TOPIC 1

DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL

AND SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
"The more important reason is that the research itself provides an important long-run perspective
on the issues that we face on a day-to-day basis." Ben Bernanke
What is research? What makes a good research? You will definitely obtain different answers to
these questions depending on who the person is. Some people say that they are conducting research
when they browse from the internet where to best buy goods and services that they need. Others
also claim that television stations are into research when they conduct viewer polls about topic of
social interest especially during election campaign. The Philippine Social Weather Stations (SWS)
is believed to be performing research when they conduct popularity rating of the president and
other public officials for election purpose. Still others claim that consultants working for
companies are engaged in research when they examine the life satisfaction index of people and the
poverty threshold in that area. Or perhaps you, too have navigated the internet to find the
information you need to accomplish an assignment or project. Are all these undertakings research
in essence? When is research called research? Is it called research when it contributes to a body of
science or when it follows the scientific method? To find answer to these questions, let’s explore
this lesson.
Definition of Research
Etymologically, research comes from the french word “cerchier” which means to seek or search.
The prefix re which means “again” shows its replicability. However, research has been understood
differently by different people. Diverse perspectives are attributed to the various meanings,
experiences, and purposes they consider about it.
Let’s examine the definitions below from different sources.
1. Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a
new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This
could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and
creative outcomes. (HERDC Australia, 2012)
2. Research is truth seeking, aimed at describing or explaining, conducted at a high level of
proficiency or expertise that results in a contribution to knowledge. (Coryn 2006)
3. Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. (Kothari, 2004)
4. Research is a scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with reality. (Calmorin, 1998).
5. Research is a continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown. It entails an investigation
of new facts leading to the discovery of new ideas, new methods, or improvements. (Sanchez,
1997)
Definition of Educational and Social Science Research
Research is utilized in various fields such as engineering, agriculture, business, medicine and the
like. In the field of education and social sciences, research plays a vital role in enriching the body
of knowledge in these disciplines. Let’s examine their respective definitions for better
appreciation.
 Education (al) research is that activity which is directed towards development of a science of
behaviour in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide knowledge
that will permit the educator to achieve his goals by the most effective methods. (J.W Best Robert
and M. W. Raverse, 1992)
 Education research is a systematic activity that is directed at providing knowledge, or
understanding of existing knowledge which is of relevance to improving the effectiveness of
education. (Stenhouse, 1984)
 Social research is a systematized investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomenon
and problems.” (C. A. Moser, 1985) Concept Check: Construct your own definition of research
using 5 common words used in the foregoing definitions.
 Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical methods, aim to discover
new facts or old facts and to analyse their sequences, interrelationships, casual explanations and
natural laws which govern them. (P. V. Young)
Characteristics of Research
What makes a good research? Why are some researches published and others are not? Is it
attributed to their usefulness, contribution, and readability? To find this out, let us look at the
characteristics of a good research.
1. It adopts a scientific method. Research is a systematic and critical investigation to a
phenomenon (e. g., reading comprehension ability, Mathematics anxiety, COVID- 19).
2. It develops generalizations, principles or theories. These body of knowledge become the
bases for interpreting human behaviors and societal conditions. (e.g, Law of Supply and Demand,
Dewey’s Experiential Learning, Piaget’s Cognitive Theory)
3. It is directed towards finding answers to the questions and solutions to the problems.
Research is purpose-driven because it is conducted to interpret and explain a phenomenon which
is of individual and collective interest. (e.g., What is the best cure for COVID- 19? Is blended
learning an effective strategy in teaching research?)
4. It is replicable. Results of research may be tested and retested in various contexts by following
the empirical processes involved in it. Concept Check: From the foregoing definitions, give two
(2) possible topics each in educational and social science researches. Educational Research Social
Science Research5 (e. g., Teacher A conducts research to verify claim that inquiry-based
instruction is more effective than lecture method.)
5. It is cyclical in nature. Research has no end because it starts with a problem and ends with
another problem. (e. g., Findings and recommendations of a research serve as bases for further
research undertaking.)
TOPIC 2
PURPOSES AND TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL
AND SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
“Research is seeing what everybody else has seen and thinking what nobody else has thought.”
Albert Szent-Györgyi
What would life be without research? Is it possible for human beings and societies to develop
without research? When local government officials are engaged in research, what do they try to
produce? In like manner, when teachers conduct research on the effectiveness of online teaching,
what do they want to achieve? How do these researches come in form? Are they to test a theory,
to generate knowledge, or to apply established theory or practice? These are just few of the
interesting questions that are definitely answered in this lesson.
Purposes of Educational/ Social Research
Understanding the purposes of research is justifying the need for it in human life. To appreciate
the intent of educational and social research, let us analyze their purposes:
1. Explore issues and find answers to questions. Research is problem- focused as it investigates
interesting, critical and challenging phenomena in education and in the society. The answers to
these investigations are inputs in improving the educational practices and in addressing the
problems in the society.
2. Share policies for better planning and decision- making. Research is policy- oriented as the
recommendations are crafted in the form of policies that improve the systems and procedures in
education and in the society. Policies generated from it are geared towards enhancing school
governance and student learning outcomes as well as better social services for quality human life.
3. Improve the existing theories and practices. Research is action driven as it utilizes the theories
and development plans which were generated from it. The theories produced do not only broaden
the body of knowledge but also fill- in the existing gaps. On the other hand, the development plans
become vehicles for introducing educational and societal changes and innovations.
Types of Research
Research comes in different forms depending on its purpose. Some researches intend to generate
knowledge while others seek to apply the knowledge that has been constructed. To better
appreciate the types of researches, let us explore the following:
Type of Research
1. Basic research
It seeks to generate knowledge in a particular discipline as it is focused more on knowledge for
knowledge’s sake. This may emanate from experiences about a phenomenon and the desire to
know more about it. It may also come from reading of related literatures and needing to further
study about them by testing hypotheses.
2. Applied research
It seeks to improve or design instructional methods, instruments and processes to ensure better
learning outcomes. It may also include evaluating a social program as well as generating policies
for a particular community or group. Applied researches spring from a problematic situation
needing a solution.
3. Action Research
It seeks to find solution to classroom and school-based problems through a critical reflection of
educational processes and experiences. Its emphasis is on the immediate application and not on
theory-building or generalization of application. Problems in action research come from a situation
encountered such as but not limited to the least mastered competencies, and interventions needed
to address a learning need.
TOPIC 3
RESEARCH APPROACHES
"All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding" – Donald Campbell "There's no such thing
as qualitative data. Everything is either 1 or 0" - Fred Kerlinger
What are the approaches of research? Is a researcher limited to utilize a single research approach?
What are the considerations of a researcher in choosing the approach of research to use? Is it
dependent on the objectives or the data to be gathered? Which set of data is more appealing and
convincing: numbers and graphs or words and pictures? Is it possible to combine all of them?
These are interesting questions that are to be answered in this lesson. Enjoy your reading as you
navigate the concepts presented below.
Research Approaches
Research involves a process of interrelated activities rather than the application of isolated,
unrelated concepts and ideas. As a researcher, there is a need to be knowledgeable on the different
research approaches to find answers to the problems concerning complex educational as well as
societal issues.
The following are the different research approaches:
1. Quantitative Research. This is an approach in which the researcher decides what to study, asks
specific and narrow questions, gathers numeric data from the respondents, analyzes these numbers
using statistical tools, and conducts the inquiry in an objective manner.
2. Qualitative Research. This is an approach in which the researcher depends on the perspectives
of the participants, asks broad and general questions, gathers data consisting largely of words (or
text), describes, and analyzes these words to come up with themes, and conducts the inquiry in a
subjective manner.
3. Mixed Methods Research. This is an approach that combines both quantitative and qualitative
methods in a single study or a series of studies (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). The basic
assumption is that the use of both approaches provides a better understanding of the research
problem and question than using a single approach.

Quantitative vs Qualitative Research Approaches

Below is a table presenting the comparison between quantitative and qualitative research.
Areas of Comparison Quantitative Qualitative
Objective It describes a phenomenon It gives a complete, thick, and
using numbers and statistical detailed description of a
models phenomenon.
Data Data are expressed in numbers Data are presented words,
and statistics. pictures, objects, and
symbols.
Interpretation Data are analyzed objectively Data are analyzed subjectively
through exact measurement through participants’
using surveys, tests, interpretation of events using
checklists, questionnaires, etc. participant observation, in-
depth interviews, focus group
discussion, immersion, etc.
Design The design is fixed before data The design is flexible as it can
are gathered. be modified as the study
progresses.
Role of the researcher The researcher utilizes The researcher serves as the
instruments such as main data gathering
questionnaires or equipment instrument.
to gather numerical data.
Process It utilizes deductive approach It uses inductive approach as
as the researcher tests the researcher builds
 hypotheses, concepts, and abstractions, concepts,
theories. hypotheses, and theories from
details.
Mixed Research as an approach utilizes and combines the advantages of both quantitative and
qualitative research in order to provide in-depth and comprehensive examination of a
phenomenon. It allows complementation of diverging perspectives in answering the research
objectives.
TOPIC 4
CONCEPTUALIZING RESEARCH TITLE
AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Research is to see what everybody else has seen, and to think what everybody else has thought. -
Albert Szent Gyorgyi
How does one develop a research title? Does it come from a personal experience or observed
situation? Could a research title spring from reading the literature and recommendations of
previous studies? Does it also emanate from the call of the government, other organizations, and
funding agencies? Do titles reflect concepts or constructs? What happens to a research if the
concepts are vague and immeasurable? Is it essential that concepts to be studied are observed and
measured? These are few questions that are to be examined in this lesson on problem
conceptualization. Enjoy your mental journey as you navigate the concepts in this lesson.
Definition of Concepts or Constructs
Concepts, also referred to as constructs, are the things to be investigated in any study. In fact, all
researches start from a clear and measurable construct as it is the end product of problem
conceptualization. Normally, concepts are expressed in words or symbols that depict a meaningful
whole or a complex set of events or ideas. For a research to be understood, its concept must be
clear in terms of its operational definition and measure. Operational definition refers to how a
concept is used in the study while a measure is the index or yardstick of the concept. Consider the
following situation as an example.
If you want to study the involvement of parents to their children’s modular learning, the construct
is parental involvement. The operational definition of this construct is the extent to which parents
assist their children in completing their tasks in the module. One of the measures may be the
number of hours that parents allocate to perform this activity
Sources of Research Problems
Where does research problem come from? Usually, students experience the problem of having no
“problem” in a research class. They have difficulty choosing what to study or if they have one, it
may not be interesting and relevant or it may just be a duplication of previous studies. So as not to
experience the same dilemma, the wide-ranging sources of problems for investigation are the
following:
1. Personal Experience – Your day-to-day experiences (direct or indirect) may be a good source
of meaningful problems for investigation. These situations may have sparked your interest and
curiosity to explore answers to something you cannot explain. For example, why do some of you
prefer face-to-face instruction over virtual learning? What are your difficulties in virtual learning?
From this personal experience, you can now create a research problem on this matter.
2. Reading relevant literature – Your literature reviews from journal articles and books are rich
sources of identifying and selecting a research problem. The extent to which you read studies on a
specific topic may expose you to knowledge gaps. This may pertain to lack of empirical studies or
conflicting findings of previous researchers about a topic. Significantly, the recommendations of
previous studies may offer opportunities for parallel or new research undertakings in your own
context or environment.
3. Interviewing Practitioners – Practitioners in the field (e.g. teachers, administrators, local
government officials) are valuable sources of problems for investigation. Your formal or
information discourses with them may provide new directions and insight as to areas needing
investigation in their field. They may also identify practical and real-world problems as well as
strategies and approaches which are left unexplored or ignored by academicians.
4. Research agenda of government and non-government agencies – The government thrusts
and priority areas provide a development roadmap of researchable topics for investigation. All of
these are geared towards enhancing social services to ensure quality life among communities.
Some examples of these thrusts are the reduction of teenage pregnancy, eradication of extreme
hunger and poverty as well as the promotion of universal primary education, and environmental
sustainability.
Developing the Statement of the Problem
Once the constructs are properly laid, you can now start developing your statement of the problem
(SOP). The SOP presents the general and specific questions for investigation in a study. Let’s
examine the following sample below:
Title College Readiness of Filipino K-12 Graduates: Insights from a Criterion-
Referenced Test
General SOP This study seeks to document the college readiness of Filipino K-12
graduates in response to the call of the Philippine Congress to examine the
quality of the K-12 graduates.
Specific SOP in Specifically, the study sought to:
declarative 1. determine the college readiness of K-12 graduates as revealed by the
statements CRT results;
2. assess the college readiness of the K-12 graduates in the seven learning
areas of the CRT;
3. determine the differentials in the college readiness of the K-12 graduates
by campus assignment; and
4. ascertain the concurrent validity of the CRT in relation to a College
Admission Test (CAT).
Specific SOP in Specifically, the study answered the following questions:
interrogative 1. What is the college readiness of K-12 graduates as revealed by the CRT
statements results?
2. What is the college readiness of the K-12 graduates in the seven learning
areas of the CRT;
3. Is there a significant difference in the college readiness of the K-12
graduates by campus assignment; and
4. Does the CRT possess a concurrent validity in relation to a College
Admission Test (CAT)?

In formulating the SOP, you must:

(a) effectively introduce the reader to the significance of the study to be investigated;
(b) clearly place the study into a particular context and state the boundaries of the investigation;
(c) substantially provide the framework in presenting and discussing the results of the study; and
(d) always ensure that they are specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented and time bound
(SMART).

After developing the SOP, a significant reflection to ask is the question: So What? Asking this
question allows you to examine whether your study contributes to existing body of knowledge and
whether it is relevant to the call of the time. Also, reflecting on this question shows your
commitment to scientific inquiry – that you carefully thought of the study which is significant to
your field.

Conceptualizing a Research Title

One of the most difficult or challenging tasks in research writing is title formulation. For some,
the crafting of a research title is best made after having developed the SOP. This makes an easy
and logical formulation of a good title considering that the constructs, measures, and boundaries
have been mapped out. Here are some guidelines which could help you make your research title
interesting, attractive, and focused.
1. Ensure that the title predicts the content of the research paper using descriptive or action phrases
rather than a sentence.
2. Present the major constructs or critical keywords of the study (e.g. Academic Profile and College
Readiness of Filipino K-12 Graduates).
3. Make it simple and brief as it must be condensed in not more than 12 words.
4. Refrain from using chemical formula (e.g. H2O, CH4), roman numerals (e.g., III, IX, etc.), semi-
colon, abbreviations (e.g. CSU), acronym (e.g. CA, which denotes cancer), uncommon words (e.g.
altmetric scoring), vague terms, obvious or non-specific openings with a conjunction (e.g., “Report
on”, “An Analysis of”; “A Study on” “An Experimental Investigation of”).
5. Formulate several titles and select the best that conveys the uniqueness of the study
Topic 5
WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. - Zora Neale Hurston
Have you ever read a research introduction from a journal? Did you enjoy reading it? As a student
of research, have you ever written one for submission? Did you enjoy writing it? What were your
challenges? In this lesson, you will learn how to write a good introduction. But what makes a good
introduction? How would you make it interesting and focused? How long should it be and what
are its contents?
Function of Introduction
The introduction plays a significant role in a research paper. This is the reason why all studies have
it. Try writing a paper without any introduction. Would you be understood with what you intend
to do, your purpose, and the context to which you are doing the research. To aid you in writing an
introduction, let’s first understand its functions in a research paper. Basically, an introduction has
the following functions:
1. It presents the background of the study – A research paper needs introducing to your readers
especially the problem to be investigated, its scope, and prior studies that links the readers to your
research problem. By giving sufficient background information, you put your readers in proper
context and you increase the quality of your paper.
2. It shows the gaps to be addressed – Research papers are meant to address a gap, problem or
concern which has not been addressed before. It is in the introduction where you present the critical
gap or those areas which are unexplored or underexplored based on extant literature. The goal of
your introduction is therefore to fill in some missing piece of information in scientific literature
otherwise your research is not novel or does not have contribution to overall goal of science.
3. It outlines the significance of the study – A research is significant in many ways as it is
beneficial to the growth of knowledge and the development of society in general. As you write
your introduction, it must therefore explain or justify why your research is needed and must present
the potential contribution of your research in your field and to specific groups who may utilize
your findings.
Key elements of an Introduction
A good introduction has three main parts namely, the opening statement, the supporting sentences,
and thesis statement. The opening statement is the “hook” which attracts the reader’s attention
while the supporting sentences serve as the bridge to the thesis. The thesis statement, on the other
hand, presents the purpose or aim of the study which should be specific and arguable.
Moreover, a good introduction contains more specific things other than the three main parts. Using
an inverted pyramid or upside-down triangle method, you need to do the following:
1. Give a general overview or context of your thesis topic and introduce the key ideas you
will be making use of throughout your thesis. Try to examine this example from the study titled,
Batang Ina: Teenage Fertility Experience of Young Women in Cagayan Valley. “Across the
Philippines, increasing teenage fertility is pronounced among young adults in Cagayan Valley.
Based on the 2010 Census of Population and Housing by the National Statistics Office (2012),
Cagayan Valley has a population of 3.24 million, of which 0.6 million are aged 15–24.
Significantly, the YAFS4 data reveal that the youth of this region have the second highest teenage
fertility in the country (18.1%) next to the Cordillera Administrative Region (18.4%). This is
corroborated by data from the National Demographic and Health Survey (2013), which shows that
early childbearing is more common in Cagayan Valley (37%) than in other regions. The rising
teenage fertility in the region, according to YAFS4, is related to the fact that over one in four young
people in the region have engaged in premarital sex activity, of which 86.2 percent are unprotected
from pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs)”.
2. Point out the gap/s in the topic under study. Consider this example from the study titled, Self-
Concept and College Readiness of Filipino LGBTQ++ K-12 Graduates. A study in this regard is
imperative for two-fold reasons. First, the implementation of the K-12 Program is new in the
country, and examining the relationship of self-concept and college readiness using the LGBTQ++
K-12 graduates may provide policy and programmatic actions needed for this marginalized group
to transition smoothly and seamlessly from basic to college education. Second, there are scant
studies showing the impact of self-concept on college readiness among K 12 graduates, especially
among LGBTQ++ youth.
3. Justify the need for the study especially its potential contribution in the field and to specific
groups who may benefit from it. The following paragraph may be considered as an example
from a study titled, Flood experiences, resiliency and migration intentions of flood risk residents
of Tuguegarao City, Philippines. This paper offers a contribution to the limited literature
examining the ways in which migration is linked to household resiliency and flooding as an
environmental push factor.
4. Present the aim or research problem at the end of the introduction. The paragraph below
may be considered as an example from the study titled, The value of economic and cultural capital
to college readiness among Filipino senior high school graduates. Thus, this paper sought to: 1)
Describe the distribution of Filipino K-12 graduates according to a) economic capital (parents'
monthly income and students' weekly allowance) and b) cultural capital (parents' highest
educational attainment and students' community involvement); 2) Examine the college readiness
of the respondents; and 3) Ascertain the relationship of cultural capital and economic capital to
college readiness of Filipino K-12 graduates.
While substance matters in an introduction its form is equally essential. Thus, consider the
following in writing your introduction:
1. It should be structured first before start writing.
2. It should contain 500 to 1,000 words.
3. It states concepts from general to specific (inverted pyramid).
4. It is written in an interesting manner.
5. It has coherent sentences and paragraphs.
6. It includes citations but do not overdo it.
7. It is written in active voice.
8. It cites sources to avoid plagiarism.