITIONS aiisah GENERAL DEFINITIONS ENGINE DEFINITIONS. Piston Engines. Turbine Engines AIRSPEED DEFINITIONS. ALTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE DEFINITIONS. MASS DEFINITIONS... DECLARED RUNWAY DISTANCES... SPEEDS. CHAPTER 3- THE TAKE-OFF ‘THE FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRCRAFT. The Thrust to Weight Ratio The Variation of Thrust with Speed. Performance Issue 5 Contents 1The Variation of Drog wih Sped. Rotation.. CONSTRAINTS ON Vp. Stalling... Conirollabitity Tyre Speed... ae FACTORS AFFECTING TAKE-OFF DISTANCE... Aircraft Mass.. Temperature Pressure Altitude. Engine bleed air... nn Runway Slope . z Rumway Surface. 10 Flap Setting : ee 10 (CHAPTER 4 - THE ENGINE FAILURE ON TAKE-OFF To Stor or To Go? ‘A RANGE OF DECISION SPEEDS.. SAFETY FACTORS.. Wer RUNWAYS. LIMITS ON V, Decide before Rotate. Can the brakes do the job? I.you go at ¥; can you keep the aircraft str aight? What if Vis restricted by V4? : What if V, ts restricted by Vico? What if ¥; is restricted by Vues? THE ALL ENGINE CAS f ‘THE EFFECT OF CLEARWAY. ‘THE BALANCED FIELD V1. TORR CONSIDERATIONS ASDR CONSIDERATIONS Factors Affecting Accelerate Stop Distance... Aircraft Mass.. Temperature... Engine bleed air. Pressure Altitude. Wind... Runway Slope Runway Surface... Reverse Thrust CHAPTER 5 - THE CLIMB... ecco ee Vaaak BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB FACTORS THAT AFFECT CLIMB GRADIENT... Altitude ond Temperature Mass nn laps. Wind Bank Angle. FACTORS THAT AFFECT Vx... Temperature and Pressure. Mass. Flaps... Contents 2 Isstie 5 PerformanceCLIMB GRADIENT CALCULATIONS. : ‘TAKE-OFF SAFETY SPEED, Va. ee The Effect of Flap Selection and Vaca on Vout. WAT OR CLIMB LIMITS.. i i BEST RATE OF CLIMB... FACTORS THAT AFFECT RATE OF CLIMB... Altitude and Temperature. CALCULATIONS FACTORS THAT AFFECT Vy. Altitude and Temperature. B88 sore Flaps and Gear Waicn Srerp To Use? Engine Out AUT Engin rn Piston and Turboprop Climb.. ANGLE OF ATTACK INTHE CLIMB. FLIGHT PATH ANGLE AND PITCH ANGLE, : : NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES. Noise Certificates mw CHAPTER 6 ~ THE CRUISE ..snssenerse (CENTRE OF GRAVITY POSITION JET AIRCRAFT we : Optimising Specific Fuel Consumption... Optimising Range... Optimising Altiude The Cruise Climb Fuel Mileage . Optimising Endurance... PROPELLER AIRCRATT, ce Optimising Specific Fuel Consumption... Optimising RaMge.vnmnnnnee Piston engines SFC ssnsennnnns Turboprop engines wsmmmnnwsennn ‘Summary. Optimising Endurance Summary.. “Angle of Attack in the Cruise... FUEL FLOW CALCULATIONS, ‘TH EFFECT OF WIND. LONG RANGE CRUISE... ‘THE EFFECT OF WEIGHT AND HEIGHT... POWER AVAILABLE IN THE CRUISE. POWER REQUIRED IN THE CRUISE. LONG RANGE REQUIREMENTS AND ETOPS Long range twins without ETOPS.. © & S&S UIARAUUUAUOYH & SRESIRSEESUOBESEE SS oe gay Long range twins with ETOPS wo ete Aeroplanes with three or more engines - two engines Inoperative 14 ‘THE FMS: : 15 The FMS Optimum Altitude. 16 The FMS Maximum Altitude o..nmnennnnnemininnennsrri 7 Performance Issue 5 Contents 3‘THE BUFFET BOUNDARY LIMIT RANGE/PAYLOAD DIAGRAMS...... : CHAPTER 7- DESCENT AND LANDING. DESCENT sn The Glide Descent. Calculating the Glide Angle... Factors That Affect the Glide Angle. The Drifidown Optimum Drifidown Speed. Rate of Descent... Gliding for Endurance The Emergency Descent... APPROACH... Missed Approach. Baulked Landing LANDING Factors fecting Landing Ground Rum. Speed. Hel Mass Air Density Wind .. Runway Surface Slope. Safety Factors on Landing SCHEDULED LANDINGS .nsreennmsere CHAPTER 8 - OBSTACLE CLEARANCE... TAKE-OFF. Single Engine Class B. ‘Multi-Engine Class B and Class A. The Net Take- aes Path..... En-RouTE LANDING CHAPTER 9- ADVANCED TAKE-OFF TECHNIQUES, ‘THE INCREASED V3 PROCEDURE. Increased V3 to Overcome a WAT/Climb Limit Increased V3 o Improve Climb Gradient REDUCED THRUST TAKE-OFF... Restrictions on Use Method. CONTAMINATED RUNWAYS. Wet, Damp and Dry Runways Regulations.. The Effect on Aircraft Performance... Dynamic Hydroplaning. Viscous Hydroplaning. Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning Braking Co-efficients The MOTNE SNOWTAM Code. ‘THE CONFIGURATION DEVIATION LIST PAVEMENT LOADING vinssnernunne Contents 4 issue 5 Performancea CHAPTER 10 - JAR PERFORMANCE CLASS A AND B REGULATIONS. TAKE-OFF . Class A Class Take-Off Flight Pat. Class A Take-Off Distance... Class A Take-Off Run. Class A Accelerate Stop Distance... Class B.. Class B climb Gradients OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ON TAKE-OFF. Class A Class B EN- ROUTE.... Class A Aircraft. Envroute ~ One Engine Inoperative En-route~ Aeroplanes with Three or More Engines - Two Engines Inoperative..s.uo.. 14 Class B Aircraft nse En-Route ~ Single-Engine Aeroplanes. En-route ~ Multi Engined Aeroplanes . ihe LANDING Pee a Class A : Landing WAT Limit... Landing climb all engines rn. Landing Fieid Length Limit... : : Contaminated and Wei Runway Landings... Sa, Class B Aircraft oe a CHAPTER 11 - SEP1.. FINDING THE TAKE-OFF DISTANCE, FINDING THE FIELD LENGTH LIMITED TOM. FINDING THE CLIMB GRADIENT AND RATE OF CLIMD. FINDING THE AIRCRAFT CEILING... FINDING THE LANDING DISTANCE REQUIRED FINDING THE FYBLD LENGTH LIMITED LANDING WEIGHT. CHAPTER 12- MEP1..... ‘TAKE-OFF FIELD LENGTH. ‘TAKE-OFF CLIMB WATICimb Tints. Obstacle Clearance, Flaps Up Take-Off... Obstacle Clearance, Short Field Tate- Off. LANDING vse : Landing Climb. Landing Field Length CHAPTER 13- MRJT1 NORMAL TAKE-OFF... Winn ComPONENTS & CONVERSIONS... ‘TAKE-OFF, FIBLD LENGTH LIMIT. ‘TAKE-OFF, CLIMB LIMIT.. ‘TYRE SPEED LIMIT... ‘TAKE-OFF SPEEDS... Performance Issue 5 Contents 5Vase 0 ‘THRUST SETTINGS... STABILISER TRIM SETTING. 7 CHAPTER 14 - MRJT1 ADDITIONAL TAKE-OFF PROCEDURES... CONTAMINATED RUNWAY TAKE-OFFS .. MRJTI Procedure. ‘THE INCREASED V3 PROCEDURE. MRJITI Procedure REDUCED THRUST TAKE-OFFS csr ANTI-SKID INOPERATIVE ‘OBSTACLE CLEARANCE Tur oo MRIT! Procedure. CHAPTER 15 — MRITL EN-ROUTE .ssesseessnsnstnnnsntitneee Target Thrsternn policed 7 The Gross Level-Off Attitude... The Net Level Off Altitude... Net Driftdown Profiles CHAPTER 16 - MRJT LANDING AND TURNAROUND sere LANDING FIELD LENGTH. LANDING CLIMB LIMIT... QUICK TURNAROUND LIM ane BRAKE COOLING SCHEDULE... 2 Contents 6 Issue 5 PerformanceChapter 1 - Certification & Statistics his section looks at the theory of aircraft performance ‘ | \ nd repeats much that is discussed in the Principles of Flight section. Later chapters look at the specimen performance graphs provided for use in the exam. Performance calculations must be made for all commercial flights and are recommended for private flights. The calculations are completed to make sure the aircraft is operated with an adequate margin of safety. The study and understanding of aircraft performance has developed gradually over the years, each small change usually being prompted by an accident or incident that exposed a weakness in design or procedure. Figure 13-14 Munich 1958 Some events have been a major influence. The Munich air disaster, for instance, prompted the first serious research into the effects of slush and snow on the take-off performance. Other changes have been more gradual, the increase in thrust and reliability of engines has led to more twin engine aircraft Performance Issue 5 44being produced and operating procedures such as ETOPS have been developed to meet a market need. The use of computers has allowed precise pre-flight performance calculations to be made almost instantly thus removing the errors inherent in manual calculations but at the same time reducing the emphasis on performance calculations and leading to possible complacency. Future aircraft will be fitted with take-off performance monitoring systems to warn of inadequate performance capability. As we discuss aircraft performance we will often be considering how the aeroplane behaves with an engine failure. Similarly, the regulations often require that runway distances are adequate and climb gradients are sufficient with an engine out. ‘The reality is that engines rarely fail and pilots tend to get complacent about performance calculations until the day when the dice fall against them and they realise how close to disaster they have come. The key to this is discipline; never take chances with aircraft performance, never cut corners, never bend the rules. Aircraft Certificati When an aircraft is first built it is designed by the manufacturer to comply with a specific set of certification requirements laid out by national authorities, the two main sets of requirements being Federal Airworthiness Requirements (FARs} and Joint Airworthiness Requirements (JARs). In 2003 the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) assumed responsibility for regulating airworthiness within the EU member states from the JAA and many JAR documents have been transposed into EASA documents. In performance JAR 25 and JAR 23 have been re-titled Certification Specification (CS) 25 and CS 23. You will probably continue to meet references to JAR 25 and JAR 23 in pre-2003 documents. In principle the requirements are identical in CS and JAR. Parts of these requirements set down minimum performance standards to be achieved. As aircraft are designed for global markets the national certification requirements are all very similar. CS 25 and FAR 25, for instance, are nearly identical and set down performance standards for large aircraft. ‘The pre-production aircraft are extensively tested to make sure they meet the certification standards. Once the Authority is satisfied a Type Certificate is awarded. Subsequent aircraft that come off the production line only require limited testing, a Production Flight Trial, as they are regarded as part of an identical series of aircraft. The pre-production aircraft are not only tested to meet certification standards, they must also be used to supply the data for the performance section of the flight manual, known 42 Issue 5 Performance ‘The performance requirements are in CS 25 and CS23The gross. performance is the estimated fleet average as the Performance Manual or Operating Data Manual (ODM) ‘The data used in the performance manual can only be based on flight trials, with the sole exception of contaminated runway information which may be extrapolated from other data. This presents a problem to aircraft manufacturers. The performance manuals must remain accurate throughout the service life of the aeroplane and still be applicable when the airframe and engines are old and tired. ‘The data produced from pre-production aircraft is known as measured performance, this is invariably better than the fleet average. To convert this data into that which is more representative of an average aeroplane in service the measured data must be factored. How much it is factored by depends heavily on the parameter being considered and is based on experience from existing aircraft fleets. The estimated fleet average performance is called gross performance. You are at least as likely to achieve gross performance standards as not. The relationship between measured and gross performance for a single parameter, in this case all engines rate of climb, is shown in figure 13-1-2. The ‘normal curve’ represents the performance of all the aeroplanes in the fleet. Some achieve a better than average rate of climb, some worse, but most cluster around the average, the gross performance. Figure 13-4-2 Performance 4.3The gross performance is a good reference datum for performance calculations. It does not, however, provide an adequate safety margin for public transport operations as, by definition, half of the fleet will not attain gross performance standards. The next step is to decide what an "adequate safety margin” is. We could operate aeroplanes so that the risk of accident was infinitesimally small. This would be exceptionally safe but the cost of air transport would be moved beyond realistic limits. On the other hand, as safety margins are reduced profits increase. The job of the regulators is to make sure that, on the one hand, air transport is adequately safe and, on the other, that it is adequately profitable. The assessment of acceptable risk clearly involves a series of value judgements about the cost of safety measures balanced against the likely benefits. The risk level considered acceptable in this case, at least for large aircraft, is that there should be roughly a one in a million chance of a system failure followed by a failure to achieve the required performance standard. This standard is called net performance and is gross performance reduced by an amount that, once again, depends on the parameter considered. Number of Aivcratt All Engines Rate of Clim 134.3 Now statistics come into the problem. If an event is relatively unlikely, for instance an engine failure at an exact point in the take-off run, then the difference between gross and net performance will be very small. Conversely if an event is highly Performancelikely, a climb conducted without an engine failure, there will be a larger margin between gross and net performance. Figure 13-1-3 shows the difference between net and gross performance standards for a likely event. If the graph was drawn to scale the shaded area would represent one millionth of the total area, As we mentioned earlier, if an event was unlikely then the improbability of the event is used as part of the safety factor. The risk of an engine failure might be assessed as 1 in 100,000, if that is the case the only extra margin needed to make the total safety factor 1 in a million is another 1/10" as: 1 x 1 = 1 100,000 10 1,000,000) Theriskof and _—-Failuretomeet_ —totals_ one ina million engine failure net performance standards Figure 13-1-4 Figure 13-1-5 shows a reduced safety factor in this engine out case, the actual rate of climb figures are made up but, if drawn to scale, the shaded area would be one tenth of the whole. Number of Areca Engine Failure Rate of Climb igure 13.4.5 Performance Issue 5If an event is so unlikely that the probability of it happening is assessed as being already less than onc in a million then the safety margin between net and gross reduces to zero. An example of this is the possibility of a double engine failure in the cruise on a three or four engine aircraft. Here the chances of an unrelated double engine failure are considered so low that, if it did happen, there would only be a 50:50 chance of stabilising with the required terrain clearance. Notice that performance planning to net performance standards keeps the risk of accident to an acceptable and very low level, but does not reduce it to zero, even if the correct techniques have been followed. Figure 13-1-6 shows the JAA defined probability of various events, you will see our ‘one in a million” is a simplification of “remote”. Frequent to accr afen crag Up to 171000 ofeach avropane Reasonably Probable Unikely 0 occur aon bit may 41200010 Engine Fare ocursoveral es dung the sr00 000 “Remote Unite occur to each aeroplane | 1/100.000 0 Lowspeed overrun during ie but may occur {110,000,000 Faluroto achieve NTOFP timow during hoe a3 fos! | ! | | tei cach seve | | Extremely Remote ‘nicely to occur inthe tite of 1110,000.000 to High speed over un “ail fcereplance bute +14,000.000.000 a twin engined airerat iting an abstacie in the NTOFP Figure 13-1-6 1.6 Performance Likely events have a big safety margin, unlikely events a ‘small one