Sets, Real Number System and Logic 13 1.5 Laws of Algebra of Sets Combinations of various relations and operations defined on sets give rise to a number of interesting and useful results. Some of them are so fundamental that they are considered as the basic laws of set algebra. We discuss them under the following four categories. a) Properties of Inclusion and Equality Relations Theorem 1 : Let A, B and C be subsets of a universal set U. Then i) ACB,BcC>AcC ij) A=B=>B=A ii) A=B,B=C>A=C iv) Aco>A=o Proof: i) Letx bean element of A. ThenxeA = xeB (ACB) => xeC (Beco) AcC => AcBandBcA => BcAandAcB => B=A iii) Letx be an element of A ThenxeA => xeB (‘.A=B) > xeC (VB=Q Acc Again let y be an element of C. Then,yeC => yeB (\C=B) => yeA (.B=A) CcA Since Ac C and CCA, s0, A=C. iv) Since 9cA By given Aco ii) A= A=o b) Properties of Untons Theorem 2 Let A, B and C be the subsets of a universal set U. Then i) AUA=A ii) AUo=o Scanned with CamScannerBASIC MATHEMATICS: GRADE Xt 4 iy) AUU=U iv) AUB=9=>A=oandB=g i apa A vi) (AUB)UC=AUBUC) v a Proof: i) AVA = (exe Aorxe A} ={axeA}=A i) AUo = (exe Aorx eo} =(uxeA}=A ii) AUU = (xe Aorxe U} =(axeU} (ACU) =U iv) Since, ACAUB => Ace (- AUB=8) But 9cA 2 Azo ‘Again since, BC AUB => Beco But ocB B=o v) AUB= {cx Aorx eB} vi) (AUB) UC= {x:x € AUBorx eC} = (x: (x € A orx eB) orx € C} xeAor(x €Borxe ©} :x€ Aorx € BUC} =AUUC) c) Properties of Intersections Theorem 3 Sap Let A, B and C be the subsets of a universal set U. Then, : i) ANA=A ii) Ano=o teil iii) AQU=A iv) ANB=BOA vy) (ANB)AC=ANBNC) _ > epee i) ANA ={xxeAandx eA} Scanned with CamScannerSets, Real Number System and Logic 15 XEA}=A € Aandx € 9} XeB}=0 ii) Ano ii) ANU ={x:xeAandxeU} xe A} (ACU) iv) ANB x Aandx € B} {x:x € Bandx € A} BOA vy) (ANB)OC= {xx © AMBandx eC} = (x: (« © Aandx € B) and x € C} xix € A and (x ¢ Band x € C)} = {xix ¢ Aandx € BOC} ANAC) d) Miscellaneous Properties Let A, B and C be the subsets ofa universal set U. Then, L i) AUBAO=(AvB)N(AVO i) AABUO=(AnB)U(An®) I i) AUA=U ii) ANA=0 iii) A=A II. De-Morgan’s Law i) AUB=AnB ii) AQB=AUB. IV. i) A-(BAC=(A-B)U(A-C) i) A-BUC)=(A-B)N(A-O) iii) AA(B-C)=(ANB)-(ANO) Proofs: Li) AUBNO)= {xx eAorx e BAC} x: x € Aor (x € Bandx € C)} = (x: (x e Aorx eB) and (x ¢ Aorx eC} xix € AUBandx € AUC} =(AUB)N(AUO) i) AABUO={xxeAandx eBUC} = {x:x € Aand (x e Borx € ©)} Scanned with CamScannerBASIC MATHEMATICS: GRADE XI 16 = a: (& ¢ Aand x € B)or (x € Aandx ¢ C)} xix e AABorx EANC} =(ANB)U(ANC) LAVA xeAorxe A} fixe U}=U i) ANA eAandxe A} sxe Aandx ¢ A} x: x € 9} ° ii) A =(uxeA) ={cxe AHA Ii) AUB ={x:x ¢ AUB} (x: x ¢ A and x ¢ B} = (cx ¢Aorx ¢ BY ={cxe Aorxe B} =AUB WV. i) A-(BNC)= {xx e Aandx ¢ BNC} ix: x € A and (x ¢ Borx ¢ ©} = Oc (xe A andx ¢B) or(x € A andx ¢ ©} xe¢A-BorxeA-C} (A-B)U(A-C) ii) A-(BUC)=(x:xe Aandx ¢ BUC} {x:x © Aand (x ¢ Bandx ¢ ©} ix: (x € A and x ¢ B) and (x € A andx ¢ C)} {x:x ¢ A-Bandx « A-C} (A -B) A (A-C) iii) AO (B-C)= (cx Aandx e B-C} = {x:x € Aand (x ¢ Bandx ¢ ©} Scanned with CamScanner“Sets, Real Number System and Logic 7 = (x: (x € A and x € B) and (x € A andx ¢ C)} = (xe AQBandx ¢ ANC} =(ANB)-(AnC) We now summarize the above properties as the “Laws of Algebra of sets”. The laws of algebra of sets are presented in the following form. Let A, B and C be the subsets of a universal set U. 1. Inclusion Laws i) ACA ii) AcB,BCA>A=B iii) ACB,BcC>AcC iy) ocA 2. Identity Laws i) AUo=A ii) Ano=o iil) AUU=U iv) ANU=A 3. Idempotent Laws i) AUA=A ii) ANA=A 4. Commutative Laws i) AUB=BUA ii) AQB=BNA 5. Associative Laws i) AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC ii) AQ(BOC)=(ANB)NC 6. Distributive Laws i) AU(BAC=(AVB)N(AUO) ii) AN(BUOQ=(ANB)UANO 7. Complement Laws i) U=o ii) o =U iii) A=A iv) AUA=U vy) ANA=0 8. De-Morgan’s Laws i ii) AQB=AUB 9. Difference Laws i) A-BUO)=(A-B)N(A-C it), A-~BAC=(A-B)U(A-E) Scanned with CamScannerWorked Out Examples Example 1 Prove that AA BCA. Solution: Let x be an element of A 7 B. Then,xeANB => xeAandxeB > xeA ANBcCA Example 2 Prove that A-Bc B Solution: Let x be an element of A-B Then, xe A-B =>xeAandx¢B =>x¢Aandxe B Sie 5 -A-BEoB Example 3 Prove that A-~B=AN B Solution: A-B = {x:x € Aandx ¢ B} = (xe Aandxe B} =ANB Example 4 If AA B=o, prove that Bc A. Solution: Let x be an element of B. Then xeB => x€A (AN B=2) > xeA BoA Scanned with CamScannerSets, Real Number System and Logic 19 Example S Prove that: AA B=(A UB)~(A MB) Solution: By the definition A A B =(A-B) U (B- A) So, AAB ={x:xeA-BorxeB-A} = {x: (x € A and x ¢ B) or (x € Band x ¢ A)} = {x: (x € A or x eB) and (x ¢ Aorx ¢ B)} {xix © AUBandx ¢ ANB} =(AUB)-(ANB) 1,4 ISE 1 1. Prove that a) ANBcB b) A-BcA °c) A-BCAUB 2. IfAMB=., prove that a) ACB b) BAA=B °c) AUB=B 3, IFACB, prove that a) BoA b) AUB=B °) ANB=A 4. Prove that a) B-A=BNA b) A-B=AnB c) A-B=B-A d) A-(A-B)=ANB_ ¢) (A-B)NB=o 5, fA, Band C are the subsets of a universal set U, prove that a) AUBAC=(AUB)N(ALO b) AN(BUC=(ANB)U(ANO) 6. IFA, Band Care the subsets of a universal set U, prove that a) (AUBY=A'OB b) (ANB)'=A'UB! o) A-(UC)=(A-B)N(A-C)=(A-B)-C 4) A-@A0=(A-B)U(A-C) Scanned with CamScanner20 BASIC MATHEMATICS: GRADE XI 1.6 Real Number System ¥ Number is one of the basic concepts of mathematics. Its origin goes back to ancient times Primitive man got this idea through the process of matching (pairing a set of pebbles with the flock of sheep by laying aside a pebble for each sheep) and considering the order of occutrrencg In other words, the set of numbers discovered or invented by human beings in the early days of civilization are the counting number. Now, in this section some acquintances with the con of number and its extension to the system of real numbers and their properties are presented, ‘Natural Numbers The simplest and the most familiar unending chain of consecutive numbers 1, 2, 3, .. 10, 11, 12, ...... 101, 102, 103, are known as the natural numbers. The natural numbers _ are also known as the counting numbers. The set of natural numbers are denoted by N. N= (1, 2,3, 4, ..., 10, 11, 12, ..., 101, 102, 103, ...} Since the sum and the product of two natural numbers are again natural numbers, so natural numbers are said to be closed under the operation of addition and mutliplication. e For example: 2,3 ¢ N | Then, 2+3=5eN and 23=6eN. | But the difference of two natural numbers may or may not be a natural number. So, a new _ number i.e. integers are developed. Integers The set of natural numbers together with their negatives including zero are known as the set of integers. 1, 2, 3, 4, ... are also known as the positive integers and —1, -2, -3, -4, ...... the negative integers. The set of integers are denoted by Z or I. j -3,-2,-1, 0, 1,2,3,4, ...} The sum, difference and the product of two integers are again integers. So integers are said to be closed under the operation of addition, subtraction and multiplication. For example: 2,3 € Z 24+3=5eZ, 2x3=6e€Z and 2-3=-1eZ But the quotient of two integers may or may not be an integer. So, a new number ie. rational numbers are developed. Rational Number ‘A number in the form of P where p and q are integers and q #0 is known as a rational number. The set of rational numbers are denoted by Q. Qe tk: x=, pandg are integers and q #0} ‘A rational number can also be expressed as a terminating decimal or a repeating decimals. Scanned with CamScannerSets, Real Number System and Logic 2 31 For example: 3, -2, 5,3 , 0.25, 0.666... etc are the rational numbers. The sum, difference, product and the quotient of two rational numbers are again rational numbers. So, rational numbers are closed under the operation of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. ‘ But extraction of root of a rational number may not be a rational number. So, again a new number known as an irrational number is developed. : Irrational Numbers Numbers which are not rational are known as irrational. That is, a number which cannot be expressed in the form of P where p and q are integers and q # 0, is known as an irrational number. The set of irrational number is denoted by Q (the complement of Q). Irrational numbers also have the non-terminating and non-repeating decimals. -J2 , 9/4, n, e are the examples of irrational numbers. Real Numbers The union of the set of rational and irrational numbers is known as the set of real numbers. So, by the set of real numbers, we have the set of natural numbers, the set of integers, the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers. The set of real numbers are denoted by R. Thus the set of rational and irrational numbers taken together, form a new system of numbers known as the real number system. ‘A diagram showing the family of real numbers is presented below: Real Numbers Rational Numbers Integers Fractions Positive Integers Zero Negative Integers (Natural numbers) The family members of the real numbers have the following set relation. NcZcQcR : Scanned with CamScanner