REPORT ON CONCENTRATED SOLAR

COLLECTORS

Submitted to:

❖ Prof. Walid El-Khattam

Submitted By:

❖ Mostafa Ahmed Zein

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ASU-JAMILA- Economics of RE and Hybrid Energy Systems
CONTENTS
Concentrated solar power (CSP) .......................................................................................................... 1
History................................................................................................................................................. 2
Current Technology ............................................................................................................................. 3
Parabolic Trough ............................................................................................................................. 3
Enclosed trough ........................................................................................................................... 3
Solar power tower ........................................................................................................................... 4
Fresnel reflectors ............................................................................................................................. 4
Dish Stirling ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery ................................................................................................... 5
Deployment around the world ............................................................................................................ 5
Efficiency ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Theory ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Ideal Case .................................................................................................................................... 7
Costs ................................................................................................................................................... 8
Future ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Suitable sites ................................................................................................................................... 8
Environmental effects ......................................................................................................................... 9
Effects on wildlife ............................................................................................................................ 9
Land use .......................................................................................................................................... 9
Life-Cycle global warming emissions ................................................................................................ 9
Comparison of Different CSP Technologies ........................................................................................ 10
References ........................................................................................................................................ 11
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Global Direct Normal Irradiation ............................................................................................ 1
Figure 2 Parabolic trough at a plant near Harper Lake, California ........................................................ 3
Figure 3 How enclosed troughs work ................................................................................................... 3
Figure 4 Enclosed Trough, Source: Glass Point ..................................................................................... 4
Figure 5 Ashalim Power Station, Israel, Concnetrates light from over 50,000 heliostats ...................... 4
Figure 6 Fresnel Reflector technology by CNIM ................................................................................... 4
Figure 7 A dish Stirling ......................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 8 Worldwide CSP capacity since 1984 in MWp .......................................................................... 5
Figure 9 Solar Concentration to Process temperature Graph ............................................................... 7
Figure 10 Overall efficiency- Receiver Temperature Graph .................................................................. 7
Figure 11 Dead warbler burned in mid-air by solar thermal power plant ............................................. 9
CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER (CSP)

Figure 1 Global Direct Normal Irradiation

Systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight onto a
receiver. Electricity is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat, which drives a heat
engine (usually a steam turbine) connected to an electrical power generator or powers a
thermochemical reaction.

As a thermal energy generating power station, CSP has more in common with thermal power stations
such as coal or gas or geothermal. A CSP plant can incorporate thermal energy storage, which stores
energy either in the form of sensible heat, or as latent heat (for example, using molten salt), which
enables these plants to continue to generate electricity whenever it is needed, day or night. This make
CSP a dispatchable form of solar.

Dispatchable renewable energy is particularly valuable in places where there is already a high
penetration of photovoltaics (PV), such as California because an evening peak is created as PV ramps
down at sunset (a phenomenon referred to as duck curve).

In 2017, CSP represented less than 2% of worldwide installed capacity of solar electricity plants.
However, in recent years the falling prices of CSP plants are making this technology competitive with
other base-load power plants using fossil and nuclear fuel.

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HISTORY
Archimedes used a “burning glass” to concentrate sunlight on the invading Roman fleet and repel them
from Syracuse. In 1973 a Greek scientist, Dr. Ioannis Sakkas, curious about whether Archimedes could
really have destroyed the Roman fleet in 212 BC, lined up nearly 60 Greek sailors, each holding an
oblong mirror tipped to catch the sun’s rays and direct them at a tar-covered plywood silhouette 49m
(160 ft) away. The ship caught fire after a few minutes; however, historians continue to doubt the
Archimedes story.

In 1866, Auguste Mouchout used a parabolic trough to produce steam for the first solar steam engine.
The first patent for a solar collector was obtained by the Italian Alessandro Battaglia in Genoa, Italy, in
1886. Over the following years, inventors such as John Ericsson and Frank Shuman developed
concentrating solar-powered devices for irrigation, refrigeration, and locomotion. In 1913 Shuman
finished a 55 horsepower (41 kW) Parabolic solar thermal energy station in Maadi, Egypt for irrigation.
The first solar-power system using a mirror dish was built by Dr.R.H. Goddard, in which he asserted
that all the previous obstacles had been addressed.

Professor Giovanni Francia (1911-1980) designed and built the first concentrated-solar plant, which
entered into operation in Italy in 1968. This plant had the architecture of today’s power tower plants
with a solar receiver in the center of a field of solar collectors. The plant was able to produce 1 MW
with superheated steam at 100 bar and 500𝑜 𝐶 . The 10 MW Solar One power tower was developed in
Southern California in 1981. Solar One was converted into Solar Two in 1995, implementing a new
design with a molten salt mixture (60% Sodium nitrate, 40% potassium nitrate) as the receiver working
fluid and as a storage medium.

No Commercial Concentrated solar was constructed from 1990 when Solar Energy Generating Systems
(SEGS) was completed until 2006 when the Compact linear Fresnel reflector system at Liddel Power
Station in Australia was built. Few other plants were built with this design although the 5 MW
Kimberlina Solar Thermal Energy Plant opened in 2009.

In 2007, 75 MW Nevada Solar One was built, a tough design and the first large plant since SEGS.
Between 2009 and 2013, Spain built over 40 parabolic trough systems, standardized in 50 MW blocks.

Due to the success of Solar Two, a commercial power plant, called Solar Tres Power Tower, was built
in Spain in 2011, later renamed Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant. Gemasolar’s results paved the way for
further plants of its type.

Most Concentrated solar power plants use the parabolic trough design, instead of the power tower or
Fresnel Systems. There have also been variations of parabolic trough systems like the integrated solar
combine cycle (ISCC) which combine troughs and conventional fossil fuel heat systems.

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By 2015 prices for photovoltaic plants had fallen and PV commercial power was selling of 1/3 of recent
CSP contracts. However, Increasingly, CSP was being bid with 3 to 12 hours of thermal energy storage,
making CSP a dispatchable form of solar energy. As such, it is increasingly seen as competing with
natural gas and PV with batteries for flexible, dispatchable power.

CURRENT TECHNOLOGY
Concentrating technologies exist in four optical types, namely parabolic trough, dish concentrating
linear Fresnel reflector, and Solar power tower. Parabolic trough and concentrating linear Fresnel
reflectors are classified as linear focus collector types. Dish and solar tower as the point focus type.
Linear focus collectors achieve medium concentration (50 suns and over), and point focus collectors
achieve high concentration (over 500 suns) factors. Although simple, these solar concentrators are
quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration.

Different types of concentrators produce different peak temperatures and correspondingly varying
thermodynamic efficiencies, due to differences in the way that they track the sun and focus light. New
innovations in CSP technology are leading systems to become more and more cost-effective.

PARABOLIC TROUGH
A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that
concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector’s
focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned directly above the middle
of the parabolic mirror and filled with a working fluid. The reflector
follows the sun during the daylight hours by tracking along a single
axis. A working fluid (e.g. molten salt) is heated to 150 − 350𝑜 𝐶
(302 − 662𝑜 𝐹) as it flows through the receiver and is then used as
a heat source for a power generation system. Trough systems are the
most developed CSP technology. Figure 2 Parabolic trough at a plant near Harper
Lake, California

ENCLOSED TROUGH

Figure 3 How enclosed troughs work

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The design encapsulates the solar thermal system
within a greenhouse-like glasshouse. The glasshouse
creates a protected environment to withstand the
elements that can negatively impact reliability and
efficiency of the ceiling of the glasshouse by wires. A
single-axis tracking system positions the mirror to
Figure 4 Enclosed Trough, Source: Glass Point
retrieve the optimal amount of sunlight. The
mirrors concentrate the sunlight and focus it on a network of stationary steel pipes, also suspended
from the glasshouse structure. Water is carried throughout the length of the pipe, which is boiled to
generate steam when intense solar radiation is applied. Sheltering the mirrors from the wind allow
them to achieve higher temperature rates and prevents dust from building up on the mirrors.

GlassPoint Solar, the company that created the Enclosed Trough design, states its technology can
produce heat for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) for about $5 per 290 kWh in sunny regions, compared
to between $10 and $12 for other conventional solar thermal technologies.

SOLAR POWER TOWER

Consists of an array of dual axis tracking reflectors (heliostats) that
concentrate sunlight on a central receiver atop a tower; the receiver
contains a heat-transfer fluid, which can consist of water-steam or molten
salt. Optically a solar power tower is the same as a circular Fresnel
reflector. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 500 − 1000𝑜 𝐶
and then used as a heat source for a power generation or energy storage
system. An advantage of the solar tower is the reflectors can be adjusted
instead of the whole tower. Power-tower development is less advanced
than trough systems, but they offer higher efficiency and better energy
storage capability.

Figure 5 Ashalim Power Station, Israel,

Concnetrates light from over 50,000 heliostats

FRESNEL REFLECTORS
Fresnel reflectors are made of many thin, flat mirror
strips to concentrate sunlight onto tubes through which
working fluid is pumped. Flat mirrors allow more
reflective surface in the same amount of space than a
parabolic reflector, thus capturing more of the available
sunlight, and they are much cheaper than parabolic
reflectors.

Figure 6 Fresnel Reflector technology by CNIM

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Fresnel reflectors are sometime regarded as a technology with a worse output than other methods.
The cost efficiency of this model is what causes some to use this instead of others with higher output
ratings. Some new models of Fresnel Reflectors with Ray Tracing capabilities have begun to be tested
and have initially proved to yield higher output than the standard version.

DISH STIRLING
A dish Stirling or dish engine system consists of a stand-alone parabolic
reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned at the
reflector’s focal point. The reflector tracks the Sun along two axes. The
working fluid in the receiver is heated to 250 − 700𝑜 𝐶 and then used by
a Stirling engine to generate power. Parabolic-dish systems provide high
solar-to-electric efficiency (31-32%).

Figure 7 A dish Stirling

SOLAR THERMAL ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

Heat from the sun can be used to provide steam used to make heavy oil less viscous and easier to
pump. Solar power tower and parabolic troughs can be used to provide the steam, which is used
directly so no generators are required, and no electricity is produced. Solar thermal enhanced oil
recovery can extend the life of oilfields with very thick oil which would not otherwise be economical
to pump.

DEPLOYMENT AROUND THE WORLD

Table 1 National CSP capacities in 2018 (MWp)

Country Total
Thailand 5
Australia 12
Egypt 20
Algeria 25
Saudi Arabia 50
United Arab Emirates 100
China 210
India 225
Morocco 380 Figure 8 Worldwide CSP capacity since 1984 in MWp

South Africa 400

United States 1,738
Spain 2,300
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Table 2 Worldwide Concentrated Solar Power (MWp)

EFFICIENCY
Depends on the technology used to convert the solar power to electrical energy, the operating
temperature of the receiver and the heat rejection, thermal losses in the system, and the presence or
absence of other system losses; in addition to the conversion efficiency, the optical system which
concentrates the sunlight will also add additional losses.

Real-world systems claim a maximum conversion efficiency of 23-35% for “power tower” type systems,
operating at temperatures from 250 − 565𝑜 𝐶 , with the higher efficiency number assuming a
combined cycle turbine. Dish Stirling systems claim an efficiency about 30%. Due to variation in sun
incidence during the day, the average conversion efficiency achieved is not equal to these maximum
efficiencies, and the net annual solar-to-electricity efficiencies are 7-20% for pilot power tower
systems, and 12-25% for demonstration-scale Stirling dish systems.

THEORY
For a solar receiver with a mechanical converter (e.g. a turbine), the overall conversion efficiency can
be defined as follows:

𝜂 = 𝜂𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠 . 𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 . 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 . 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

Where 𝜂𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠 ≡ represents the fraction of incident light concentrated onto the receiver, 𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 ≡
the fraction of light incident on the receiver that is converted into heat energy, 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ≡
conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy and 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 ≡ efficiency of converting the
mechanical energy into electrical power.

𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝜂𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 =
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡

The conversion efficiency 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 is at most the Carnot efficiency, which is determined by
temperature of receiver 𝑇𝐻 and the temperature of heat rejection 𝑇 0

𝑇0
𝜂𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 −
𝑇𝐻

The real-world efficiencies of typical engines achieve 50% to at most 70% of the Carnot efficiency due
to losses such as heat loss and windage in the moving parts.

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IDEAL CASE
For a solar flux 𝐼 , Concentrated 𝐶 times with an efficiency 𝜂𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠 on the system solar receiver with a
collecting area 𝐴 and an absorpitivity 𝛼:

𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝐼 𝐶 𝐴 , 𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝜂𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠 . 𝛼 . 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟

For simplicity’s sake, assume that losses are only radiative ones (a fair assumption for high
temperatures), thus for a reradiating area 𝐴 and an emissivity 𝜖 :

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴 𝜖 𝜎 𝑇𝐻4

Simplifying these equations by considering perfect optics (𝜂𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠 = 1) and without considering the
ultimate conversion step into electricity by a generator, collecting and reradiating areas equal and
maximum absorptivity and emissivity (𝛼 = 1 , 𝜖 = 1) then substituting in the first equation gives:

𝜎 𝑇𝐻4 𝑇0
𝜂 = (1 − ) . (1 − )
𝐼𝐶 𝑇𝐻

It shows that overall efficiency does not

increase steadily with the receiver’s
temperature. The receiver’s efficiency is
decreasing, as the amount of energy it
cannot absorb ( 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 ) grows by the
fourth power as a function of
temperature. Hence, there is a maximum
reachable temperature. When the
receiver efficiency is null (Blue curve on
𝐼 𝐶 0.25 Figure 10 Overall efficiency- Receiver Temperature Graph
fig 10), 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( 𝜎 ) . There is
temperature 𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑡 for which the efficiency is maximum, i.e. when the efficiency derivative relative to
𝑑𝜂
the receiver temperature is null: 𝑑𝑇 (𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑡 ) = 0 , consequently, this leads us to the following equation:
𝐻
5 4 𝑇 0 𝐼𝐶
𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑡 − (0.75 𝑇 0 )𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑡 − 4𝜎
= 0, Solving this equation numerically allows us to obtain the optimum
process temperature according to the solar concentration ratio 𝐶 (red curve on fig 10)

Figure 9 Solar Concentration to Process temperature Graph

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COSTS
Nathaniel Bullard, a solar analyst at Bloomberg New Energy Finance, calculated that the cost of
electricity at the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, a project contracted in 2009 and completed in 2014 in
Southern California, would be lower than that from PV and about the same as that from natural gas.

However, due to the rapid decline of PV, in November 2011, Google announced that they+ would not
invest further in CSP projects Google had invested US$168 million on BrightSource.

At the 2016 Chile auction, SolarReserve bid $63/MWh (₵ 6.3/KWh) for 24-hour CSP power with no
subsidies, competing with other types such as LNG gas turbines. In 2017, prices for both bids and signed
contracts fell rapidly by 50% from 9.4 cents per KWh in May, to under 5 cents in October. In May, Dubai
Electricity and Water (DEWA) received bids at 9.4 cents per kWh. In August DEWA signed a contract
with Saudi-based ACWA power at 7.3 cents per kWh. In September, SolarReserve signed a contract to
supply the evening peak in South Australia at 6.1 cents per kWh, lower than the price of natural gas
generation. In October 2017, SolarReserve bid into the 2017 Chilean Auction at 5 cents per kWh.

As of November 2017, prices in the MENA Region (Middle East and North Africa) are at 7 cents per
kWh or lower according to ACWA Power. The capital costs have fallen by 50% in last five years.

FUTURE
A Study done by Greenpeace International, the European Solar Thermal Electricity Association, and the
International Energy Agency’s SolarPACES group investigated that potential and future of concentrated
solar power. The study found that concentrated solar power could account for up to 25% of the world’s
energy needs by 2050. The Increase in investment would be from €2 billion worldwide to €92.5 billion
in that time period. Finally, the study acknowledged how technology for CSP was improving and how
this would result in a drastic decrease by 2050. It predicted a drop from the current range of €0.23-
0.15/kWh to €0.14-0.10/kWh.

China plans to have a total capacity of 5.3 GW of load following CSP power plants by 2022. By 2018,
the LCOE of CSP with 15 hours storage in China has fallen to 0.1US$/kWh.

CSP has other uses than electricity, Researchers are investigating solar thermal reactors to produce
solar fuels, making solar a fully transportable form of energy in the future. Theses researchers use the
solar heat of CSP as a catalyst for thermochemistry to break apart molecules of 𝐻2 𝑂 and 𝐶𝑂2 , other
much -used hydrocarbons- for example, the jet fuel used to fly commercial airplanes – could also be
created with solar energy rather than from fossil fuels.

SUITABLE SITES
The locations with highest direct irradiance are dry, at high altitude, and located in the tropics. These
locations have a higher potential for CSP than areas with less sun.

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ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
CSP has several environmental effects, particularly on water use, land use and the use of hazardous
materials. Water is generally used for cooling and to clean mirrors. Cleaning agents (hydrochloric acid,
sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride, acetone and others) are also used for semiconductor
surface cleaning. Some projects are looking into various approaches to reduce the water and cleaning
agents use, including the use of barriers, non-stick coatings on mirrors, water misting systems, and
others.

EFFECTS ON WILDLIFE
Insects can be attracted to the bright light caused by
concentrated solar technology, and as a result birds that
hunt them can be killed by being burned if the fly near
the point where light is being focused. This can also affect
raptors who hunt the birds. Federal wildlife officials were
quoted by opponents as calling the Ivanpah power
towers “mega taps” for wildlife.

According to rigorous reporting, in over six months, 133

singed birds were counted. By focusing no more than four
mirrors on any one place in the air during standby, at
Figure 11 Dead warbler burned in mid-air by solar thermal
Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project, in three months, power plant
the death rate dropped to zero.

LAND USE
Larger utility-scale solar facilities can raise concerns about land degradation and habitat loss. Total land
area requirements vary depending on the technology, the topography of the site, and the intensity of
the solar resources. Estimates for utility-scale PV systems range from 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt,
while estimates for CSP facilities are between 4 and 16.5 acres per megawatt.

Unlike wind facilities, there is less opportunity for solar projects to share land with agricultural uses.
However, land impacts from utility-scale solar systems can be minimized by siting them at lower-
quality locations such as brownfields, abandoned mining land, or existing transportation and
transmission corridors. Smaller scale solar PV arrays, which can be built on homes or commercial
buildings, also have minimal land use impact.

LIFE-CYCLE GLOBAL WARMING EMISSIONS

While there are no global warming emissions associated with generating electricity from solar energy,
there are emissions associated with other stages of the solar lifecycle, including manufacturing,
materials transportation, installation, maintenance and decommissioning and dismantlement. Most
estimates for Concentrating solar power range from 0.08 to 0.2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent

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per kilowatt-hour. This is far less than the lifecycle emission rates for natural gas (0.6-2 lbs. of
Co2E/kWh) and coal (1.4-3.6 lbs. of CO2E/kWh).

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT CSP TECHNOLOGIES

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REFERENCES
(IRENA), I. R. E. A., 2012. RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: COST ANALYSIS SERIES, Abu Dhabi :
IRENA.

GlassPoint, 2019. Technology. [Online]

Available at: https://www.glasspoint.com/technology/

Scientists, U. o. C., 2013. Environmental Impacts of Solar Power. [Online]

Available at: https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/environmental-impacts-solar-
power#:~:targetText=The%20potential%20environmental%20impacts%20associated,solar%20therm
al%20plants%20(CSP).

Wikipedia, 2019. Concentrated solar power. [Online]

Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power

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