Sustainability 12 10113

sustainability
Article
Examples of Problem-Solving Strategies in
Mathematics Education Supporting the Sustainability
of 21st-Century Skills
Zsuzsanna Katalin Szabo 1, * , Péter Körtesi 2 , Jan Guncaga 3 , Dalma Szabo 4 and
Ramona Neag 1
1 Faculty of Economics and Law, “George Emil Palade” University of Medicine, Pharmacy,
Science and Technology of Târgu-Mures, , 540566 Tîrgu-Mures, , Romania; ramona.neag@umfst.ro
2 Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Miskolc, 3515 Miskolc, Hungary;
matkp@uni-miskolc.hu
3 Faculty of Education, Comenius University in Bratislava, 81334 Bratislava, Slovakia; guncaga@fedu.uniba.sk
4 Freelance Marketer, 90408 Nürnberg, Germany; k.dalma.szabo@gmail.com
* Correspondence: szabo.zs.katalin@gmail.com

Received: 15 October 2020; Accepted: 30 November 2020; Published: 3 December 2020
Abstract: The overall aim of education is to train proactive, motivated, and independent citizens to
face and overcome continuous challenges. Critical thinking—finding solutions to problems—is of
primary importance in the 21st century to handle challenging situations and deal with obstacles in
careers. A critical literature review approach was used to assess, critique, synthesizes, and expand
the theoretical foundation of the topic. Teaching mathematical problem-solving is an efficient way
to develop 21st-century skills and to give cross-curricular experiences with real-world meaning to
learners. Concrete examples were presented to prove that Pólya’s heuristic could be used in a broader
context to help learners acquire the modern skills needed to succeed in their careers. By including in
the learning process and practicing specific methods for solving mathematical problems, students
could learn a way of thinking to approach and solve problems successfully in a broader context in life.
The paper’s outcome provides teachers and educators with methods, learning models, and strategies
for developing 21st-century skills in students at all levels during classroom activities.
Keywords: problem-solving strategy; critical thinking; 21st-century skills; heuristic; sustainability;

mathematical education; cross-curricular integration; transversal skills
MSC: 97C70; 97D50
1. Introduction
In the 1980s and 1990s, many research papers predicting that future growth will depend on new
competencies, abilities, and skills at the workplace were published. The statement made by Davis
in his research paper from 1988 came true and portrays today’s society [1] (p. 139): “As compared
to the medieval world or the world of antiquity, today’s world is characterized as being scientific,
technological, rational, and mathematized.” This “mathematized world” in which we live today is
dynamic and rapidly changing. The expansion of the web in the last two decades from the web of things
to the web of thought presents a real provocation across economies and demands a qualified workforce.
Hence, different organizations, educators, businesses, governments, researchers, and professionals
worldwide have started to identify the skills needed and to analyze when and how they can be taught
to provide appropriate pedagogical methods. Scientific expertise grows at warp speed, which leads to
Sustainability 2020, 12, 10113; doi:10.3390/su122310113 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 10113 2 of 28
questioning of what skills are essential for students in order to face work challenges and to become
successful citizens.
Sustainable development needs innovation to drive competitiveness, and it demands technological
infrastructure to create an environment where the latest technology and knowledge can blend to trigger
new approaches and solutions. It is widely acknowledged that 21st-century knowledge is an enabler
of growth, that performance is redefined, that economic growth, sustainable economic development,
social cohesion, and equality of opportunity depend on workforce skills, and that abilities need to meet
the information-age requirements. Therefore, sustainable economic growth requires new qualities
and different features, and solicits educational systems to equip learners and students with skills and
competencies that help them manage change and generate and execute ideas through flexibility and
initiative. These qualities are judged to be vital for navigating the complexities and uncertainties of the
modern world; thus, they are labelled as 21st-century skills.
The present paper aims to demonstrate through concrete examples how problem solving based
on mathematical content can foster the development of 21st-century skills, and it proves that teaching
problem-solving strategies through mathematics can develop complex problem-solving skills that
strengthen critical thinking. The goal of the paper is not to analyze the challenges of mathematical
problem solving in-depth, but to prove the relevance of the Pólya method in the context of 21st-century
problem solving, to provide ways to develop concepts and strategies, and, thus, to develop competences
through mathematics education at universities. Its outcome provides teachers and educators with
methods, learning models, and strategies for developing 21st-century skills in students during
classroom activities.
The research methodology adopted is a secondary qualitative methodology, led by the following
questions: What are 21st-century skills? How are they defined? How could mathematics education
help in developing 21st-century problem-solving skills? What methodology and methods could
be introduced in teaching and learning mathematics to enhance the cross-curricular integration of
problem solving?
An integrative literature review was conducted to evaluate the theory, provide an overview
of the knowledge base, and examine the validity and accuracy of certain mathematical theories in
order to answer the research questions. To make the greatest contribution to the paper, we used
the following criteria: reliable sources of content (international institutions and scientific literature
databases), relevance to the topic, and novelty and innovation in the field. The primary keywords used
during the research were 21st-century skills, problem solving, 21st-century skill learning strategies,
21st-century skill learning models, and teacher readiness to implement 21st-century skills.
The article is organized as follows: Section 2 defines what 21st-century skills are and why are they
are important; Section 3 presents a short overview of mathematical problem solving and reveals its
connection to 21st-century skills. Section 4 contains some relevant methodological examples, learning
strategies, methods, and models of the applications of problem-solving strategies in mathematics and
shows how the Pólya heuristic principles work in the examples presented, proving their relevance and
that it could become a tool to develop 21st-century skills. Lastly, Section 5 presents the discussions,
conclusions, and further research possibilities.
2. Scope of 21st-Century Skills

Technological development is broadly recognized as a driver of change, and it is assumed in [2] that
“information technologies are affecting jobs, skills, wages, and the economy.” In this sense, technology
requires the elevation of the cognitive abilities of the workforce. Furthermore, globalization demands
international competitiveness and is deemed as another change driver. The modern workplace needs
new skills to an even greater extent, namely the ability to solve non-routine problems, complex
communication competencies, and verbal and quantitative literacy [3].
At the “Meeting of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Education
Ministers” in 2001, topics on “investing in competencies for all” were debated, and it was
highlighted that the knowledge economy is rapidly changing the demand for skills and competencies.
As background material for this meeting, a special edition of the Education Policy Analysis (EPA) [4]
was published, which explores the competencies required in the knowledge economy. Chapter
4 lists the “workplace competencies” needed in a knowledge economy: “communication skills,
problem-solving skills, the ability to work in teams, and information and communication technology
(ICT) skills”, with the mention that these “are becoming important and complementary to the basic
core or foundation skills.” Thus, the new transversal skills are communication, problem solving,
teamwork, and decision-making [4]. Additionally, the working paper published by the OECD presents
the issues related to the teaching and assessment of the 21st-century skills and competencies, proposing
a new framework for thinking about these in terms of three dimensions: information, communication,
and ethics and social impact. Concerning the information dimension, the following critical skills
are identified [5] (p. 9): “research and problem-solving as they both involve at some point defining,
searching for, evaluating, selecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting information.”
The New Skills Agenda for Europe [6] emphasizes the strategic importance of skills “for sustaining
jobs, growth, and competitiveness” and indicates that “formal education and training should equip
everyone with a broad range of skills . . . these include transversal skills such as . . . critical thinking,
problem-solving.” The European Skills Agenda for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness, and
resilience published in 2020 is built on the Recovery Plan for Europe [6] (p. 4–5), and highlights that [7]
(p. 13): “Beyond technical skills, the labor market needs transversal skills like working together, critical
thinking, and creative problem solving.”
The European Skills, Competences, and Occupations (ESCO) outlines eight broad categories,
each comprising a number of specific skills sets. In the first place is the category consisting of
“communication, collaboration, and creativity” to which belong 16 skills, including “solving problems”,
defined as [8]: “developing and implementing solutions to practical, operational, or conceptual
problems which arise in the execution of work in a wide range of contexts.” The subset of skills
that belong to it are solving problems, developing solutions, and implementing new procedures or
processes [8].
There are various definitions, debates, initiatives, teaching methods, and assessments presented
and examined by different interested groups (educational researchers, policymakers, teachers,
employers), such as the P21 Partnership for 21st-century learning [9], National Research Council
(NRC) [10], Assessment and Teaching of 21st-century skills (ATC21) [11], and Applied Educational
System (AES) [12]. ATC21 [11] defined ten 21st-century skills and grouped them in four categories
under the name KSAVE (knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and ethics). The first category includes
ways of thinking (creativity and innovation, critical thinking, problem solving, decision-making,
learning to learn, metacognition), the second one includes ways of working, the third one includes
tools for doing work and, lastly, ways of living in the world. The ACT21 white papers were published
by Springer Science and Business Media, and the volume was edited in 2012 [13]. Since 1994,
the “Generation Ready” organization [14] has helped educators to train students to be ready for life’s
challenges. Moreover, to assist students and learners in staying competitive in the changing world
and labor market, the AES identified 12 essential skills that must be acquired during education. It is
claimed that these “21st-century” skills are needed to prevail and succeed in careers through the
information age. The considered skills were grouped into three categories, namely: learning skills
(critical thinking—finding solutions to problems, creativity, collaboration, communication), literacy
skills (information literacy, media literacy, technology literacy), and life skills (flexibility, leadership,
initiative, productivity, social skills). These skills are universal requirements for the 21st century;
however, their importance varies from case to case, depending on each individual’s career aspirations.
The National Science Teacher Association (NSTA) reinforces the definition of the 21st-century
skills provided by P21 and NRC, which incorporates core subject knowledge, learning and
innovation skills, information, media, and technology skills, life and career skills, adaptability,
complex communication/social skills, non-routine problem solving, self-management/self-development,
and system thinking. According to Ouedraogo et al. [15], problem-solving skills have an impact on
innovativeness: “Creative problem-solving affects innovation outcomes and non-financial performance
when innovative culture is high.”
The NSTA observed a strong correlation between 21st-century skills and science education, thus
recommending them to be included and taught in core disciplines. The NSTA Board of Directors
adopted the Declaration for Quality Science Education in June 2011 [16].
Furthermore, digital technologies are rated as one of the most powerful driving forces in the
modern economy, making the workplace a mathematized environment. Davis argued that, in everyday
life, citizens need to understand the ways mathematics influence and shape their life. “Computerization
represents the effective means for the realization of current mathematizations as well as an independent
driving force toward the installation of an increasing number of mathematizations” [1] (p. 139). In this
context, it can be understood why core subjects listed in the P21 framework include mathematics and
why it is considered essential for all students in the 21st century. The P21 [9] was founded in 2001 in
Washington, D.C., and the organization, in collaboration with businesses, educators, governments,
and parents, aims to ensure that all students are qualified for career readiness and global citizenship.
There is no doubt that 21st-century skills can be acquired and taught through mathematics,
since teachers can actively engage students and learners in complex mathematical tasks and develop
students’ strategic thinking, which impacts both personal and professional life circumstances.
Since cross-curricular thinking is required at modern workplaces in the information age
to encourage collaboration in different fields, it is recommended to promote and enhance the
cross-curricular integration of mathematics.
Nevertheless, math teachers have to use innovative, sustainable teaching strategies, and in this
respect, they need to define problems and assignments differently.
The P21 Math Map is a fundamental toolkit that helps students recognize the utility of mathematics
and better understand the world. The 21st-century skills map was released in collaboration with
the nation’s math educators and includes examples of how, through mathematics teaching in K–12
education, 21st-century skills can be developed [17].
Jang investigated and studied the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics)
education and how it covers the 21st-century skills required in performing work-related tasks [18].
He identified relevant 21st-century STEM competencies using data from the workplace, which he
consequently classified. By being aware of the required skills, STEM educators can develop reformed
curricula that connect education and work, thus helping them train better-suited graduates for their
future careers. “First, STEM workers appear to be required to have higher-order thinking skills, such as
critical thinking, complex problem solving, and judgment and decision making. Specifically, they are
required to solve problems using skills of mathematics and science. STEM workers need to use logic
and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions” [18]. Therefore, STEM
graduate experts recognize cognitive skills (non-routine problem solving, system thinking, and critical
thinking) as increasingly important in the labor market. Moreover, according to Koenig, cognitive
skills require reasoning skills [19].
The critical review of the literature presented above reveals that problem solving is one of the
most valuable skills progressively expected from job seekers in the modern workplace.
3. A Short Overview of Mathematical Problem Solving

According to Pehkonen [20], the primary role of teaching mathematics in many countries across
all age groups is to foster the students’ understanding of mathematical structures and to develop
mathematical thinking [21]. Moreover, he claims that teaching has to support the learners’ mathematical
thinking and to provide a basic understanding of mathematical concepts and constructs that will give
them a foundation to deal with information and solve problems. Thus, it means that it is not enough to
practice mechanical skills in mathematics, but to practice mathematical thinking and to solve real-life
challenges are equally critical. In many countries, this is the primary purpose of school teaching,
and one great example is the United States [22]. Hence, the goal of teaching should be to train active
independent citizens who are proactive, motivated, and able to think critically to help them overcome
obstacles that they will encounter later in their life.
According to Rosli et al. [23], the shift in learning theory from behaviorism to constructivism has
had a significant impact on the teaching and learning of mathematics. Many mathematics educators
developed numerous constructivist theories to gain knowledge in the subject, such as Hejny [24].
If students have the possibility to develop their mathematical knowledge, and they do not only see
quick mathematical solutions, then their know-how can be expanded and can become sustainable. It is
vital, according to Mason [25], to cultivate and sustain mathematical thinking in students; thus, the tools
used in this regard can make them sensitive to their learning experiences in mathematics education.
The first results on this subject were published with the title “How to solve it” by Pólya. In his
most cited book [26] published in 1945, the Pólya heuristic method developed for mathematical
problem solving had a significant impact on mathematical thinking and methodology development.
Pólya’s strategy can be considered an accumulation point of mathematical thinking and had a powerful
influence on the research done by his followers who implemented his approach in their work.
In 1980, Schoenfeld introduced a framework [27] for analyzing how and why some people are
successful in problem solving and others not. A review of the evolution of problem solving and
recent trends is presented in the papers by Voskoglou [28,29]. According to Kalmykova [30] (p. 49),
Bogolyubov considers “both the analytic and synthetic method negatively if operating in isolation,
contrasting with the case if the processes of analysis and synthesis interact.” In contrast, Pólya’s strategy
is an attempt to combine the two approaches. The authors consider that the first step, “understanding
the problem”, is, in fact, the primary analytic breakdown of the problem, while the steps “make a plan”
and “execute the plan” are related to the synthetic breakdown. The final stage, “feedback”, is rooted
analytically, so the analytic–synthetic method is closer to Pólya’s strategy [26].
Mathematics is, in fact, a complex problem-solving activity, not just linear thinking. Walle stated
that, “Teaching mathematics through problem-solving generally means that children solve problems
to learn new mathematics, not just to apply mathematics after it has been learned. This helps
children develop relational understanding” [31] (p.12). Moreover, “The importance of problem solving
in learning mathematics comes from the belief that mathematics is primarily about reasoning, not
memorization. Hence, problem solving allows students to develop the understanding and to explain the
processes used to arrive at solutions, rather than remembering and applying a set of procedures” [32].
In 2016, a literature review of the critical debates on mathematical problem solving was
published [2]. According to English and Gainsburg [2], the practice of problem solving develops
unique abilities in learners.
The authors examine ways how it can be taught to make students successful problem solvers
in the 21st-century and how mathematical content can foster general skills. Some remarks on the
principles presented in their paper [2] are:
• Since additional mathematics courses are not an optimal solution, it is more useful to implement
the teaching of problem-solving strategies in the existing mathematics education.
• Specific noncognitive and general skills (that are typically underpromoted in education) are highly
expected in work. Many of them belong to a high cognitive level, so it is worth paying attention
to their improvement during mathematics lessons.
• It is essential to study different facets of some mathematical notions, since they help to understand
and design conceptual models that represent the basis of processes and systems in IT fields.
• Mathematics should not be an isolated discipline. Students have to be able to connect knowledge
from different mathematical disciplines; for example, to connect algebra and geometry to
other knowledge.
• Employers highly favor the ability to apply one’s knowledge and experience to novel, unfamiliar
situations. This is presumed to be most effectively fostered when learning occurs in work-based
contexts or when replicated in schools. International studies such as the TIMSS (Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study) and PISA (PISA is the OECD’s Program for
International Student Assessment) emphasize this dimension in mathematics education using
nonroutine tasks from real life.
Rahman [33] describes the concept of problem solving and a theoretical framework of
problem-solving skills with a literature review in his paper from 2019.
Evans and Swan [34] present the value of critiquing alternative problem-solving strategies, advising
a change in the “triple X” teaching—exposition, examples, exercises—with learning mathematics by
understanding, critiquing, comparing, and discussing multiple approaches to a problem.
Lester and Cai [35] provided an analysis of 30 years of research on teaching problem solving,
and highlighted that problem-solving skills cannot be taught separately; they must be incorporated
in mathematics training. Moreover, teaching problem solving through mathematics involves giving
math depth and illustrating concepts and problem-solving techniques [35] (p. 120): “Developing
students’ ability to solve problems is not an isolated instructional act or a topic that is covered separately
from the rest of the math curriculum...Learning of substantive mathematical content and developing
problem-solving skills cannot be separated from one another; problem-solving should be infused into
all aspects of mathematics learning.”
Schoenfeld [36] stated that problem solving is a goal-oriented “acting in the moment” activity like
“teaching, cooking, and brain surgery.” Furthermore, Hung and Seokhee [37] indicate that students
and learners can grow and nurture their mathematical thinking by themselves by expanding the
complexity of their mathematical skills through problem choices that match their interests. Any idea
or solution gained by students through independent internalization will remain in the long term as
an active part of their knowledge and mathematical arguing. The nonroutine problem-solving skills
and strategies acquired through a sustainable mathematical education can be used to solve real-life
problems at the workplace.
By analyzing the literature on 21st-century skills and conceptual frameworks, the main finding
was that problem-solving skills will be in demand and highly sought after in the future. Thus, this
paper concentrates on finding ways to develop them through mathematical problem solving to bridge
the gap between solving math problems and real-life problems.
Moreover, the success of the development of 21st-century skills through education also depends on
teachers’ readiness [38]. Research papers in the field of mathematics education identify a gap between
the effectiveness of developing 21st-century skills through learning and the teachers’ preparedness.
Therefore, educators and teachers need various learning models, methods, learning strategies,
and formative assessments to be able to enhance the quality 21st-century skills in teaching [38,39].
Susilo et al. [38] affirm that, “Teachers need training on models and learning methods that can develop
21st-century skills.”
References [17] and [40] contain materials on teachers’ preparation, classroom instruction,
and assessments. However, Bai and Song [41] argue in their work that, generally, books and
publications fail to cover these areas.
The present paper’s purpose is to address this failure and provide a tool for teachers that helps them
develop strategies, models, and methods to infuse 21st-century skills in their teaching in the classroom.
4. Problem-Solving Activities and Strategies to Develop 21st-Century Skills

Problem-solving is the core component of mathematics education. Thus, in the practice of teaching
mathematics, students are helped to solve problems; problem solving represents a powerful approach
to expanding mathematical concepts and skills.
The authors agree with Novoselov, who states, “There is no general method for solving different
problems. Problems vary in their conditions and difficulty, and demand to use different methods” [30].
Through selected examples, this paper intends to emphasize the applicability of Pólya’s strategy for
solving different problems. The chosen examples serve as a model for university-level in-service and
future teachers on how to create their own models in the teaching process. Although the examples
solve word problems and elementary arithmetic, the strategy behind them and exemplified in the
paper could be adapted for various subjects and levels in mathematical problem solving and beyond,
thus serving the cross-curricular aspect of 21st-century skills.
In this section, examples of problem-solving activities are presented from a methodical point of
view, which shows how Pólya’s heuristic and structure facilitate learners’ acquisition of 21st-century
skills. It is essential to improve these skills in order to master the phases of problem solving, to learn
how complex choices can be made, to formulate and share relevant arguments, and to judge others’
arguments and opinions. Moreover, they help learners to build up a diagram, a scheme, or a map of
the problem, which sets the ground for dynamic and collaborative discussions.
Pólya’s heuristic and structure not only give a cross-curricular experience and real-world
meaning for students and learners, but they help teachers to facilitate fruitful discussions to develop
problem-solving skills. The examples presented provide broader cultural and historical points of view,
thus serving a more in-depth understanding. Dishon and Gilead [42] indicate that, “The cultivation of
21st-century skills should be embedded within local histories rather than generalized models.”
4.1. Examples and Discussions. How Pólya’s Heuristic Principles Work in the Case of a Special Problem
The problem, known as “Finding One Coin of 12 in Three Steps”, and some different versions
can be found in many places (see, e.g., the Math Forum [43]). The formulation of the problem on the
cited Math Forum page is: “There is a pile of twelve coins, all of equal size. Eleven are of equal weight.
One is of a different weight. In three weighings find the unequal coin and determine if it is heavier
or lighter.”
The twelve coins problem is a well-known problem, but somehow, it has a strange, long-lasting
effect. The twelve coins problem was presented as a puzzle in the New York Times [44]: “My Dad
proposed the coin puzzle when I was, like, 10 years old. After working on it for weeks, I gave up and
asked him for the answer. ‘Sorry,’ he said, ‘I just know the problem, not the solution.’” The problem
appears on different social media pages, which proves its relevance; for instance: GeekForGeeks [45]
deals with the generalization and theoretical background of the problem, offering ideas for the
application of trees for those who wish to explore the type of problem. Nigel Coldwell’s page [46]
reflects how the different solutions are discussed by interested people, including several theoretical
approaches as well.
The choice of the twelve coins problem is partially due to the high interest expressed by the
students of a recent instructional event during a CEEPUS (Central European Exchange Program for
University Studies) Network CIII-HU-0028 Summer University activity. As a practical application,
more than 30 participants, most of them students training to become teachers, worked out the solution
of the twelve coins problem together, which was unknown to them, except for two of the lecturers,
who led the discussions. Moreover, inspired by Ágnes Tuska’s [47] lecture about “George Pólya’s
influence on mathematics competitions in the USA”, a group of students from Partium University [48]
decided to prepare a presentation reflecting on how they would implement the steps of Pólya’s
model. Furthermore, during the event, a preliminary investigation was conducted with 34 teachers to
assess whether they knew about 21st-century skills, what they are, whether mathematics has a role in
developing them, and if there were methods or strategies known to them that they could use in this
respect. The primary outcomes were that half of them had heard about 21st-century skills, but only a
third could define them correctly, giving examples of what skills are included. Moreover, only a third
of the asked teachers knew what methods and strategies could be used in mathematics to develop
these 21st-century skills. In panel discussions on how 21st-century skills could be integrated into
mathematics, the main conclusion was that open-ended, real-life, interdisciplinary problems, problems
that connect mathematics and other natural sciences (STEM), word problems, and visualization of
solutions could be possible approaches, since they encourage creativity and have a long-lasting effect.
The findings from the literature review, the outcomes from the preliminary investigation, and the
authors’ extensive didactical experience led the authors to choose the problems that appear in this
paper. Although some of the problems are known in the context of math education, the presented
solutions are unique and belong to the authors. They developed them based on comprehensive
teaching experience and feedback from students from high school to university, and they were created
specifically to develop 21st-century skills.
The detailed description is aimed at offering a model, a tool, which can be adapted by teachers to
any level of education above the first elementary classes to develop 21st-century skills. When planning
a teaching session, the teacher should consider the age and mathematical background of the learners.
For simplicity, the problem will be mentioned as the 12 coins problem throughout the paper.
Step 1. Understanding the Problem
Let us cite Pólya [26] (p. 23): “First of all, the verbal statement of the problem must be understood.
The teacher can check this up to a certain extent; he/she has to ask the student to repeat the statement,
and the students should be able to state the problem fluently. The student must be able to point out the
principal parts of the problem, the unknown, the data, the condition. Hence, the teacher can seldom
afford to miss the questions: What is the unknown? What are the data? What is the condition?”
In similar problems of weighing, one can understand a measurement using an “old-fashioned
balance”, sometimes called a mathematical balance, and by weigh, one can compare the weights of two
sets of coins by putting equal numbers of coins on both sides of the scale. The result of a measurement
is that they are either balanced or not.
“Where should I start? Start from the statement of the problem”, as Pólya formulated in [26]
(p. 38).
The student has to understand what a measurement means and to think about what conclusions
can be formulated using the result—the outcome of the weighing. The best way is to ask the
students questions in order to guide them to formulate all possible information to be obtained after
a measurement. For this reason, it is good to bear in mind Pólya’s hint to read the statement of the
problem over and over again to completely understand the question [26] (p. 38): “Where should I start?
Start again from the statement of the problem. Start when this statement is so clear for you and so well
impressed on your mind that you may lose sight of it for a while without fear of losing it altogether.”
During this step, the students need to get acquainted with the details of the problem and work
together with the teacher for better understanding [26] (p. 38):
“What can I do? Isolate the principal parts of your problem. The hypothesis and the conclusion
are the principal parts of the problem. Go through the principal parts of your problem, consider them
one by one, consider them in turn, consider them in various combinations, relating each detail to other
details, and each to the whole of the problem.”
In our case, the teacher must achieve (eventually by auxiliary questions) the formulation of
statements by the students themselves, such as:
• If the weighing result is that the scales do balance, it means that all coins on the scales are good,
and the other coins not used for the given weighing remain suspect.
• If the scales do not balance, it means that all other coins that were not weighted are good, while
those weighted are suspect.
• In this latter case, the students need to formulate an additional idea and name this key idea.
• If the scales do not balance, it is needed to distinguish the suspect coins on the two scales and
separate them as suspected of being heavier and suspected of being lighter.
At this stage, teachers can develop the learning skills (communication and collaboration) and
social skills (networking with others for mutual benefit) of learners.
Step 2. Making a Plan
To get the maximum possible information, teachers should ask students to analyze and formulate
all statements related to the possible outcome of a given weighing. An auxiliary but important element
is to introduce notations reflecting this information. Let us denote in the following Gi as the good
coins and Si as the suspect ones, while Hi or Li are those suspected of being heavier or, respectively;
the index i should vary from 1 to 12.
Planning the First Weighing
When starting to think about the problem, for planning the first weighing, one can easily conclude
that starting by measuring one coin against one, two coins against two, or five coins against is not the
right step, while measuring six against six is useless, as one does not get enough information, except
separating them as suspected of being heavier (six coins) or of being lighter (the other six coins).
As only two cases remain—to start with weighing three against three or four against four coins—it
is good to start by analyzing the case of planning the first weighing by comparing three coins with
another three coins of the 12. The tables below contain a special notation to distinguish the many
possible cases; a triplet of numbers of the form N-N-N will be used, where the first N means the
number of the weighing (1 to 3), the second will be the number of coins put on each of the two scales
(theoretically 1 to 6, but in reality, this is 1 to 4), while the last number indicates the possible outcomes
(2 or 3 depending on the need to distinguish the cases when they do not balance).
Possible outcomes of weighing three coins against three and the information received from it are
listed below (see Table 1).
Table 1. Possible outcomes of weighing three coins against three and the information received from it.
Outcome of the
Case Information How Can One Use It?
Weighing
The six coins on the scales of the One can separate them, and
1-3-1 They balance balance are all good, and the denote them if needed by G1 ,
other six are suspect. G2 , . . . , G6, and S1 , S2 , . . . , S6 .
The six coins on the balance will One will introduce the notations:
be suspect—three of them H1 , H2 , and H3 for those
suspected of being heavier and suspected of being heavier, or L1 ,
1-3-2 They do not balance
three of them suspected of being L2 , and L3 for those suspected of
lighter—and the other six being lighter, and G1 , G2 , . . . ,
are good. G6 for the good ones.
The second case is to analyze the possible outcomes of a first weighing starting with comparing
four coins against four, and the information we get from this weighing is summarized below (see
Table 2).
Table 2. The possible outcomes of weighing four coins against four as a first step, and the information
received from them.
Outcome of the
Weighing
The eight coins on the scales of One can separate them and
1-4-1 They balance the balance are all good, and the denote them if needed by G1 ,
other four are suspect. G2 , . . . , G8, and S1 , S2 , . . . , S4 .
One will use the notations: H1 ,
The eight coins on the balance
H2 , H3 , and H4 for those
will be suspect—four of them
suspected of being heavier, or
suspected of being heavier, and
1-4-2 They do not balance L1 , L2 , L3 , and L4 for those
four of them suspected of being
suspected of being lighter, while
lighter—the other four that were
G1 , G2 , . . . , G4 will denote the
not measured are good.
good ones.
Planning the Second Weighing
As seen in the previous two tables (Tables 1 and 2), the two logical possibilities are those when
starting weighing coins either three by three or four by four.
It is easy to deduce that out of the first cases, denoted as 1-3-1 and 1-3-2, only one, the case
1-3-2, can be finished in the remaining two weighings. In the case of 1-3-1, one will get stuck; thus,
this first case, measuring coins three by three first, must be given up. Reasoning could include the
analysis of possible measurements; there are six suspect and six good coins, but only two possible
weighings remain.
• There is no use in measuring suspect coins three by three; they will surely not balance, and the
last weighing has to be used for three coins suspected of being lighter and three coins suspected
of being heavier.
• There is no use in measuring suspect coins two by two; e.g., in case they balance, one remains
with two suspect coins, but one does not know if they are heavier or lighter.
• There is also no use in measuring suspect coins one by one.
• If one tries to analyze other cases, they will get stuck as well. Possible cases are: three suspect
against three good coins, or four suspect against four good coins.
This part of making up the plan offers the teacher the most possibility to ask questions to control
the way of understanding the problem and to work out the right steps for the planning of the solution.
Remember [26] (p. 38): “What can I gain by doing so? You should prepare and clarify details
which are likely to play a role afterwards.”
The right conclusion is that, for the first weighing, only the case of measuring coins four by
four remains.
The Second Weighing in Case 1-4-1.
In this case, one will remain with four suspect coins. The best idea is to measure three of the
suspect ones, say S1 , S2 , and S3 , against three good ones, say G1 , G2 , and G3 . The possible outcomes
are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. The possible outcomes of the second weighing in case 1-4-1.
Outcome of the
Weighing
The six coins on the scales of the
2-3-1 They balance balance are all good, the last One can separate S4 .
suspect, and S4 remains suspect.
The three suspect coins on the
One will change the notations,
balance will remain suspect, but
according to the result of the
2-3-2 They do not balance extra information is obtained if
weighing, to H1 , H2 , and H3 or
they are suspected of being
L1 , L2 , and L3.
heavier or lighter.
The Second Weighing in Case 1-4-2
In this case, one has eight suspect coins, but something more is known: As the result of the
previous weighing, one can distinguish four as being suspected of being heavier and the other four as
suspected of being lighter; this fact is recorded using the notation H1 , H2 , H3 , and H4 and L1 , L2 , L3 ,
and L4 , while for the good ones, G1, G2 , . . . , G4 are used. One now has to measure four by four again,
using the following distribution: on one of the scales, H1 , H2 , H3 , and L1 will be put, while H4 , G1 , G2 ,
and G3 will be on the other scale. The reason for organizing the second weighing in this way is to
obtain maximum information. If they balance, one has to continue with L2 , L3 , and L4 ; if they do not
balance and the first scale goes down, one has to continue with H1 , H2 , and H3 if it goes up with L1
and H4 . The possible outcomes are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. The possible outcomes of the second weighing in case 1-4-2.
Case Outcome of the Weighing Information How Can One Use It?
The five suspect coins on the
scales of the balance are all good, One can separate L2 , L3 ,
2-4-1 They balance
and the last suspect ones are L2 , and L4
L3 , and L4
They do not balance, and the
The three suspect coins are H1 , One can separate H1 , H2 ,
2-4-2 scale with H1 , H2 , H3 , and L1
H2 , and H3 and H3
goes down
They do not balance, and the
The two suspect coins are L1 One can separate L1
2-4-3 scale with H1 , H2 , H3 , and L1
and H4 and H4
goes up
Planning the Third Weighing
As has been shown, there are four different possible outcome cases resulting from the
second weighing:
A. One can separate S4

B. One can separate L2 , L3 , and L4
C. One can separate H1 , H2 , and H3
D. One can separate L1 and H4
Two of them, cases 2 and 3, are symmetrical, and one can use them in a similar way.
Case A. S4 has been separated, and it will be compared with one of the good coins. They cannot
balance, as the 11 other coins are good and are not suspect anymore. The steps are planned according
to Table 5 as usual.
Table 5. The possible outcomes of the last weighing in case A.
Case Outcome of the Weighing Information, Result

They do not balance, and the scale with S4 The last suspect coin S4 on the scale
A3-1-1
moves up is lighter
They do not balance, and the scale with S4 The last suspect coin S4 on the scale
A3-1-2
moves down is heavier
Case B. L2 , L3 , and L4 have been separated and L2 and L will be compared. The possible outcomes
are presented in Table 6.
Table 6. The possible outcomes of the last weighing in case B.

B3-1-1 They do balance The suspect coin L4 is lighter
They do not balance; the scale with L2
B3-1-2 The suspect coin L2 is lighter
moves up, and L3 moves down
They do not balance; the scale with L2
B3-1-3 The suspect coin L3 is lighter
moves down, and L3 moves up
Case C. H1 , H2 , and H3 have been separated, and H1 and H2 will be compared. The possible
outcomes are in Table 7.
Table 7. The possible outcomes of the last weighing in case C.

C3-1-1 They do balance The suspect coin H3 is heavier
They do not balance; the scale with H1
C3-1-2 The suspect coin H1 is heavier
moves down, and H2 moves up
They do not balance; the scale with H1
C3-1-3 The suspect coin H2 is heavier
moves up, and H2 moves down
Case D. L1 and H4 have been separated, and L1 will be compared with one of the good coins.
The possible outcomes are presented in Table 8.
Table 8. The possible outcomes of the last weighing in case D.

D3-1-1 They do balance The suspect coin H4 is heavier
They do not balance, and the scale with L1
D3-1-2 The suspect coin L1 is lighter
moves up
This step offers the possibility for teachers to promote life skills, such as analyzing the different
options when looking at solutions. Moreover, it develops critical thinking and creativity, and encourages
initiative and the ability to create and deliver a plan.
Step 3. Executing the Plan
An example is given in Appendix A on how the flowchart of the complete solution can be made.
At this step, teachers help learners acquire the 4C skills (critical thinking, creativity, communication,
and collaboration) through networking and design thinking. At the same time, this encourages learners
to achieve goals collaboratively.
The usage of schema whenever possible is underlined by Lein et al. [49], who proved that
“intervention effects for schema-based transfer instruction were larger than those for schema-based
instruction”, illustrating that mathematical word-problem-solving interventions are suitable for
students with learning disabilities and/or mathematics difficulties as well.
Step 4. Feedback
Once the students have understood and could solve the problem, it is good to conclude by
verbalizing all key steps of the reasoning in order to sum up the methods used to solve the problem,
the strategy worked out to tackle the problem, and the way all possible cases were taken into account.
By doing so, the teacher contributes to the formation of the skills necessary for the generalization of
the method. The teachers are given a tool to develop the strategic thinking of learners, to benefit from
working together to gain a better understanding of the problem, and to debate and assess solutions to
find the best one.
The experience of problem-solving activities mentioned above shows how Pólya’s heuristic
method supports learners in acquiring critical-thinking and problem-solving skills, in learning how
they can make complex choices, in constructing realizable/applicable arguments to sustain their choice,
in sharing their own arguments, in criticizing other arguments, in building up a diagram or a scheme,
in creating a possibility for dynamic, collaborative discussions, and in developing students’/learners’
life skills, such as flexibility, leadership, initiative, and social skills. In addition, it shows how teachers
can facilitate a fruitful discussion to develop the necessary skills of their students.
4.2. Examples and Discussions. Problems for Training Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers
There are many elementary arithmetic courses for future primary school teachers. Many researchers
in mathematics education have developed problem-solving strategies. Kalmykova [30] presents a
practical application of neuropsychological studies, which leads to parallel processing of analytic and
synthetic activity in the problem solving of learners. Classroom activities in the field of problem solving
are approached by Kalmykova [30] using five “auxiliary” methods: (1) concretization, (2) abstraction,
(3) modification, (4) graphical analysis, and (5) analogy.
This approach is similar to the stages formulated by Pólya [26]—understanding the problem,
devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back. If learners understand the problem,
then they need concrete conditions and important input information. In the stage of devising a plan,
the mathematical abstractions and graphical analyses of schemas lead to developing a plan for the
solution. Modification and analogy are useful for the last two stages—carrying out the plan and
looking back. Word tasks for weak and good students presented by studies from Kalmykova [30]
develop algorithmic thinking via active schemas using operations with natural numbers, such as
multiplication and addition. Algorithmic thinking, according to Dagiene et al. [50], is thinking in terms
of sequences and rules—executing an algorithm and creating an algorithm.
Next, two examples are given as models for primary teachers that not only develop 21st-century
skills to solve problems encountered in life, but also, their ethnomathematical and cross-curricular
aspects incorporate mathematics history in mathematics education. The first problem enables students
to learn about math in various cultures, thus developing their social and cross-cultural skills as well.
There is a curricular reform in many countries, and it is expected that mathematics will be
positioned as a part of society and culture. The case of Slovakian curricula is presented in Appendix C.
The chosen examples enable divergent thinking and support the possibility that one problem can
have more correct solutions. The use of models (paper cards or computer animation) supports
design thinking.
Implementing Pólya’s problem-solving structure enables the rethinking of the art of the teaching
process by learners in the above-mentioned topic.
4.2.1. Multiplication of Two Natural Numbers

The first example is devoted to the multiplication of two natural numbers as an operation, which
has its own properties. This example is chosen based on the argumentation of Menchinskaya and
Moro [51]: “The formation of the concept of numbers and of the arithmetical operations is a difficult
and crucial task of arithmetic instruction.” Pólya’s structure serves here as a tool for developing
mathematical inquiry in learners. In the description of the steps, Pólya’s questions will be cited.
Step 1. Understanding the Problem
Pólya said [26] (p. 23): “The student must be able to point out the principal parts of the problem,
the unknown, the data, the condition. Hence, the teacher can seldom afford to miss the questions:
What is the unknown? What are the data? What is the condition?”
The teacher discusses the inputs and outputs in the algorithm of multiplication with students
through simple examples. Inputs are the factors—in our case, two natural numbers. The output
is the product—another natural number. It is possible to start with the idea of multiplication as
repeated addition. According to Menchinskaya and Moro [51], it is essential to observe that “not
every multiplication can be replaced by multiplication, but only addition of equal addends”, and to
recommend comparing the examples 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = and 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 5 =.
This activity, according to P21 [17], develops critical thinking, since individuals “analyze how
parts of a whole interact with each other in mathematical systems.”
This step is an opportunity to discuss the operation of multiplication of natural numbers and to
check if the students understand its properties, such as associativity, commutativity, distributivity,
and so on.
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 28

Step 2. Devising
Sustainability 2020, 12, the Plan
x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 28
Step
Step2.2.Devising
Devisingthe thePlan
Plan
Step 2. Devising the Plan
The
StepThe teachers’
2. Devising question
the Plan can be:be: “Didyou you usethe
the wholecondition?”
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multiplication ofnatural
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you use the 2 ⊕
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22 ⊕ 10 = 20, 56
condition?” ⊕ 100
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easy you use the whole
understand: ⊕ 10 == 20,
condition?”
10 56 ⊕
20, 56 100
⊕The == 5600.
5600. The
The use
100multiplication of
of natural
use of the
distributive
numbers and rule helps understanding
powers understanding
of ten is easy to as well: 56 ⊕ 25
well: 56
understand: 2= ⊕56 ⊕
10 (20+5)
= 20, 56 = 1120
⊕ 100+ 280 ===1400.
= 5600.1400.
TheThese
use of rules
the
distributive
numbers
distributive rule
andrule helps
powers
helps of ten is easy to
understanding as well: 56⊕⊕25
asunderstand: 252==⊕56 ⊕
5610⊕=(20+5)
20, 56==1120
(20+5) ⊕ 100
1120 ++280
=280
5600. TheThese
1400. use of
These rules
the
rules
appear
appear in
distributivethe “classical”
rule helps algorithm
understanding of as well: 56 ⊕
multiplication, which
25 = 56 ⊕
can be
(20+5)taught
= in
1120 different
+ 280 = ways.
1400. These rules
appearin inthe
distributive “classical”
therule algorithm
algorithmof
helps understanding
“classical” ofmultiplication,
as well: 56 ⊕ 25
multiplication, which
= 56 can
which ⊕can be
betaught
(20+5) in
= 1120
taught in+different ways.
280 = 1400.
different These rules
ways.
appear in the “classical” algorithm of multiplication, which can be taught in different ways.
appear in the “classical” algorithm of multiplication, which can be taught in different ways.
For
For simplicity,
For simplicity, itit
simplicity, it is
is common
is common to
common to omit
to omit the
omit the zeros
the zeros at
zeros at the
at the end
the end in
end in the
in the partial
the partial sums
partial sums starting
sums starting from
starting from the
from the
the
second
secondFor
row
rowsimplicity,
and
and to
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use
use is
aa common
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technique totoomit
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out
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example, in
instarting
the
the case
case from
of
of the
4280
4280
For simplicity, it is common to omit the zeros at the end in the
second row and to use a technique to leave the place for them out (for example, in the case of 4280 partial sums starting from the
second
notation, row
the and
number to use
428_ a technique
will to leave the place for them out (for example, in the case of 4280
notation,
second
notation,rowthe number
theand
numberto use 428_
428_ willbe
will
a techniquebeused;
be used; similarly,
similarly,
to leave
used; for
for64,200,
for
the place
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for them
64,200, itit
itappears
out (foras
appears
appears as 642_
642__,
642_
example,
as _,and
_, and
and 428,000
case will
428,000
in the428,000 will
of be
4280
will be
be
notation,
428_
428_ _ _). the number 428_ will be used; similarly, for 64,200, it appears as 642_ _, and 428,000 will be
428_ __ _).
notation,
_). the number 428_ will be used; similarly, for 64,200, it appears as 642_ _, and 428,000 will be
428_Remark:
_ _). ItIt
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428_ Remark:
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that theorder
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order ofwriting
of writingthe
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partial sumscan
sums candiffer.
can differ.
differ.
Remark: It can be shown that the order of writing the partial sums can differ.
Remark: It can be shown that the order of writing the partial sums can differ.
ItIt isis important

important to to develop
develop the the divergent
divergent thinking
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the students
students soso that
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and writingother
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thus developing
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to the
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is
it important
isknow
important
a to analyze
to analyze
related problem?” algorithms
other of multiplication
algorithms
[26]. Thus, asibn
of multiplication
Muhammad an Musa
answer to the question:
as anal-Khwarizmi’s
answer to the
In Step
question: “Do 2, you
it is know
important
a to analyze
related problem?” other[26].
algorithms
Thus, of multiplication
Muhammad ibn as anal-Khwarizmi’s
Musa answer to the
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question:
algorithm “Do
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multiplication know problem?”
a related [26]. Thus,
problem?” Muhammad
[26]. Thus, ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi’s
Muhammad algorithm of
ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi’s
question:
algorithm “Do
of you know aisisrelated
multiplication presented
presented as
problem?”
asan
an alternative
[26]. Thus,
alternative method.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi’s
method.
multiplication
algorithm
Muhammad is presented
of multiplication
ibn asis an alternative
presented method.
as an alternative method.
algorithm
Muhammad
Muhammad ibn Musa
of multiplication
ibn Musaisal-Khwarizmi
Musa
presented as an
al-Khwarizmi
al-Khwarizmi
(780–850)
alternative
(780–850)
(780–850)
wrote
method.
wrote
wrote
Arithmetical
Arithmetical tractate;
Arithmetical tractate; Cajori
tractate; Cajori [52]
[52] and
and
Muhammad
Benediktova [53], ibn were
who Musadevoted
al-Khwarizmi
to natural(780–850)
numbers wrote
and operations, tractate; Cajori
Arithmeticalrepublished Cajori
his [52]
[52] and
work and
Muhammad
Benediktova [53], ibn Musa
who were al-Khwarizmi
devoted to (780–850)
natural numbers wrote
and Arithmeticalrepublished
operations, tractate; Cajorihis [52] as
work and
as aa
Benediktova
Benediktova
critical edition [53],
[53],
[54], who
who
which were
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natural numbers
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operations, republished
republished his his
work work
as a
Benediktova
critical edition [53],
[54],who were
which devoted
contains thetofollowing
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natural numbers
algorithm andof multiplication
ofoperations,
multiplication for
forthe
republishedthe example
his work
example of
of214
as
214 a
as a critical
critical
∙critical editionedition[54], [54],
whichwhich contains
contains the the following
following algorithm
algorithm of of multiplication
multiplication for for
the the example
example of of
214
∙2326.
2142326.
·In2326.
edition [54], which contains the following algorithm of multiplication for the example of 214
∙ 2326. the
∙ 2326. In
In the first
the first
step,
firststep,
step,thethe numbers
thenumbers
numberswill will
willbebe written
bewritten
written in
in
in the
thethe way
way
way
seen
seen
seen
below;
below;
below; the
the
the bold
boldbold digits
digits
digits must
must
must
be
be in
bethe
in in
the sameIn the first
column. step, the numbers will be written in the way seen below; the bold digits must be in
the sameIn the first step, the numbers will be written in the way seen below; the bold digits must be in
column.
same column.
the same column.
the same column.
The
Thesecond
secondstep stepofofthe
thealgorithm
algorithmisisthe themultiplication
multiplicationofofthe
thenumber
number214 214with
withthe
thefirst
firstbold
bolddigit
digit
The second
The second
2,2,representing the step
step ofthe
of thealgorithm
thousands algorithm
of the isthe
number
is themultiplication
multiplication
2326. The ofthe
product,
of the number
428, is
number 214
copied
214 with
over
with the
the
the first
numbers
first bold
bold digit
used
digit 2,
secondthe
representing step of the algorithm
thousands is the multiplication
of the number of the428,
2326. The product, number 214 with
is copied over the first bold
numbers digit
used
2,
in representing
the first
representing step; the
the
thethe thousands
bold
thousands digits of
are
of the the number
again
number in the2326.
sameThe
The product,
column,
product, as
428,428,
shown is copied
below:
is copied over
over the
thethe numbers
numbers used
used in
2,
in representing
the first step; the thousands
bold digits ofare
the number
again in2326.
2326.
the The
same product,
column, as428,
shownis copied
below: over numbers used
in the
the first
first step;
step; the the
boldbold digits
digits are are again
again in in the
the samesame column,
column, as as shown
shown below:
below:
in the first step; the bold digits are again in the same column, as shown below:
The
The third
third step
step contains
contains aa special
special joining
joining and and aa shift.
shift. The
The digit
digit 22 used
used forfor the
the previous
previous
The
multiplicationthird step
will be contains
replaced abyspecial
0, and joining
the and
first twoa shift.
numbers,The digit
428 and 2 used
0326, for
will the “added”,
be previous
thirdstep
multiplication
The third step
will becontains
replaced
contains a by
special
a special joining
0, and
joining andtwo
the afirst
and shift. a shift.
digit The
numbers,
The digit
428
2 used 2 used
forand
the 0326, for the previous
willmultiplication
previous be “added”,
multiplication
keeping the will alignment
be replaced by 0, and the first twoThe
numbers, 428 and 0326, will be “added”,
keeping
will thecolumn
multiplication will
column
be replaced be
by 0, replaced
alignment
and
as
the first
before,
asby
before,
two
getting
0, andgetting
numbers,
428,326.
the first
428 two
428,326. The number
numbers,
and 0326,number 428
will be
214
214 will
and
“added”,
be shifted
will0326,
bekeeping
shifted one
will be digit
digitto
“added”,
one
the column to
keeping
the right. the column alignment as before, getting 428,326. The number 214 will be shifted one digit to
keeping the column alignment as before, getting 428,326. The number 214 will
the right. as before, getting 428,326. The number 214 will be shifted one digit to the right.
alignment be shifted one digit to
the right.
the right.
The third step contains a special joining and a shift. The digit 2 used for the previous
multiplication will
Sustainability 2020, 12, be replaced by 0, and the first two numbers, 428 and 0326, will be “added”,
10113 15 of 28
keeping the column alignment as before, getting 428,326. The number 214 will be shifted one digit to
the right.
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12,xxxFOR
2020,12, FOR PEER
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The
The
The fourth
fourth
fourth step:
step:
step: The
The
The number
Thenumber
number214
number 214
214isis
214 is multiplicated
ismultiplicated
multiplicatednow
multiplicated now
now with
nowwith
with the
withthe
the next
thenext
next unused
nextunused digit,
unuseddigit,
unused digit,3,
digit, 3, representing
3,representing
3, representing
representing
Thefourth
The fourthstep:
step:The
Thenumber
number214 214isismultiplicated
multiplicatednow nowwith
withthe
thenext
nextunused
unuseddigit,
digit,3, 3,representing
representing
the
the
the hundreds
hundreds
hundreds
hundreds of
of
ofof the
the
the
the number
number
number
number 2326,
2326,
2326,
2326, getting
getting
getting
getting 642
642 to
642
642 to
be
to
to be
be
be copied
copied
copied
copied over
over the
over
over the
the
the numbers
numbers in
numbers
numbers in
step
in
in step
3;
step
step the3;
3;
3; the
bold
the
the bold
digits
bold
bold
thehundreds
the hundredsof ofthe
thenumber
number2326,
2326,getting
getting642642totobebecopied
copiedover
overthe
thenumbers
numbersin instep
step3; 3; the
thebold
bold
digits
must
digits
digits must
be
must
must be
in the
be
be in
same
in
in the
the
the same
column,
same
same column,
column,
column, as
as shownas
as shown
shown
shown below.
below.below.
below.
digits must be in the same column, as shown
digits must be in the same column, as shown below. below.
The
The fifth
fifth step
step isis
is again
again a joining
joining and a shift,
shift, as in step three. The digit 3 used
used for the previous
The fifth
Thefifth
The
step
fifthstep
stepis againaaaaajoining
again
again
isagain joining
joining
joiningand and
andaaaaashift,
and
and shift,
shift, as
as
as
shift,as in
in
asin in step
step
step
instep three.
three.
three.
stepthree. The
The
three.The digit
digit
Thedigit used
digit3333used for
for
usedfor the
the
forthe previous
previous
previous
theprevious
previous
multiplication
multiplication
multiplication will
will
will bebe
be replaced
replaced
replaced by
by
by 0,
0,
0, and
and
and the
the
the first
first
first two
two
two numbers,
numbers,
numbers, 642
642
642 and
and
and 428,026,
428,026,
428,026, will
will
will be
be
be “added”,
“added”,
“added”,
multiplicationwill
multiplication willbe bereplaced
replacedby by0,0,andandthethefirst
firsttwo
twonumbers,
numbers,642 642and
and428,026,
428,026,willwillbe be“added”,
“added”,
keeping
keeping
keeping the
the
the column
column
column alignment
alignment
alignment as
as
as before,
before,
before,
before, getting
getting
getting
getting 492,226.
492,226.
492,226.
492,226. The
The
The number
number
number 214
214
214 will
will
will be
be
be shifted
shifted
shifted one
one
one digit
digit
digit to
to
to
keeping
keeping the
the column
column alignment
alignment as
as before,
before, getting
getting 492,226.
492,226. The
The number
number 214
214 will
will be
be shifted
shifted one
one digitto
digit to
the
the
the right
right
right again.
again.
again.
the right again.
the right again.
The
The sixth
sixth step
step istotomultiply
multiply the number 214 with the next unused digit, 2, representing the tens
The
The sixth
sixth
Thesixth
The
step
step
sixthstep isis
stepisistoto
is multiply
tomultiply
multiplythe the
the number
number
number
number214
thenumber 214
214 with
with
214with
214
the
the
withthe
with
next
next
thenext
the
unused
unused
nextunused
next unused
unused
digit,
digit,
digit, 2,
2,
2,2,
digit,
digit,
representing
representing
representing
2, representing
representing thethe
the tens
tens
tens
the
the of
tens
tens
of
of
of the
the
the number
number
number 2326,
2326,
2326, and
and
and getting
getting
getting 428
428
428 to
toto be
be
be copied
copied
copied over
over
over the
the
the numbers
numbers
numbers in
inin step
step
step five;
five;
five; the
the
the bold
bold
bold digits
digits
digits must
must
must
the
ofthe
of number
the number
number 2326, and
2326,
2326, and getting
and 428428
getting
getting to be
428 copied
totobe over
becopied
copied the the
over
over numbers
thenumbers in step
numbers five;five;
ininstep
step the bold
five; digits
thebold
the mustmust
bolddigits
digits be in
must
be
be
be in
inin the
the
the same
same
same column,
column,
column, as
as
as shown
shown
shown below.
below.
below.
the same
beininthe
be column,
thesame
samecolumn,as shown
column,asasshown below.
shownbelow.
below.
The seventh
Theseventh
The seventhstep step
stepisis again
againaaaajoining
isagain joining and
andaaaashift,
joiningand shift, as
shift,as in
asin step
instep three
stepthree and
threeand
and five.
five.
five. The digit
digit2222used
Thedigit
The used for
usedfor the
forthe
the
The
The seventh
seventh step
step isis again
again a joining
joining and
and a shift,
shift, as
as in
in step
step three
three and
and five.
andfive. The
five.The digit
digit 2 used
used for
for the
the
previous
previous multiplication
previousmultiplication
multiplicationwill will
will be replaced
bereplaced
be replacedby by 0,
by0,0, and
0,and
andthethe first
thefirst two
firsttwo
two numbers,
numbers,
numbers, 428 and
428and
428 492,206,
and492,206,
492,206,willwill
willbebe
be
previous
previous multiplication
multiplication willbe
will be replaced
replaced by
by 0, and
and the
the first
first two numbers,
twonumbers,
two numbers,428 428 and
and 492,206,
492,206, will
will be
be
“added”,
“added”,
“added”, keeping
keeping
keeping the
the
the column
column
column alignment
alignment
alignment as
as
as before,
before,
before, getting
getting
getting 496,486.
496,486.
496,486. The
The
The number
number
number 214
214
214 will
will
will be
be
be shifted
shifted
shifted
“added”,
“added”, keeping
keepingthe
“added”,keeping thecolumn
the columnalignment
column alignment
alignment asasbefore,
as getting
before,
before, getting
getting 496,486. The
496,486.
496,486. number
The
The number
number 214214
willwill
214 be shifted
will beshifted
be one
shifted
one
one
one digit
digit
digit to
to
to the
the
the right
right
right again.
again.
again.
digit
one to the
digit to right
the again.
right
one digit to the right again. again.
The
The eighth
Theeighth
eighth step
step
step isis
istoto multiply
tomultiply
multiply the
the
the number
number
number 214
214
214 with
with
with the
the
the next
next
next unused
unused
unused digit,
digit,
digit, 6, representing
6,representing
6, representing the
the
the
The
The eighthstep
eighth
eighth stepis
step isisto
totomultiply
multiplythe
multiply the
the number
number
number 214214
214 with
with
with the
thethenextnext unused
unused
next unused digit,
digit, 6,6,representing
representing
6, representing
digit, the
the ones
the
ones
ones
ones of
of
of the
the
the number
number
number 2326,
2326,
2326, getting
getting
getting 1284
1284
1284 to
to
to be
be
be copied
copied
copied over
over
over the
the
the numbers
numbers
numbers in
in
in step
step
step seven;
seven;
seven; the
the
the bold
bold
bold digits
digits
digits
ones
of
onesthe of the
number
ofbethe number
2326,
number 2326,
getting
2326, getting
1284
getting to1284
be to
copied
1284 to be copied
over over
the the
numbers numbers
in step in step
seven; seven;
the bold
be copied over the numbers in step seven; the bold digitsthe bold
digits digits
must be
must
must
must be
be in
in
in the
the
the same
same
same column,
column,
column, as
as
as shown
shown
shown below.
below.
below.
must
in the be in
same the same
column, column,
as shown as
must be in the same column, as shown below. shown
below. below.
The
The
The final
final
final step
step
step isis
is shown
shown
shown by
by
by the
the
the fact
fact
fact that
that
that the
the
the number
number
number 214
214
214 does
does
does not
not
not need
need
need toto
to be
be
be shifted
shifted
shifted to
to
to the
the
the right
right
right
Thefinal
The finalstepstepis isshown
shownby bythethefact factthatthatthethenumber
number214 214doesdoesnotnotneed
needto tobe beshifted
shiftedto tothetheright
right
because
The
because
because the
final
the
the ones
ones
ones step are
are
are is already
shown
already
already in
by
in
in the
the
the same
fact
same
same column.
that the
column.
column. number 214 does not need to be shifted to the right
because
because the
the ones
ones are
are already
already inthe in the
thefirst same
same column.
column.
To
becauseTo finish
finish
the ones the
the algorithm, two numbers are joined. The digit 6 isis replaced by 0, and the
To
To
finish
Tofinish
finish theare
the
the
algorithm,
already the
algorithm,
algorithm,
algorithm,
the
in
the
the
the first
firstsame
first
first
two
two
two
two
numbers
column.
numbers
numbersare
numbers
are
are joined.
joined.
arejoined.
joined.The The
The digit
digit6666is
digit
Thedigit is replaced
replaced
isreplaced
replacedby by
by
by0, 0,
0, and
and
0,and the
the
andthe the
numbers
numbers
numbersTo 1284
1284
finish
1284 and
and
the
and 496,480
496,480
algorithm,
496,480 are
are
are “added”,
“added”,
the first
“added”, two keeping
keeping
numbers
keeping the
the
the column
column
are
column joined. alignment,
alignment,
The
alignment, digitand
and
and 6 isgetting
getting
replaced
getting 497,764.
497,764.
by
497,764. 0, and the
numbers
numbers 1284
1284 and
and 496,480
496,480 are
are “added”,
“added”, keeping keeping the
the column
column alignment, and getting
alignment, and getting 497,764. 497,764.
Thus,
numbersThus, the
the result
result of
of the
the multiplication
multiplication of
of 214
214 by
by 2326
2326 isis
is 497,764.
497,764.
Thus,1284
Thus,
Thus,
the and
result
theresult
the result 496,480
of the
ofthe
of
are “added”, keeping
multiplication
themultiplication
multiplication of
of
214
of214 by
214by the2326
by column
2326
2326 is
alignment, and getting 497,764.
497,764.
is497,764.
497,764.
By using
Thus, examples
theexamples
result of from from
the the history
multiplication of mathematics, media literacy, one of the 21st-century skills
By
By
By using
using
Byusing
using examples
examples
examples
from
from
from
the
the history
history
thehistory
the historyof ofofof
of 214 by 2326 media
mathematics,
mathematics,
mathematics,
mathematics,
is 497,764.
media
media
media
literacy,
literacy, one
one
literacy,one
literacy, oneof ofof the
the
ofthe 21st-century
21st-century
the21st-century
21st-centuryskills skills
skills
skills
[17],
[17],
[17], can
By
can
can be
using
be
be developed
examples
developed
developed in
inin students
from
students
students the as
asas well.
history
well.
well. Menchinskaya
of mathematics,
Menchinskaya
Menchinskaya and
and
and Moro
media
Moro
Moro [51]
[51]
[51] argue
literacy,
argue
argue one that
of
that
that “it
the
“it
“it is
is
is instructive
21st-century
instructive
instructive
[17],
[17], can be
can be how, developed
developed in students
inhistory
students as well.
as well. Menchinskaya
Menchinskaya and
and MoroMoro [51]
[51]theargue
argue that “it is instructive
that “it is instructive
to
to analyze
skills
to [17],how,
analyze
analyze can be
how, in
in
in the
developed
the
the history
history of
in
of
of the
the development
students
the as well. of
development
development of human
Menchinskaya
of human
human culture”,
culture”,andthe
culture”, Moro
the multiplication
[51] argue of
multiplication
multiplication of
that
of natural
“it is
natural
natural
toanalyze
to analyze how,
how, inthe
in thehistory
historyof ofthe thedevelopment
development ofof humanculture”,
human culture”, the
the multiplication
multiplication ofofnatural
natural
numbers
instructive
numbers
numbers has
has developed,
to analyze
has developed,
developed, how,and and
in the
and “how
“how
“how history it was
of the
itit was
was continually
development
continually
continually enriched
of human
enriched
enriched with
with
with new
culture”,
new
new content, and
the multiplication
content,
content, and
and what
what
what
numbers has
numbers has developed,
developed, and
and “how
“how itit waswas continually
continually enriched
enriched with
with new content,
new content, and what
and what
significance
significance
significance this
this
this concept
concept
concept has
has
has at
atat the
the
the present
present
present level
level
level of
of
of development
development
development of
of
of mathematics.”
mathematics.”
mathematics.” However,
However,
However, “the
“the
“the
significance
significance this
this concept
concept has
has atat the
the present
present level
level of
of development
development of
of mathematics.”
mathematics.” However,
However, “the
“the
modern
modern
modern child
child
child should…
should…
should… imagine
imagine
imagine the
the
the situations
situations
situations and
and
and the
the
the practical
practical
practical problems
problems
problems for
for
for which
which
which people
people
people first
first
first
modernchild
modern childshould…
should…imagine imaginethe thesituations
situationsand andthe thepractical
practicalproblems
problemsfor forwhich
whichpeople
peoplefirst first
needed
needed
needed numbers”
numbers”
numbers” and
and
and work
work
work with
with
with them.
them.
them.
needed
needed numbers”
numbers” and
and work work with
with them. them.
The
The multiplication
multiplication of
of natural
natural numbers
numbers appears
appears in
in a “university
“university diploma work” from 1753
The multiplication
The multiplication
The multiplication of of natural
of natural
natural numbersnumbers
numbers appearsappears
appears in in aaaa “university
in “university diploma
diploma
“university diploma
diploma work” work”
work”
work” from from
from 1753
1753
from 17531753
written
written
written by
byby Vajkovics
Vajkovics
Vajkovics [55]
[55]
[55] (p.
(p.
(p. 18)
18)
18) (see
(see
(see Appendix
Appendix
Appendix B).
B).
B).
written by Vajkovics [55] (p. 18) (see Appendix B).
of natural numbers has developed, and “how it was continually enriched with new content, and
what significance this concept has at the present level of development of mathematics.” However,
“the modern child should . . . imagine the situations and the practical problems for which people first
needed numbers” and work with them.
The multiplication of natural numbers appears in a “university diploma work” from 1753 written
by Vajkovics [55] (p. 18) (see Appendix B).
Step 3. Carrying Out the Plan
The understanding of the previous algorithm reveals the question: Is this algorithm of
multiplication correct like the
The understanding of well-known
the previous one? For this stage,
algorithm revealshelpful
the questions
question: for
Is students are: “Can
this algorithm of
you see clearly that
multiplication the steps
correct in the
like the presented algorithm
well-known one? For arethiscorrect?” [26] Forquestions
stage, helpful better understanding,
for students itare:
is
“Can you seetoclearly
recommended repeat thethatAl-Khwarizmi
the steps in algorithm
the presented algorithm with
of multiplication are correct?” [26] For
other numbers, better
checking
understanding,
the result with the it isclassical
recommended
method.to repeat the Al-Khwarizmi algorithm of multiplication with other
numbers, checking the result with the classical method.
Step 4. Looking Back
It is important to use the right interpretation of these algorithms and analyze why they work.
It is important to use the right interpretation of these algorithms and analyze why they work.
Questions in this stage are: “Can you check the result of multiplication? Can you see how the algorithm
Questions in this stage are: “Can you check the result of multiplication? Can you see how the
of multiplications works at a glance?” [26]. The previous steps of the Al-Khwarizmi algorithm serve for
algorithm of multiplications works at a glance?” [26] The previous steps of the Al-Khwarizmi
a better understanding of such rules as associativity, commutativity, and distributivity of addition and
algorithm serve for a better understanding of such rules as associativity, commutativity, and
multiplication, as well as to discuss the distributive rule for multiplication in the example of 214 · 2326,
distributivity of addition and multiplication, as well as to discuss the distributive rule for
which can be written in the following way, the bold digits helping the understanding:
multiplication in the example of 214∙ 2326, which can be written in the following way, the bold digits
helping the understanding:
214 · 2326 = 214 · (2000+300+20+6) = 428,000 + 64,200+ 4280 + 1284 =
214∙ 2326 = 214 ∙ (2000+300+20+6) = 428,000 + 64,200+ 4280 + 1284 =
= 492,200 + 4280 + 1284 = 496,480 + 1284 = 497,764
= 492,200 + 4280 + 1284 = 496,480 + 1284 = 497,764
The bold
The bold letters
letters show
show that
that in
in the
theal-Khwarizmi
al-Khwarizmi algorithm,
algorithm, partial
partial sums
sums were
were used,
used, which
which areare
visible in
visible in the
the above
above calculating
calculatingdetails
detailsofofthe thedistributivity
distributivityforfor
thethe
multiplication
multiplicationof 214 by 2326;
of 214 the
by 2326;
latter
the oneone
latter is written
is written as sums
as sumsof the thousands,
of the thousands, hundreds,
hundreds, tens, andand
tens, ones.
ones.
The learners
The learners will will be
be able
able toto compare
compare by by identifying
identifying thethe details
details of
of numbers
numbers written
written inin bold
bold
characters in the Al-Khwarizmi algorithm and the above
characters in the Al-Khwarizmi algorithm and the above algebraic formalization.algebraic formalization.
Using the
Using the question
question “Can “Can you
you derive
derive thethe result
result differently?”
differently?”Pólya
Pólya[26],
[26],students’
students’reasoning
reasoningand and
critical thinking
critical thinking can can be be developed
developed by by showing
showing themthem that
that different
different solutions
solutions and
and algorithms
algorithms cancan bebe
identified for the same
identified for the same problem. problem.
While itit isisinteresting
While interestingto tocompare
comparemore morealgorithms
algorithmsfor formultiplication,
multiplication, they
they also
also strengthen
strengthen thethe
understanding. In
understanding. Inthis
thisregard,
regard,different
different historical alternatives
historical alternativesfor for
multiplication can be
multiplication canexplored, such
be explored,
as examples
such as examples fromfrom IndiaIndia
(Figure 1) and
(Figure 1) Japan (Figure
and Japan 2), reconstructed
(Figure below
2), reconstructed by Cajori
below [52].[52].
by Cajori
.
Figure 1. Historical algorithm for multiplication in India (214 · 2326 = 497,764). (Authors’ own
Figure 1. Historical algorithm for multiplication in India (214 ∙ 2326 = 497,764). (Authors’ own
construction; source: [52].).
construction; source: [52].).
Figure 2. Historical
Figure 2. Historical algorithm
algorithm for
for multiplication
multiplication in Japan (214
in Japan (214 ·∙ 2326
2326 == 497,764).
497,764). (Authors’
(Authors’ own
own
construction in GeoGebra; source: [52]).
construction in GeoGebra; source: [52]).
This multiple-sourcing
multiple-sourcingapproach
approach shows
shows that that the algorithm
the algorithm of multiplication
of multiplication isa not
is not only only a
mechanical
mechanical
activity, but activity, but itproperties
it comes from comes from properties of notions,
of mathematical mathematical
which notions, which can
can be visualized asbe visualized
well, and can
as well, and
develop can develop
learners’ learners’
information information
literacy skills. literacy skills.
4.2.2. Introduction
Introduction of
of the
the Binary
Binary Number System
problem is the
The next problem the authors’
authors’ own
own unique
unique problem,
problem, which was used used in
in their
their didactical
didactical careers
careers
in teaching mathematics. DiverseDiverse real-life
real-life situations
situations demand
demand the the handling
handling of of operations
operations in in different
different
number systems
systems in inmathematics
mathematicseducation.
education.Transversal
Transversalskills and
skills and21st-century
21st-century skills areare
skills developed
developedvia
applications “in a wide variety of situations and work settings” [56]. For example,
via applications “in a wide variety of situations and work settings” [56]. For example, time time measurement
is an exampleisofan
measurement a combined
example ofnumbers
a combined system (1 h issystem
numbers 60 min,(1 1h min
is 60ismin,
60 s,1 1min
dayisis6024s, h, 1 year
1 day is
is 24
365
h, or 366
1 year is days).
365 or Another
366 days). example
Anotherisexample
the temperature measured in
is the temperature Fahrenheit
measured or Celsius,or
in Fahrenheit where the
Celsius,
transformation can be described with the relation ◦ C = 32 ◦ F, 100 ◦ C = 212 ◦ F). Another group of
(0relation
where the transformation can be described with the (0 °C = 32 °F, 100 °C = 212 °F). Another
examples
group are currency
of examples transformations
are currency (1 EUR =(11.0819
transformations EUR =CHF1.0819(CHF—Swiss
CHF (CHF—Swiss 1 EUR =
Franc); Franc); 358.16
1 EUR =
HUF (HUF—Hungarian
358.16 HUF (HUF—Hungarian Forint [57]). The [57]).
Forint problem Theofproblem
“currencyofexchange”
“currencyserves as an introduction
exchange” serves as an to
the binary number
introduction to the system using storytelling
binary number system usingfor children. Thefor
storytelling suggested
children.teaching methodteaching
The suggested follows
Pólya’s structure.
method follows Pólya’s structure.
Step
Step 1.
1. Understanding
Understanding of
of the
the Problem
Problem
This level of teaching requires the problem to be introduced using the following story:
This level of teaching requires the problem to be introduced using the following story:
Gulliver is coming to the Binary Island. There is an interesting currency here; the “exchange
Gulliver is coming to the Binary Island. There is an interesting currency here; the “exchange rates”
rates” for 1 EUR is 1 A-gulden, 2 A-guldens are 1 B-gulden, 2 B-guldens are 1 C-gulden, and so on
for 1 EUR is 1 A-gulden, 2 A-guldens are 1 B-gulden, 2 B-guldens are 1 C-gulden, and so on for D- and
for D- and upper guldens. In the shops, it is possible to use a maximum of one piece of each type of
upper guldens. In the shops, it is possible to use a maximum of one piece of each type of gulden.
gulden.
The first question is: How can one pay 10 EUR in a Binary Island shop?
The first question is: How can one pay 10 EUR in a Binary Island shop?
The questions reflecting Pólya’s [26] ideas (“What is the unknown? What are the data? What
The questions reflecting Pólya’s [26] ideas (“What is the unknown? What are the data? What is
is the condition?”) are processed via discussions with the students about properties of the special
the condition?”) are processed via discussions with the students about properties of the special
currency on Binary Island. By this means, learning skills (communication and collaboration) and social
currency on Binary Island. By this means, learning skills (communication and collaboration) and
skills (networking with others for mutual benefit) can be developed.
social skills (networking with others for mutual benefit) can be developed.
Step 2.
Step 2. Devising
Devising the
the Plan
Plan
In this stage, it
it is
is important
important to
to compare
compare the
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the decimal number system and the currency system on Binary Island.
Useful
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the number written in the
written indecimal system
the decimal is possible
system via cards:
is possible via cards:
1000 100 100 10 10 10 1 1 1 1
1000 100 100 10 10 10 1 1 1 1
It is possible to use up to nine pieces of cards with values of 1, 10, 100, 1000, . . . , while on Binary
Island, only up to one piece of each kind of gulden can be used. The representation can also be made
with cards.
F E D C B A
It is possible to show the solution with the aforementioned cards. “Draw a figure!” [26]. This will
be started with A cards, and the first step is to show 10 A-gulden, but more than 1 A-gulden is used.
A A A A A A A A A A
Now, it is possible to replace 2 A-guldens with 1 B-gulden; the result is visualized, but 5 B-guldens
are used.
B B B B B
Again, 2 B-guldens are replaced with 1 C-gulden. Still, two pieces of C-gulden are needed.
C C B
The final step is to replace 2 C-gulden with 1 D-gulden, and thus, only one gulden of types D and
B is used:
D B
The following question helps the understanding in this stage: “Can you see clearly that the steps
in the presented algorithm are correct?”
At this moment, it is helpful to repeat and to explain the algorithm of changing the cards used
to the students. This practice helps the acquisition of the “acting in the moment” skills, answering
the question: “Can you see it at a glance?” The interpretation of the obtained result belongs to the
stage following the question: “Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?” [26].
The following table shows the final result in a different, more mathematical way, helping to develop
the goal-oriented learning behavior of the students:
D C B A Binary Island gulden representation

1 0 1 0 Binary number system representation
The order of the digits 0 and 1 in the table represents what is usually written in mathematics:
1010 = 10102 , meaning that 10 in the decimal number system is written as 1010 in the binary
number system.
Further, more complex applications: Use of similar cards is helpful in designing other student
activities to follow up the application of the above model; e.g., for a higher-complexity problem,
the addition of two numbers in the binary system as an application of the question: “Can you use the
result, or the method for some other problem?” [26]. Take the following example:
11012 + 10112 =?
The first step is to exchange the numbers into the cards. The table of the card model is better
for visibility:
D C A
D B A
The algorithm is based on changing of cards from right to left: 2 A-guldens are 1 B-gulden.
D C B
D B
It holds in a similar way that 2 B-guldens are 1 C-gulden.
D C
D C
Now, it is possible to change 2 C-guldens into 1 D-gulden.
D
D
D
The last step is to change 2 D-guldens into 1 E-gulden and to show the final result with the
numbers 0 and 1, as a representation in the binary number system.
E D
1 1 0 0 0
Thus, the result can be written as: 11012 + 10112 = 11,0002 .

Step 4 and Pólya’s questions give learning strategies for teachers to develop learners’ strategic
thinking through working together by using a learning game with cards to gain a better understanding
of the problem and to find the solution.
5. Discussion and Conclusions

The role of problem solving in learning mathematics is widely known; many studies and research
papers have been published on this topic. Nevertheless, in 1945, Pólya was the first to give a clear
description of a method for teaching problem solving in mathematics.
The present paper focuses on the future perspectives of problem solving motivated by the
following trends:
• The rapidly changing environment due to technological disruption, globalization, and climate
change, which requires the development of new transversal skills through education.
• Cross-curricular integration helps students and learners to remember math knowledge better and
to link it to real-life situations, allowing them to connect different subject areas.
In the upcoming years, these tendencies will reshape, step by step, the mathematical education at
all levels.
Furthermore, it is challenging for teachers to make math engaging, to prove its utility in real
life, and to find ways to develop problem-solving skills that equip graduates with the skills needed
to thrive in a modern workplace. In this sense, they have to figure out which mathematics contents
are sustainable.
The present paper intends to make a case for rethinking how learners acquire knowledge and
what future needs they have to face in the rapidly changing world, and, thus, to update the curriculum
in this respect. This theoretical research’s main finding is that the Pólya method, which is well known
and used in mathematical problem solving, could be used to develop 21st-century skills. The examples
and strategies presented demonstrate that by being including in the learning process and practicing
certain methods of solving mathematical problems, students could learn a way of thinking to approach
and solve problems successfully in a broader context later in life. The examples presented prove that
Pólya’s heuristic could be used in a broader context to help learners acquire the modern skills needed
to succeed in their careers. The uniqueness of the problem is the challenge of finding solutions that
remain in memory for a long time and can be retrieved for future use. In addition to this challenge,
if the solution method is also anchored, then this method can be utilized to solve other problems
encountered in life. Thus, the example is a reminder of the method. Regarding the 21st-century skills,
the goal is to understand, practice, and adapt the method to everyday life situations. This must be
mastered in the context of mathematics education.
English and Sriraman [58] argue that there is scarce information in the literature on how learners
solve mathematics problems outside the classroom. Nevertheless, when examining the way people
solve non-mathematical problems faced in life, it can be observed that mathematical problem solving
has similarities to general problem solving. One approach to authentic problems that appeared in the
literature and gained a high degree of interest is episodic future thinking [59]. Maciejewski [60] states
that, “Planning in a mathematical situation, therefore, may be analogous to planning in a general,
non-mathematical situation, and may involve episodic future thinking.”
The critical review of the literature in Section 2 reveals that problem solving is one of the
most valuable skills in modern work. In this respect, this paper presents teaching models and
strategies that prove that teaching problem-solving thinking in mathematics is an efficient way to
develop transversal and cross-curricular skills, such as critical thinking, creativity, collaboration,
communication, information, media and technology literacy, and life skills, in order to develop learners’
abilities to face non-mathematical challenges.
Section 3 presents a short overview of mathematical problem solving from Pólya and of current
problem-solving processes, frameworks, and new tendencies. The role of math teachers is to transfer
knowledge to students, to provide problem-solving strategies, and, based on them, to explain and help
them build up their own approaches. In this way, learners succeed in acquiring transversal skills that
they can put into practice to solve real-life problems at the workplace. The developed mathematical
problem-solving strategies can be applied to a variety of situations: They can be used to diagnose an
illness, in experimental physics, to solve non-routine problems at the workplace, and in unforeseen
emergency cases, power supply shortcuts, crisis management, and others. Moreover, science-based
decisions also need problem-solving skills.
Those who have good problem-solving skills can adapt quickly to every situation. They are
goal-oriented, find solutions quickly, and make decisions quickly. This ability needs to be continuously
developed, and it should start in elementary school. Education should provide the necessary
mathematical knowledge; however, besides the usual tasks, assignments that boost problem-solving
skills should be added as well.
Section 4 reveals concrete examples and teaching methods to show how problem solving could be
used to develop 21st-century skills, and how the cross-curricular integration of mathematics could
be achieved.
Depending on the students’ engagement and the teachers’ readiness, almost everybody can
become a good learner of mathematics. By asking appropriate questions, teachers can help students to
build up their own goal-oriented strategies for problem solving. The Pólya principle is a crucial element
in this education process. Problem solving is not a linear process; learners must acquire abilities to
think forward and backward, between and across, to simplify and generalize. A good problem solver
has a goal-oriented behavior and can make decisions in a rapidly changing environment.
The presented concrete examples prove that Pólya’s heuristic can be used successfully nowadays
as well. It can help learners to improve their communication skills by constructing viable arguments
and judging others’ reasonings in order to develop their creativity, out-of-box thinking, collaboration,
flexibility, productivity, and leadership.
The paper’s findings, based on the Pólya’s heuristic steps [26] (pp. 23–27), including the skills
they can develop, are:
Step 1: “Understanding the problem”: The first step helps learners to develop their information
literacy—to understand the facts, data, and media literacy—to understand methods and be able to
distinguish between the ones that are credible and the ones that are not. By formulating suitable
questions, teachers can develop learners’ social skills.
Steps 2: “Devising a plan”: This step promotes life skills, such as flexibility to accept that they
always have a lot to learn, to accept other opinions, to understand how to react in different situations,
and to analyze the different possibilities when looking at solutions. It also develops creativity and
critical thinking, and guides them to have initiative and to be able to create and deliver a plan.
Step 3: “Carrying out the plan”: The third step helps learners to acquire learning skills through
networking. It boosts critical thinking, creativity, communication, and collaboration. Moreover,
it fosters leadership skills and achieving goals collaboratively, and it promotes productivity, an ability
to complete the work in an appropriate amount of time. It teaches how learners can become efficient
by using prior experiences.
Step 4: “Looking back and further development of the topic”: The last step reveals to learners the
benefits of working together to gain a better understanding of the problem and to debate and assess
solutions to find the best one. Thus, it develops strategic thinking.
The presented examples enhance the technological literacy of learners as well, and the use of the
GeoGebra software in the classroom activities strengthens students’ understanding. The modeling used
in the examples presented reveals the positive effect on the development of problem-solving activities
and fosters not only learning, but literacy and life skills as well. Through modeling, the teacher can
realize the cross-curricular integration of mathematics.
To enhance critical thinking, it is essential to teach learners to consider and analyze various
possible solutions to the problem, to choose one, and to define a set of coherent actions to deliver
results. In this respect, in Section 3, different multiplication algorithms are presented.
To teach students to complete work in an appropriate amount of time and to increase their
efficiency/productivity, the teacher needs to provide relevant assignments. Learning is possible only
through practice and experience; thus, to improve problem-solving skills, lots of problems need to be
solved. Teachers have to create problems with different difficulty levels and give them to students
gradually until their problem-solving skills are sharpened. Pólya’s stages deliver a concrete way
to develop algorithmic thinking in learners, which is essential in informatics and programming.
It is possible to use the given examples not only during classical teaching, but also in different
mathematics circles and when preparing seminars for different kinds of competitions (for instance,
Mathematical Olympiad, Kangaroo [61], Bebras [62], Mathematical Duels [63]). These facts show
possible developments and applications for non-formal education.
The paper targets current and future teachers and presents them with a method to rethink their
teaching method for equipping students with 21st-century skills. Furthermore, it addresses the
scientific community to convey the relevance and importance of heuristics in developing 21st-century
skills and to stress the need for future research in this context. The number of heuristics conferences
worldwide demonstrates that heuristics have been gaining a lot of attention from different disciplines
in the last years.
In order to train and strengthen 21st-century skills in learners, when it comes to problem-solving
skills, the gap must be recognized between what the teachers learned and what is expected of them
to teach. Teacher readiness is a sensitive topic for many countries and needs in-depth analysis.
The integration of problem-solving skills into mathematics is currently a challenging theme; how
and when it has to be taught, what the curriculum has to contain, and which pedagogical methods
have to be applied are important aspects of this matter. According to Hill et al. [64], math anxiety is a
negative emotional response of learners to their current or prospective situation involving mathematics
(see also [65]). This happens in an educational process when mathematics teachers introduce new
topics with insufficient use of suitable models and a low stage of visualization, and when they present
new mathematical notions, such as “ready mathematics”, without steps that show how the new notions
were created. The given examples are suitable for one of the possible constructivist ways to present
mathematics concepts via some problem-solving strategy that supports inquiry by learners. In this
way, learners have many possibilities to build up their knowledge individually and step-by-step.
Future research plans include qualitative and quantitative research in these subjects with international
students from CEEPUS partner universities. Future research directions may include the development
of the correlation of problem-solving strategies and collaborative and technology-enhanced learning
as well.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.K.S., P.K., J.G., D.S., and R.N.; methodology, Z.K.S., P.K., J.G., and
R.N.; software, J.G.; validation, D.S.; formal analysis, P.K. and J.G.; investigation, Z.K.S., P.K., J.G., D.S., and R.N.;
resources, Z.K.S., P.K., J.G., D.S., and R.N.; data curation, D.S. and R.N.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.K.S.,
P.K., J.G., D.S., and R.N.; writing—review and editing, D.S. and R.N.; visualization, P.K.; supervision, Z.K.S.;
project administration, Z.K.S.; funding acquisition, Z.K.S., P.K., J.G., D.S., and R.N. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Sustainability 2020, 12,This
Funding: x FOR PEER REVIEW
research received no external funding. 22 of 28
Acknowledgments: The authors of the paper wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions and support of the
Appendix A of the CEEPUS Network CIII-HU-0028-14-2021 and the project VEGA 1/0592/20.
partners
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Sustainability
Sustainability 2020,
2020, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
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Appendix
Appendix B
Appendix B
B
Historical remarks on
Historical remarks on the
the multiplication
multiplication algorithm
algorithm by Vajkovics(1753).
by Vajkovics (1753).
Figure
Figure A1.
A1. The
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published in
in [55]
[55] (p.
(p. 18).
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A2. Title
Title page
page of
of Elementa
Elementa Arithmeticae
Arithmeticae [55].
[55].
Appendix
Appendix C
Appendix C
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billiards;
−− information
information documenting
documenting thethe current
current and
and historical
historical use
use of
of mathematics.
mathematics.
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sustainability

Keywords: problem-solving strategy; critical thinking; 21st-century skills; heuristic; sustainability;

MSC: 97C70; 97D50

Sustainability 2020, 12, 10113; doi:10.3390/su122310113 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Scope of 21st-Century Skills

3. A Short Overview of Mathematical Problem Solving

4. Problem-Solving Activities and Strategies to Develop 21st-Century Skills

Step 1. Understanding the Problem

Step 2. Making a Plan

Planning the First Weighing

Planning the Second Weighing

Table 3. The possible outcomes of the second weighing in case 1-4-1.

The Second Weighing in Case 1-4-2

Table 4. The possible outcomes of the second weighing in case 1-4-2.

Planning the Third Weighing

A. One can separate S4

Table 5. The possible outcomes of the last weighing in case A.

Case Outcome of the Weighing Information, Result

Table 6. The possible outcomes of the last weighing in case B.

Case Outcome of the Weighing Information, Result

Table 7. The possible outcomes of the last weighing in case C.

Case Outcome of the Weighing Information, Result

Table 8. The possible outcomes of the last weighing in case D.

Case Outcome of the Weighing Information, Result

Step 3. Executing the Plan

4.2.1. Multiplication of Two Natural Numbers

Step 1. Understanding the Problem

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 28

ItIt isis important

1000 100 100 10 10 10 1 1 1 1

Step 3. Carrying Out the Plan

Step 4. Looking Back

D C B A Binary Island gulden representation

It holds in a similar way that 2 B-guldens are 1 C-gulden.

Now, it is possible to change 2 C-guldens into 1 D-gulden.

Thus, the result can be written as: 11012 + 10112 = 11,0002 .

5. Discussion and Conclusions

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 28

21. NBE. Perusopetuksen Opetussuunnitelman Perusteet 2014. Available online: https://www.oph.

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