Steel Casting Handboock

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Copyrighted content, licensed for the sole use of:

Jessica Bell, (4391250)
Steel Castings Handbook Sixth Edition Copyright © 1995 Steel Founders' Society of America and ASM International®
Malcolm Blair, Thomas L. Steven, editors, p 1-1-1-5 All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.1361/schb1995p001 www. asminternational.org
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Steel Castings
Page
Introduction 1-1
What Is a Steel Casting? 1-1
Casting Process 1-1
Why Use a Steel Casting? 1-4
Who Uses Steel Castings? 1-4
Cast Steel Compared to Other Cast Metals 1-5
Steel Castings Compared to Other Processes 1-5
Buying and Specifying Steel Castings 1-5

1-2 Part 1: General Information
high strength, low and high temperature service and corrosion resis-
Introduction tance.
There are approximately 300 steel foundries in North America.
Steel is the most versatile engineering material available today. Due to the diversity of market requirements such as size, tolerances,
Steel can be easily welded and processed and plays a vital role in chemistry, volume, etc., a single foundry cannot serve all of the
maintaining the high standard of living enjoyed by the industrialized market and each company will tend to specialize in a portion of the
nations of the world. total market. Some of the specialized areas are:
The versatility of steel can be easily recognized by its applications
which range from high strength structural applications to excellent • railroad, construction equipment, truck and mining industries.
corrosion resistance in aggressive fluids.
• high alloy stainless steel used in corrosion and heat resistant
The differences between steel castings and its wrought counter-
applications or low volume prototype and service parts.
parts are principally in the method of production. In the case of
The balance of this chapter indicates chapters which will contain
wrought steel cast bars, slabs and ingots are mechanically worked to
detailed information regarding the casting processes, applications
produce sheet, bar, tube and other product forms. However, steel
for steel castings and suggestions regarding the use of steel castings.
castings are produced in the final product form without any interme-
diate mechanical working. Steel castings are near net shape prod-
ucts.
Although cast steel accounts for only 10% of the total foundry
What Is a Steel Casting?
industry sales, steel castings are used for vitally important compo-
A steel casting is the product formed by pouring molten steel into
nents in the mining, railroad, truck, construction, military, and oil
a mold cavity. The liquid steel cools and solidifies in the mold cavity
and gas industries. The total capacity of the steel casting industry in
and is then removed for cleaning. Heat treating may be required to
the United States is approximately 1.6 million tons with a sales value
meet desired properties.
of approximately two billion dollars (US). Steel castings are speci-
This process provides the near net shape and mechanical proper-
fied for applications which require weldability, abrasion resistance,
ties required by a purchaser to meet his specifications.
Casting Process
The manufacture of steel castings is discussed in this handbook,
MELTING
however, a simplified flow diagram (Figures 1-1 and 1-2) is shown
PATTERNMAKING
to give an overview of the process steps.
Pattern Equipment
Chapter 11 discusses this important step in the casting process in
MOLDING detail, however, the following points summarize some of the impor-
tant aspects to be considered.
The dimensional accuracy of a steel casting is dependent on the
type and quality of the pattern. The foundry should be responsible
MOLD for determining the type of pattern which will produce the highest
POURING COREMAKING
CLOSING quality part on their equipment.
Types of Patterns
SHAKEOUT
Pattern equipment can be made of wood, metal, wax, plastic,
foam, etc. The selection depends on the quantity and size of parts,
molding method, casting tolerances required, and cost.
W o o d patterns are less costly than other materials, but are
RISER CUTOFF suited only for prototypes and limited production. They can easily
a be converted to plastic if production requirements increase.
GATE REMOVAL
Metal patterns are the most costly, but they are required for
high volume production. The material can be aluminum, iron, brass,
bronze, etc. Cast aluminum is the most commonly used material for
INITIAL medium volume requirements. Metal patterns are also required for
HEAT TREATMENT both cores and molds produced by the shell process.
Wax patterns are used in the investment, or lost wax, molding
CLEANING process. These processes use dies to form the patterns. The wax
FINAL
patterns are coated with a ceramic slurry to form a shell. The wax is
a HEAT TREATMENT
then removed by heat.
FINISHING
Pattern costs will vary considerably depending on material, vol-
ume required and tolerance requirements. Consultation with the
foundry during the design stage will ensure that the type of pattern
INSPECTION
a equipment necessary will be obtained at the lowest cost.
SHIPPING
F o a m patterns may be used in the ceramic or bonded sand
molding systems. In the ceramic systems they may be substitutes for
Fig. 1-1 Simplified flow diagram of theCopyrighted
basic operationscontent,
for licensed
wax for
and the sole
in the usesystems
bonded of: inexpensive substitutes for other
producing a steel casting Jessica Bell, (4391250) stronger materials.
Introduction to Steel Castings 1-3
Molding Processes
The Molding Processes are discussed in detail in Chapter 13.
Green s a n d m o l d i n g is the most widely used system and due
to mechanization in many green sand foundries, the least expensive
process. Water and clay in the sand allows molds to be produced
with a high degree of hardness and an accurate mold cavity.
MECHANICAL DRAWING OF Shell m o l d i n g uses resin bonded sand and a heated pattern to
DESIRED PART produce a fused sand mold with excellent detail and dimensional
accuracy. Energy and material costs are higher than green sand. This
process is not suitable for larger castings.
C h e m i c a l l y b o n d e d m o l d i n g uses sand and various chemi-
cals or gases to form a dry hard mold. Dimensional accuracy is
good, and the process is suited to all sizes of parts; however, sand
reclamation costs are high, and the process is more expensive than
COPE PATTERN PLATE DRAG PATTERN PLATE green sand.
V a c u u m m o l d i n g uses dry unbonded sand. The mold relies on
the vacuum for its hardness; the vacuum must be maintained during
pouring and cooling. All sizes of parts can be made by this process;
accuracy and surface appearance are good.
I n v e s t m e n t c a s t i n g (also called "Lost Wax") uses a wax or
foam pattern formed by a very precise metal mold. Several patterns
are fixed to a "tree" and then dipped into a ceramic slurry. Succes-
sive dipping and drying produces a thick shell of ceramic which
becomes the mold. The wax or foam is removed by heat prior to
pouring. This process is limited to smaller castings and is generally
not competitive unless some machining can be eliminated.
Expendable pattern casting is also called Lost Foam or
^ ^ COPE AFTER RAMMING WITH Full Mold process and uses a pattern of polystyrene which can be
COPE READY FOR SAND SAND AND REMOVING cut from stock or formed in a metal die, depending on volume
PATTERN, SPRUE a RISERS
requirements. The patterns are coated with a ceramic wash. The
pattern and polystyrene gating system are embedded in dry sand,
and when poured, the polystyrene melts and evaporates. Cores are
not required, and capital requirements are low. Dry sand is easily
reclaimed compared to other processes. This process produces a
clean, tightly toleranced casting. This process is currently in the
development phase for steel castings.
DRAG READY FOR SAND DRAG AFTER Graphite m o l d i n g utilizes graphite molds which are semi-per-
REMOVING PATTERN manent. Dimensional control and surface appearance are excellent.
This is a highly specialized process suited mainly to parts like
railroad wheels.
P e r m a n e n t m o l d castings poured into molybdenum molds are
severely limited in size.
Centrifugal m o l d i n g produces parts from molten metal
poured into rotating molds. Rotation of the mold causes the metal to
be held to the inside diameter of the mold. It is ideally suited for pipe
and symmetrical configurations.
DRAG WITH CORE COPE AND DRAG Ceramic m o l d i n g employs a mixture of refractory materials,
SET IN PLACE ASSEMBLED READY hydrolyzed ethyl silicate, and a catalyst which is poured over a
„ FOR POURING
pattern. The ceramic shell is stripped before fully setting, then fired,
and assembled for pouring. This process produces excellent surface
appearance and accuracy and is particularly adapted to turbine
blades and manifolds.
Melting and Pouring Operations

CASTING AS REMOVED CASTINGS READY Melting and Pouring are summarized here and are detailed in
FROM MOLD FOR SHIPMENT Chapter 14.
Several types of melting furnaces are used in the production of
Fig. 1-2 Typical steps involved in making a casting from a green steel castings.
sand mold
Electric arc f u r n a c e s (EAF) are responsible for the produc-
tion of the majority (84%) of steel castings. These units are com-
posed of a steel shell, refractory lining, and a refractory lined roof
with three openings for graphite electrodes. Melting is accom-

plished by the heat from the electric arc.
The EAF is the most flexible unit for melting steel in that the High chrome irons 6%
charge material can be varied and the steel can be refined in the
furnace before tapping. Austenitic Stnls 2%
Electric induction furnaces are the most common unit for High manganese 6%
smaller production quantities. The furnace consists of a steel shell Martensitic Stnls 1 %
with a refractory lining surrounded by a copper coil. Heat is gener-
ated by an electric current in the coil. HA heat resistant 4%
Finishing and Heat Treating

Finishing and Heat Treating are summarized here and are detailed
in Chapter 15. Fig. 1-3 Total Steel Castings Production (1993)
When a casting has cooled, it is shaken out of the mold. Before it
can be shipped, it must be finished or cleaned. The first step is an
abrasive blast which cleans the surface of all residue of the mold.
Then the extraneous metal of the gating system and fins are removed
by torch cutting, sawing or grinding. Welding of discontinuities is a
common practice in the steel casting industry. Weight a n d S i z e R a n g e . Steel castings are produced from
Heat treatment processes may be used to enhance the properties ounces to over 100 tons and in quantities from one to thousands per
of specific alloys. The scale formed on casting surfaces during heat order. Each casting will exhibit the chemistry and mechanical prop-
treatment is removed by abrasive blasting. erties specified by the buyer.
Steel castings can be straightened by pressing if warpage occurs Steel castings can be joined to other product forms (wrought,
during processing. This operation ensures dimensional accuracy of forged, etc.) to produce cost-effective fabrications.
the finished part.
P r e - m a c h i n i n g or rough machining has become very common
in steel foundries. When the customer requires very precise location
Who Uses Steel Castings?
of finish stock or reduced finish stock the foundry can perform a Chapter 2 covers the industries who are major users of steel
rough machining operation to provide the desired characteristics. castings and the applications that require the unique properties of
Many foundries can also supply parts in the finish machined cast steel. The generic term "steel" covers a wide range of grades of
condition. materials, however, for simplicity two alloy groups are normally
Process capability and tolerances are covered in Chap- considered: Carbon and Low Alloy (C&LA) and High Alloy. High
ter 16 and are dependent on many factors. As mentioned earlier, Alloy grades include stainless steels and nickel-base alloys.
pattern quality, mold material, pre-machining, straightening, etc., Austenitic Manganese steels and all other non-stainless steels are
can all affect tolerances. The ability to control the casting process is usually included in the C&LA group. The total steel casting produc-
of extreme importance to today's foundryman, and the supplier of tion in the U.S. excluding high chromium irons is dominated by the
choice can document his programs for the buyer. C&LA grades (Figure 1-3). The C&LA and High Alloy group markets
are shown in Figures 1 -4 and 1 -5. Some of the larger users are:
Railroad industry which uses 50% of the total production of steel
Why Use a Steel Casting? castings. These parts are used in severe applications such as cou-
plers, draft gears, side frames, bolsters, and wheels.
The wide range of metallurgical and mechanical properties avail- Construction machinery manufacturers use about 15% of the steel
able in steel castings is discussed in Chapters 17 through 24. Many castings produced each year. The applications here are as varied as
of the alloys required for severe applications cannot be wrought and the equipment produced. Parts range from end caps on hydraulic
must be cast. cylinders for a small backhoe to transmission housings on large
All carbon and low alloy steels are readily weldable (Chapter 25). earth-moving machinery.
Higher alloy grades such as manganese and stainless steels are Valves and fittings of cast steel account for about 5% of produc-
routinely welded using appropriate techniques. tion and are used for the drilling, recovery, transportation, and
Steel castings are readily heat treated by normalizing, annealing, refining of natural gas and crude oil both on land and offshore. These
quench and tempering, localized or differential hardening, etc., parts vary in size from a few pounds to many tons. Applications are
depending on the mechanical properties required (Chapter 24).
very severe requiring performance in corrosive liquids at both sub-
Information on cast high alloy steels is presented in Chapter 20.
zero and elevated temperatures. Operating pressures can reach many
The corrosion resistance of CF type high alloy cast steels is compa-
thousands of p.s.i. in valves and blowout preventers.
rable to wrought 300 series material but the CF grades have a
slightly different composition and contain ferrite for improved Heavy trucks—both on and off-highway—use about 5% of indus-
weldability. Nickel-base alloys are discussed in Chapter 21. The try production. Some applications include: axle housings, suspen-
high alloy and nickel-base alloy castings are used in chemical sion brackets, wheels, brake parts, axle spindles, differential hous-
processing plants and corrosive environments. ings, and fifth wheels.
Wear Resistance of cast steels is reviewed in Chapter 19. It varies Mining industry makes extensive use of steel castings for their
from a relatively soft medium carbon steel of .25 percent carbon to extreme requirements of toughness and abrasion resistance both for
the extremely hard "work-hardening" manganese grades and the ore recovery equipment and crushing mills. Both high manganese
high chrome irons. Cast steels exhibit superior toughness and impact and other alloy steels are widely used, and these materials can only
resistance compared to other materials. be produced as castings.
Heat resistant alloys (Chapter 22) are used at temperatures in Numerous other industries use steel castings. These range from
excess of 1200 °F (649 °C). These materials are usually alloys of food processing and electronics to oil and gas, defense and pulp and
iron, chromium, and nickel. paper industries. In fact, castings touch every aspect of our lives.
Introduction to Steel Castings 1-5
Rolling mill
Cast Steel Compared to Other 1% Valves
Cast Metals Construction
19%
{ / 7o/o
Others
Non-ferrous alloys have excellent machinability, and most are 10%
lighter than the iron family, but they do not have the strength and Ordnance
toughness required for many severe applications. 2% Motor
Gray Iron is produced more than any other iron alloy. It offers vehicles
excellent castability and machinability, but it is essentially a brittle 6%
material. It is the least expensive of the iron alloys, and the dominant
Mining
user is the automotive industry.
19%
Ductile Iron, also referred to as nodular iron (or S.G. iron in
Europe), is a cast iron which does have some ductility. Applications
for this material have grown dramatically in the past 30 years, and Railroad
it has supplanted malleable iron in most cases. Ductile iron has been Oil field
34%
2%
used for steel applications where weldability and toughness are not
required. Fig. 1-4 Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Markets (1993)
Steel Castings Compared to

Other Processes Paper
3<>/0 Food
Pumps \ 6%
Weldments are produced from ingots which are rolled into com- 16%
mon shapes such as bar, plate, "I" beams, tube, etc.
Advantages:
Mill steel is less expensive than cast or forged parts. There may
not be a die or pattern cost, and there are not any size limitations. Valves
Disadvantages: Furnaces 24%
If extensive welding is required, the cost increases. Large or 16%
complicated parts require expensive fixtures. Rolled or forged ma-
terials are anisotropic and exhibit lower ductility when impact is
transverse to the direction of working. Ordnance
Forgings are produced in dies by hammering or pressing to the 3%
desired shape. Simple shapes with high volume requirements are
good candidates for the forging process, as long as the required part Others
31%
does not have a composition that cannot be mechanically worked.
More detailed information on the advantages of steel castings can
Fig. 1-5 High Alloy Markets (1993)
be found in Chapter 3.
Buying and Specifying Steel

Castings • Dimensional tolerances
• Soundness (radiography, N.D.T.)
Buying and specifying steel castings are discussed in Chapters 4 • Special inspection and tests certification
and 5. When a steel casting is required to perform a specific engi-
neering function and the specifications have been determined, the In addition, the inquiry should show:
next step is to select a supplier for that part. The Steel Founders'
Society of America publishes a directory of all foundries in the • Quantity and delivery required
United States, Canada, and Mexico. This directory lists personnel, • Weight (if available)
capacity, special services, size of parts produced, etc.
• Painting, if required
Several potential sources should be visited by the quality, engi-
• Name and phone number of person to contact regarding questions
neering, and purchasing departments to audit each facility to deter-
mine several qualified sources. A detailed inquiry can be sent to each on the inquiry
qualified company. This inquiry should include current engineering • Shipping destination
drawings showing: • Machining, if required
• Machined surfaces Treat your foundry supplier as a valued source, not only for
• Material specification (preferably a standard specifying body like castings, but also for advice on:
ASTM)
• Molding methods
Special requirements such as: • Pattern options
• Metal specifications
• Hardness • Design assistance for lowest cost

* < . • . ...
« # • •

CHAPTER 2
Industrial Applications of Steel Castings

Page
Introduction 2-2
Transportation Industries 2-2

Railroad 2-2
Motor Vehicles 2-5
Ships 2-7
The Mining Industry 2-8
The Construction Industry 2-12
The Agricultural Industry 2-16
Power Generating Equipment and Electrical Machinery 2-18
Oil, Gas Field, and Petrochemical Equipment 2-21
Materials Handling Equipment 2-26
Building Construction 2-27
Metal Making, Shaping, Finishing, and Forming 2-28
Gears, Pinions, and Worms 2-31
Military 2-34
Special Machinery, Products, and Components 2-36
Summary 2-40

The rotary coupling system consists of the rotary dump coupler,

Introduction the rotary yoke, and associated connecting parts (Figure 2-4).
The freight car truck consisting of two side frames and one bolster
Steel castings are produced in thousands of designs for different
may be seen in Figures 2-1 and 2-5. Each of these trucks provides
applications. They fill needs in many industries including transpor-
friction control of the load spring action that permits the use of
tation, construction machinery, earthmoving equipment, rolling
softer, long-travel springs. This combination of friction, snubbing,
mills, mining, oil and gas explorations, and power generation. Steel
and soft springs protects the car body from shocks. Though details
castings are used in processing where high and low temperatures
may differ, friction is applied through hardened cast steel shoes.
and pressures are encountered in refineries, chemical plants, and
These shoes are spring loaded to give constant pressure against the
food and drug processing.
Photographs in this chapter will provide an understanding of the
application, the ranges of casting size and complexity, and the types
of cast steels produced. These illustrations may well stir the reader's
imagination in the direction of new applications.
Transportation Industries
Railroad
The railroads were among the first customers of the steel castings
industry. The use of steel castings remains critical to their success.
Steel castings excel in this service where resistance to shock and
fatigue, high strength, and toughness must be maintained with
minimum weight. Safety, protection of cargo, and operating econ-
omy are required in railroad equipment. These factors, coupled with
the economics of casting production, explain casting use in freight
cars, passenger cars, and locomotives. Steel castings usage in the
Fig. 2-1 A schematic view of the location of the coupler, striker,
construction of one freight car is shown in Table 2-1. draft gear, truck side frame, and bolster on a freight car
Figure 2-1 schematically shows a number of important railroad
parts and assemblies. The side frame and the coupler are the only
components normally visible. The bolster, draft gear, yoke, and
striker are under the car. These assemblies of steel castings have
proven ability to withstand this rough usage.
The coupler which connects the cars is made up of an assembly of
steel castings. These possess the toughness and strength required to
absorb the impact and stress of starting and stopping trains of 150
cars or more. A standard coupler is shown in Figure 2-2.
It has been found in general services that the pulling forces on the
coupler can go up to 250,000 lb (113,398 kg). For unit train service,
the couplers must withstand forces up to 500,000 lb (226,796 kg).
The average strength requirements for the unit train coupler bodies
is set at 700,000 lb (318,181 kg) to yield and 900,000 lb (409,091
kg) without fracture.
A specialized rotary coupler (Figure 2-3) allows railroad cars to
be turned upside down for unloading without uncoupling. The result
is one of the fastest methods yet developed for handling the bulk
cargoes carried by unit trains.
Fig. 2-2 A standard railroad coupler
Table 2-1 Steel Castings Used in the

Construction of a 100-Ton Freight Car
Wt/Carset
Steel casting lb kg
Unit Cast Steel Brake Beam 484 220
Truck Side Frame 3,900 1,769
Bolster 2,704 1,227
Friction Shoes 146 66
36-in. (814mm) Diameter Cast Steel 6,240 2,830
Wheels
Coupler 1,028 466
Coupler Yoke 440 200
Striker Assembly 400 181
Draft Gear (Cast Steel Parts) 400 181
Rear Stop and Center Filler 436 198
Total 16,178 7,338 Fig. 2-3 In a rotary dumping station, a coal car begins 180 degree
rotation around the rugged cast steel rotary coupler.
Industrial Applications of Steel Castings 2-3
truck side frame columns. Renewable wear plates are also applied
to the truck side frame columns where wear is known to occur. In
the case of the side frame (Figure 2-5) wear plates are applied to
each column.
Bolsters incorporate the friction control of load spring action
discussed in connection with side frames. In some instances, hard-
ened steel wear plates are applied to the shoe pockets at the box
section ends.
The draft gear castings are essentially shock absorbers whose
function is to dissipate dynamic longitudinal forces. They are made
of carbon and low alloy cast steels.
Fig. 2-4 Rotary coupler showing cast steel components. It withstands

continuous pulling forces up to 500,000 lb (226,796 kg). Strength re-
quirements for coupler bodies are 700,000 lb (318,181 kg) yield load,
and 900,000 lb (409,091 kg) without fracture.
Fig. 2-5 Side frame and bolster castings for railroad freight cars
Fig. 2-6 Cast steel railroad freight car wheel, 33 in. (84 cm) in diame-
ter, sections from 1 to 7 in. (2.5 to 18 cm) thick, weight 610 lb (277 kg)
Fig. 2-8 Railroad hopper car door frame with integral hinges and
cover. Size about 3 by 4 ft (0.9 by 1.2 m)
Fig. 2-7 Typical six-wheel motor truck frame for a diesel locomotive
with most of the associated assembly, including the motors, in place. Fig. 2-9 Car retarder for switching freight cars. All major parts are
The motor frames are steel castings also. steel castings. Each rail runs through the center of two retarder bars.

The railroad freight car wheel (Figure 2-6) is a steel casting of

approximately 0.75% carbon content and 130 ksi (896 MPa) tensile
strength. It is designed and specially cast to produce a wear resistant
part for long service. The cast railroad wheel has completely re-
placed forged wheels at lower cost with high reliability and in-
creased durability.
Steel castings are used for many parts in diesel-electric locomo-
tives. The steel casting shown in Figure 2-7 is a truck frame for a
six-wheel diesel locomotive. This structure is a one-piece casting
which is best suited to meet the dynamic loads experienced in
railroad service.
The enumeration of all the steel castings for railroad service
would require the naming of a large number of structural and
operation parts. For example, a steel casting used with many design
variations is the hopper frame, Figure 2-8. From four to eight of
these frames are used on each hopper car.
Intermodal cars allow railroads to transport truck or shipboard
containers and lower the cost of freight shipments. One innovative
design of intermodal stack car uses an articulated coupler. The
Fig. 2-10 Pedestal casting for rail transportation of container car. articulated platform car (spine car) is made up of five separate
Weight 63 lb (28 kg) platforms with a common set of trucks and an articulated connector
between adjoining platforms. Each platform car handles 28 to 53 ft
trailers loaded to 65,000 lb.
The double stack car is used to carry containers ranging from 20
ft to 53 ft in length. This requires a new articulated connector in
place of the coupler; this articulated connector relies on steel cast-
ings for its successful manufacture.
Fig. 2-13 Cast steel suspension part. Weight 61 lb (28 kg)
Fig. 2-11 Retractable 360 degree winch tie down assembly of five
steel castings. Total weight 15 lb (7 kg)
Fig. 2-12 Trailer or truck wheel spider steel casting Fig. 2-14 Suspension casting for a trailer. Weight 13 lb (6 kg)
Track components such as automatic switching units, crossover materials handling fields. Steel castings for motor vehicles are
frogs (made of high manganese steel), and splicing bars are pro- designed with thin sections bordering on the minimum wall section
duced as units or assemblies of steel castings. Figure 2-9 is an for castability. Steel castings ensure the combination of high
assembled car-retarder used in switching. strength and light weight necessary for these applications.
Steel castings are used in other rail transportation systems such as One example of a thin-section, highly stressed part is the truck
subway and transit cars, or in securing of equipment shipped by wheel spider, Figure 2-12. Wheels on these vehicles undergo re-
railroads. Figure 2-10 is an example of a pedestal casting used on peated stress reversals as they rotate. The stresses are particularly
container cars. It permits fast and economical loading and unloading high when rounding a corner or curve. These castings, with wall
of containers. No other tie-down parts are required to secure the thickness of 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) must have a high fatigue life and be
load. Another example is the retractable winch assembly of five light to increase the payload of the vehicle. The weight savings from
individual steel castings, Figure 2-11. Total weight of the assembly thin wall components are reflected through the entire life of the
is 15 lb (7 kg), which consists of four castings. The swivel section vehicle in the form of additional income from payload revenue and
is assembled without machining. The retractable 360° winch tie- reduced fuel consumption.
down assembly is used primarily for securing agricultural and other Suspension castings, Figures 2-13 and 2-14, are another family of
vehicles during transportation. parts that require high strength and light weight. The supporting of
the truck or trailer frame over the wheel and axle assemblies makes
Motor Vehicles it essential that the castings be tough and durable. Spring hangers
(Figure 2-15), spring seats, equalizer beams, and axle support brack-
Motor vehicle steel castings are normally used in the production
ets (Figure 2-16) are steel castings. Cast steel is a desirable material
of trucks, trailers, buses, and to some extent, passenger cars. These
because it allows the designer to connect the critical points of the
vehicles travel over public roads and highways as opposed to off- structure with a thin, high strength envelope of durable steel. The
highway vehicles used in the construction, mining, agriculture, and designer is able to utilize one of the advantages of the casting
process, i.e., the ability to put the material where he wants it and yet
satisfy his needs for light weight, and low manufacturing costs.
The steel casting process is able to hold close dimensional toler-
ances, in many cases, only finish machining operations are neces-
sary. In other instances, as-cast tolerances and finishes permit as-
sembly and use without machining. Highway trailer hardware and
Fig. 2-15 Truck spring hanger. Weight 38 lb (17 kg)
1 &
! i
Fig. 2-16 On-highway truck axle suspension bracket
Fig. 2-17 Trailer hitch, shell molded cast steel. Weight 4.5 lb (2 kg) Fig. 2-18 Cast steel trailer hitch is a 1 lb (0.45 kg) casting
hitch parts. Figure 2-17 and 2-18, for mobile homes and utility
trailers are examples of such castings.
An important motor vehicle part is the rear housing for heavy-
duty trucks, Figure 2-19. This axle unit is rugged and lightweight
with a thin section thickness. The housing ensures minimum main-
tenance for trucking operations. Steel castings are used for front and
rear axle parts because of the dependability in exacting service
applications.
The front axle spindle for a dump truck, Figure 2-20, is produced
from low alloy cast steel which is heat treated to a minimum tensile
Fig. 2-19 Axle housing of the type employed on highway trucks strength of 100 ksi (689 MPa). Figures 2-21 and 2-22 show a rear
axle brake spider and a brake shoe casting for heavy-duty trucks.
Passenger busses also utilize steel castings. Figure 2-23 is an air
bag support bracket which contains the torque bar and shock absorb-
ers and rests on the front axle. It is a double-walled part, the inside
being cored to leave 3/8-in. (9.5 mm) thick walls, and is produced
from ASTM A148, Grade 120-95 cast steel.
Fig. 2-21 Rear axle brake spider castings. Weight 150 lb (68 kg)
Fig. 2-20 Front axle spindle for a dump truck. Spindle diameter 6
in. (15 cm), weight 195 lb (88 kg)
Fig. 2-22 Brake shoes for a heavy-duty truck. Outside diameter 24

in. (61 cm), weight each half, 95 lb (43 kg) Fig. 2-23 Cast air bag support bracket for passenger bus service
The sway control unit for travel trailers, Figure 2-24, is composed
of four separate carbon steel castings and machining is not required.
An axle bracket, Figure 2-25, is part of the suspension system for a
trailer and machining was not required.
Ships
Some of the largest castings produced are used on ships. These
castings must be strong and rigid and frequently must be made from
corrosion-resistant steels to withstand seawater corrosion. Steel
castings are used for many of the vital parts of the hull and operating
mechanisms on ships.
Fig. 2-24 Sway control unit for trailers consisting of four small
separately cast steel castings. Base width 8 in. (200 mm)
Fig. 2-25 Axle bracket casting for a trailer suspension system

Weight 15 lb (6.8 kg)
Fig. 2-26 Hawse pipe casting for a cargo ship
Fig. 2-28 Cast-weld six-blade cutter for hydraulic dredge. Weight

Fig. 2-27 A stainless steel propeller casting, 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter 35 ton
Fig. 2-29 Track shoe assembly for

140 yd 3 (107 m3) stripping shovel
'"*/§&'•-
The ship's stem is a steel casting and the stern frame is composed
of one or more steel castings. The rudder frame, hawse pipes, davits,
struts, chocks, cleats, bitts, propellers, and anchors are steel castings
or assemblies of one or more steel castings. Turbines, piping com-
ponents, pumps, compressors, and other operating machinery con-
tain many steel castings.
The steel casting in Figure 2-26 is a one-piece hawse pipe for a
cargo ship through which an anchor chain is pulled. Anchors of all
types and sizes are produced of steel castings from those in small
pleasure boats to those in aircraft carriers.
Propellers of various sizes are made as steel castings and many are
produced of corrosion-resisting steel, Figure 2-27.
The six-blade cutter, Figure 2-28, is employed on a hydraulic
dredge. The cutter is equipped with replaceable cast teeth which fit
onto cast steel adapters welded to cast steel blades. The blades are
produced from a low alloy cast steel, quenched and tempered to 350
Fig. 2-30 42-in. (107 cm) crawler pads, each weighing 780 lb (354 BHN. The rest of the cutter is carbon steel with 80 ksi (552 MPa)
kg), made of manganese steel to withstand rugged service tensile strength.
The Mining Industry

Steel castings are used extensively in mining equipment. The
large scale equipment that must survive in hostile environments
requires robust components that are most economically made as
castings. The wear requirements of some equipment are best met
with special alloys that can only be made as castings. For example,
the builders of stripping shovels and draglines use steel castings for
many components. These parts include buckets, bucket lips, rope
sockets, chain [some links weighing over 1000 lb (454 kg) each]
equalizers, spreaders, trunnions, and track-shoe assemblies. The
track-shoe assembly in Figure 2-29 is constructed for a 140 yd 3 (107
m ) stripping shovel; four track assemblies are required for each
shovel. There are 38 shoes to each assembly and each weighs 4830
lb (2190 kg). They are produced from low alloy cast steel with 120
ksi (827 MPa) tensile strength. The total weight of the shoes for each
shovel is 734,160 lb (333,010 kg).
Not all crawler shoes are of such a large size. Figure 2-30 shows
three 42 in. (107 cm) crawler pads, each weighing 780 lb (354 kg)
and produced of manganese steel.
Fig. 2-31 One-half of a hoisting drum for a 38 yd 3 (29 m3) drag line The hoisting drum, Figure 2-31, was made for a 38 yd3 (29 m3)
excavator. Weights: drum, 20,450 lb (9276 kg); gear, 29,000 lb dragline bucket excavator. Each half weighs 20,450 lb (9276 kg) and
(13,154 kg) is produced from 80 ksi (552 MPa) tensile strength cast steel. The
Fig. 2-32 Walkina cam assembly

for a 90 yd 3 (69 rr?) dragline
excavator consisting of four steel
castings
gear is also a steel casting weighing 29,000 lb (13,154 kg) and is

produced from a low alloy steel of 120 ksi (827 MPa) tensile
strength.
Figure 2-32 displays four steel castings in a walking cam assem-
bly for a 90 yd (69 m ) dragline excavator. The link (1) weighs
14,480 lb (6432 kg) and is produced from 80 ksi (552 MPa) tensile
strength cast steel. Casting 2 is the cam which weighs 51,800 lb
(23,496 kg) and is produced from a low alloy steel of 120 ksi (827
MPa) tensile strength. Casting 3 is the upper cam frame weighing
22,300 lb (10,115 kg) made of a carbon cast steel. Casting 4 is the
lower cam frame and weighs 51,000 lb (23,133 kg). It is produced
from 70 ksi (483 MPa) tensile strength steel.
The propel cam steel casting (Figure 2-33) was produced for a 180
yd (138 m ) dragline. The casting was made from a low alloy steel
and weighed 50,000 lb (22,679 kg).
A cast jaw for a large crusher, Figure 2-34, has an overall length
of 17 ft (5.2 m) and weighs 72,000 lb (32,658 kg). Jaw crushers
operate under heavy compression and shear loads. One-piece steel
castings have proven to be advantageous in maintaining rigidity
under high loads. A working plate for the crusher, also shown in
Figure 2-34 was produced in manganese steel for toughness and
wear resistance.
The gyratory crusher is another type of primary crushing unit
suitable for mined rock and hard ores such as hematite and taconite.
A gyratory crusher is comprised of a number of steel castings. The
hollow box design of the spider casting affords maximum strength.
The spider arms are cast integrally with the heavy outer rim. Be-
cause the spider and top shell castings are interlocked, they reinforce
each other to provide maximum stability and rigidity. Other steel
castings are the spider cap, head center, sleeves, rim liners, mantle
liners, and various bevel gears. Figure 2-35 shows a crusher mantle
which weighs 8000 lb (3629 kg) and miscellaneous wear-resistant Fig. 2-33 Propel cam casting for a walking drag line excavator.
Weight, 50,000 lb (22,679 kg)
high manganese steel castings.
Another primary machine in the mining industry is the ball mill
used for pulverizing ores to a fine particle size. A feed head carbon
steel casting for a ball mill (Figure 2-36) weighs 45,000 lb (20,412
kg) and fits into the inner circle of a ring gear. Generally the ring Steel castings are used extensively in almost all mining equip-
gear is also a steel casting. ment. A further example of rugged equipment constructed from steel
The grinding balls used in these mills are often steel castings or castings is the truck frame for the underground tunnel shovel shown
high chromium irons. The balls shown in Figure 2-37 are heat- in Figure 2-38.
treated low alloy steel produced in various sizes from 0.75 to 4 in. A mining truck front spindle which weighs 2656 lb (Figure 2-39)
(19-100 mm) in diameter. Balls are produced in large quantities for is an example of a requirement where the casting had to be normal-
the mining industry. The surface hardness of a ball ranges from ized, quenched and tempered to meet the material specifications.
about 50-70 Rockwell C depending on the alloy and heat treatment. Rough machine operation improves the dimensional consistency.

Fig. 2-34 Far left, a cast jaw for

a crusher, 17 x 17 x 5 ft (5.2 x
2.1 x 1.5 m) overall dimensions.
Weight 72,000 lb (32,658 kg).
Left, a jaw plate for the swing
jaw crusher. Austenitic
manganese steel casting
Fig. 2-36 The feed head for a ball mill. Weight 45,000 lb (20,412 kg)
Fig. 2-35 Gyratory crusher mantle and miscellaneous wear-resistant

castings. Austenitic manganese steel

Fig. 2-37 Heat treated, solid, cast alloy steel grinding balls, 0.75 to 4
in. (1.9 to 10 cm) in diameter
Fig. 2-38 Truck frame for shovel. Weight, 15,260 lb (6921 kg)
Fig. 2-39 Mining truck front spindle weighing 2656 lb
A mining truck rear spindle weighing 3992 lb is illustrated in

Figure 2-40.
Some of the mining equipment castings are small, such as a cast
steel boom clevis for a rock drill (Figure 2-41). The maximum
dimension is 6 in. (150 mm) and the part is produced in carbon steel.
Various other parts used in the mining industry show the versatil-
ity of the steel casting process: a 13,200 lb (5987 kg) drive sprocket
(Figure 2-42) for a 130 yd (99 m3) stripping shovel. This casting is
produced in a high strength alloy steel for abrasion resistance. Note
the intricate design and various section thicknesses.
A pinion gear (Figure 2-43) produced in high manganese ("Had-
field") steel for an electric mining shovel weighs 468 lb (212 kg),
the mating gear, also cast steel, weighs 1730 lb (785 kg). It was not
necessary to machine the teeth.
The high manganese drop cross (Figure 2-44) meets the demand
for secondary reduction of ore and rock. This process has replaced
blasting techniques which are now prohibited or greatly restricted in
many areas in the world. The special cross design has enough
crushing power for boulders the size of an automobile. Fig. 2-40 Mining truck rear spindle weighing 3992 lb

Fig. 2-41 Cast steel boom clevis for a rock drill. Maximum
dimension 6 in. (15 cm)
Fig. 2-42 Drive sprocket weighing 13,200 lb (5987 kg) fits a huge
130 yd 3 (99 m3) stripping shovel. Produced of high strength alloy
steel for abrasion resistance
liners which are heat-treated alloyed steel castings having a through

hardness of 52 Rockwell C.
Figure 2-47 illustrates the shell liners and discharge grates in the
second compartment. These shell liners are heat-treated high chro-
mium white iron castings with a through hardness of 57 Re.
The grinding balls in both compartments are heat-treated cast high
chromium white irons. They have a through hardness of 60-64 Re
and range in size from 3-1/2" to 3/4" (89-19 mm) diameters.
The Construction Industry

Equipment for earthmoving, road building, and construction work
is subjected to rough handling in the field. This equipment requires
high strength, shock and abrasion resistance, and low weight. These
requirements are met with steel castings.
Fig. 2-43 Pinion gear for an electric mining shovel. Weight 468 lb Many parts of road building equipment are steel castings, such as
(212 kg) the drum lagging casting (Figure 2-48). Road building and construc-
tion equipment must withstand high loads because of the nature of
me service rendered by the equipment. This equipment is operated
at great distances from repair facilities and their hourly operating
A good example of the versatility of the casting process is the cost is very high. Durability and reliability of individual components
production of cast steel chain shown in Figure 2-45. Each link is a is essential; the one-piece casting ensures permanent alignment for
single casting treated by normalizing, quenching, and tempering to operating mechanisms.
300-340 Brinell hardness. Links are cast in this interlocking se- Rugged crawler tractors and allied road machinery contain a
quence to form any length of chain required. The chain shown is number of steel castings such as pads, shoes, and wheels. There are
approximately 27 ft (8 m) in length and has a total weight of 2300 different designs of tread castings, Figure 2-49 illustrates one type
lb (1043 kg). This 3 in. (7.6 cm) drag chain is used for manipulating of crawler shoe or tread. This casting weighs 15 lb (7 kg) and is made
the bucket in coal mining. of high strength induction hardened and quenched steel. It is thin-
The final preparation of cement is accomplished in a ball mill walled to reduce weight in this vehicle which can be air dropped.
which is partitioned into two compartments for crushing and attri- Dipper buckets, such as the one shown in Figure 2-50, are pro-
tion grinding. Figure 2-46 illustrates the first compartment shell duced in both low alloy and high manganese steel. The teeth are
Fig. 2-45 27-ft (8 m) length of 3-in. (7.6 cm) drag chain. Each link
is a single-piece steel casting without joint or weld.
Fig. 2-44 High manganese drop cross
Fig. 2-47 Shell liners and discharge grates in a ball mill used for
cement production
replaceable and made of low alloy wear-resistant castings having a

hardness of 450-600 Brinell. In Figure 2-51 an adapter weighing
314 lb is welded onto a bucket to hold the digger teeth. The nose to
the left is cored and has a tolerance of ±.015 inches. One type of
tooth, Figure 2-52, is employed with three different bases for mount-
ing on buckets of varied design.
The large power shovel body shown in Figure 2-53 is a steel
casting. Only with the correct steel composition and integral one-
piece construction, could the designer be sure that the equipment
would take the punishing loads and shocks of heavy construction
work while maintaining the precise alignment of critical shafts and
bearings.
Another important part of construction is the building of paved
surfaces. Compaction of cohesive clay soil is aproblem. Figure 2-54
Fig. 2-46 First compartment shell liners in a ball mill. These liners shows cast steel "feet", over 100 of which are welded to a drum to
have a through hardness of 52 Rockwell C. form the ground engaging part of a vibratory soil compactor. This
Fig. 2-49 Tread casting or crawler shoe. High strength, weight 15

lb (7 kg)
Fig. 2-48 Drum lagging for road machinery shovel. Weight 192 lb
(87 kg)
Fig. 2-51 An adapter weighing 314 lb is welded onto a bucket to

hold the digger teeth.
types, from small highway structures to huge suspension spans,

employ steel castings. Lift, pivot, and other types of bridges use steel
Fig. 2-50 Dipper bucket with removable cast steel dipper teeth castings for many of their structural and operating parts.
Other bridge members such as cable bend saddles, rockers, ped-
estals, strand shoes, rope sockets, and bearing blocks are produced
as steel castings and have proven to be thoroughly dependable for
drum can vibrate up to 1500 times per minute, which magnifies the these applications. Figure 2-57 exhibits a cable bend saddle for the
abrasive effect of rocks and sand which causes severe wear prob- Narrows suspension bridge which was produced from a manganese-
lems along the length of the foot. One weak spot can lead to the molybdenum alloy cast steel. The casting in Figure 2-58 is a fixed
disintegration of the unit, however as cast steel has uniform proper- shoe for a street bridge produced from low alloy steel.
ties in all directions, accelerated abrasive wear is avoided. Steel castings for locks and dams are often very large and many
The hitch housing (Figure 2-55) produced in medium carbon cast are subjected to hydraulic pressures. In this category are hydraulic
steel is a highly stressed part. The streamlined design prevents high slide gates, butterfly valves, bulkhead gates, gate hanger devices,
stress concentrations in critical locations. The bosses on the side are and racks and rims for roller gates. Figure 2-59 shows steel castings
for the use of mill-and-scribe fixtures to machine locating pads. produced as a sector gear and rack, for miter-gate machinery.
The yoke (Figure 2-56) for road building equipment is an example A pile follower (Figure 2-60) is used in the driving of timbers
of steel castings which perform satisfactorily on tough construction below ground level. When this casting was placed in service, a
projects where severe stresses are encountered. 400% increase in life was obtained due to the greater shock resis-
Construction components include structural castings in bridges, tance of the steel casting design. It was also found that the time to
dams, locks, and buildings. Steel castings of many kinds, shapes, drive a pile was reduced by 50% because the assembly operation
and sizes are used in large public works projects. Bridges of all was reduced from three steps to one step.
Fig. 2-55 Hitch housing. Weight 1400 lb (635 kg)
Fig. 2-52 Dipper bucket teeth with differently designed bases
Fig. 2-56 Yoke casting for a road building tractor. Length 34 in.
(860 mm), width 22 in. (560 mm), weight 355 lb (161 kg)
Fig. 2-53 Single-piece cast steel power shovel body
Fig. 2-54 Cast steel "feet" of vibratory soil compactors. Feet (120
are used in the largest model) are tapered, flat top units about 5 in. Fig. 2-57 Cable bend saddle for Narrows suspension bridge.
(130 mm) high with a 14 in. 2 (90 cm ) cross-sectional area. Weight 87,000 lb (39,462 kg)
Fig. 2-58 Bridge fixed shoe casting
Fig. 2-60 Pile follower casting. A construction tool for driving pipe
or timber piles below ground level. Length 45 in. (114 cm), weight
1050 lb (476 kg)
Fig. 2-61 Combined rear axle and differential housing for an

off-highway truck
Off-highway trucks used in the construction equipment field con-
tain steel castings. Typically, these castings are in the frame, wheel
spindles, and drive train. A combined rear axle and differential
housing shown in Figure 2-61 is typical of the castings produced for
this service. kept light, strong enough to withstand torsional, tension, shock, and
Construction equipment mounted on trucks utilizes many steel fatigue stresses and have good wear resistance.
castings. An example is shown in Figure 2-62. This flapper valve Steel castings are used in combines, corn pickers, plows, stump
housing for a mobile concrete pump was redesigned from the fabri- pullers, and other land clearing equipment and wherever light metal
cation shown in Figure 2-63. Note the loose flange lying on the sections are desired with high mechanical properties.
pallet in the lower left corner. Two of theseflangeswere required per An example of land clearing equipment is the all-purpose router,
unit. They were cut and machined separately from the main housing Figure 2-64. The router castings are bolted into a steelframecasting
and subsequently bolted on. The cast housing has lighter wall which is mounted on the front of the tractor. They are used to clear
thicknesses achieved by strategic placement of ribs. Also, flanges rocks, boulders, and stumps. The rake is produced in a low alloy
that previously were bolted on are now integrally cast as part of the steel, heat treated to 140 ksi (965 MPa) tensile strength.
housing. Another example is the plow (Figure 2-65) whose ground engag-
ing blades and tip are made from cast steel welded to a plate
structure.
The hydraulic lift arm (Figure 2-66) is a cast steel part for a farm
implement tractor, produced in carbon steel and weighing 11 lb (4.9
The Agricultural Industry kg).
The scarifier assembly part (Figure 2-67) consists of two steel
Severe conditions have been imposed upon harvesting, tilling, castings, the scarifier bar and the replaceable tip. The scarifier and
and various other types of agricultural equipment due to the high tip are made of a low alloy steel and heat treated to a hardness of 300
speed mechanized methods of farming. Structural castings must be BHN and 500 BHN, respectively.
Fig. 2-63 Original fabrication of flapper valve housing. Note the

loose flange lying on the pallet which was separately cut,
machined, and bolted onto the housing.
Fig. 2-62 Cast steel flapper valve housing for use on a mobile
concrete pump. Note light wall thickness achieved by strategic
placement of ribs and integrally cast flanges
Fig. 2-65 Plow with cast steel ground engaging blades and tip
Fig. 2-64 All-purpose rock rake and router for land clearing. Note
cast steel ground engaging teeth and adapters. Used in cast-weld
construction with fabricated frame
Fig. 2-67 A scarifier assembly steel casting to prepare heavy and Fig. 2-66 Hydraulic lift arm for farm implement tractor. Weight 11
rocky ground. The replaceable tips are also steel castings. lb (4.9 kg)

Fig. 2-68 Cutter blade holder casting. Weight 37 lb (17 kg) Fig. 2-69 Knuckle (left) and wobble yoke castings for farm
equipment. Weights 10 and 12 lb (4.5 and 5.4 kg)
Fig. 2-70 Coil body castings for electric motors. Weights are 120
and 85 lb (54 and 38 kg).
Fig. 2-72 Stainless cast steel impellers of CA-15 grade
The cutter blade holder (Figure 2-68) is used in farm equipment.

Knives are readily inserted into the medium carbon steel casting and
can be removed for sharpening or replacement.
Examples of small, lightweight steel castings used in agricultural
equipment are shown in Figure 2-69. The knuckle casting is pro-
duced from low alloy Mn-Mo cast steel and heat treated to a tensile
strength of 135 ksi (931 MPa). The wobble yoke is a 0.35% carbon
cast steel of 120 ksi (827 MPa) tensile strength.
Power Generating Equipment

and Electrical Machinery
Steel castings play a role in the field of electrical machinery. They
Fig. 2-71 Toroid casting made from dynamo cast steel. Outside are supplied as parts for equipment ranging from small motors to
diameter 24 in. (610 mm), weight 141 lb (64 kg) large power generators. Armature parts, commutator rings, cou-
Fig. 2-73 Steam chest for a turbine. Weight 13,000 lb (5896 kg) Fig. 2-75 Housing for a steam turbine. Weight 12,500 lb (5670 kg)
Fig. 2-74 Low alloy steel case for small tubine
plings, stator and rotor parts, motor frames, housings, and bases are
a few of the more common steel castings used by builders of
electrical machinery.
The coil body castings for electric motors (Figure 2-70) are
produced from low carbon dynamo steel to obtain the desired
electrical properties. The toroid casting (Figure 2-71) is also pro- Fig. 2-76 Lower half of a high pressure turbine head
duced in dynamo cast steel.
Some of the largest and most intricate castings produced are for
hydroelectric power plants. Some of these structures are so large that
they have to be divided into several parts for shipment. For this type
of service steel castings must withstand vibratory stresses, heavy stations have acquired the reputation for continuous day-in, day-out
impact loads, and have long service life. service is the fact that steel castings are used in the equipment. The
Impellers of varying sizes and shape play an important role in the steel castings for turbine casings are produced in low alloy steels
construction of electrical equipment. For the most part, impeller with excellent creep properties at elevated temperatures according
castings (Figure 2-72) are produced in stainless steel such as CA15 to ASTM specification A356, "Heavy Walled Carbon and Low
or CA6NM grades. Alloy Steel Castings for Steam Turbines". Most of these castings
Turbines require materials which resist high temperatures and receive radiographic or ultrasonic examination and magnetic parti-
high pressures. Turbine shell castings are produced in all sizes from cle inspection.
large multi-staged turbines to small auxiliary units which often serve The steam chest for a turbine (Figure 2-73) is produced from
only as standby equipment. carbon cast steel, ASTM A216 Grade WCB. Small turbine cases
Power plant castings must be dependable to ensure uninterrupted made of a low alloy cast steel are shown in Figure 2-74. The lower
service to customers. Part of the reason that power generating half of a high pressure, medium-sized turbine head (Figure 2-75) is
Fig. 2-77 6000 lb (2722 kg) cast corrosion-resistant alloy steel

steam chest cover
Fig. 2-79 Valve housing shell and runner for water turbine. Cast
carbon steel. Total weight 21,000 lb (9525 kg)
Fig. 2-80 5000-lb (2268 kg) cast CA-6NM water turbine impeller
generation. Three of these parts are shown in Figure 2-82, they are,
clockwise from the top, the free turbine exhaust case, the intermedi-
ate case, and the diffuser case. The free turbine exhaust case is a
Fig. 2-78 Cast CF-8M turbine part. Weight 418 lb (189 kg) 6800 lb (3084 kg) casting that must withstand heating from cold to
900 °F (482 °C) within three minutes. This heating rate creates a
serious thermal imbalance which is accommodated by CA6NM.
of ASTM A216, Grade WCA carbon cast steel. The steam turbine The intermediate and the diffuser cases were originally designed as
housing in Figure 2-76 exemplifies the streamlined design available sheet metal parts. These parts experienced cracking problems asso-
with the casting process. ciated with acoustic fatigue. The cast CA6NM version of the dif-
High alloy steel castings are also used. Figure 2-77 is a steam fuser case is a 43 in. (109 cm) diameter unit which completely
chest cover produced of CA6NM alloy and the turbine part shown eliminated the acoustic fatigue problem. This diffuser case must
in Figure 2-78 is produced in CF8M alloy. hold an overall dimensional tolerance of 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) at 800 °F
Many steel castings are used in water turbine applications. A valve (427 °C) and supports the bearing for a rotor spinning at approxi-
housing shell and runner for a water turbine (Figure 2-79) are mately 8500 rpm. The 600 lb (272 kg) intermediate case is 36 in. (91
produced in cast carbon steel. The total weight of the assembly is cm) in diameter and must withstand a thrust load of approximately
21,000 lb (9525 kg). Figure 2-80 shows a water turbine impeller 10,000 lb (4536 kg) at 500 °F (260 °C). These conditions amount to
produced in CA6NM alloy. a local stress in the outer ring of 45 ksi (310 MPa).
Gas turbines utilize many steel castings. A cut-away (Figure 2-81) The nuclear power generating industry also utilizes many steel
shows the cast steel parts of a ground-based gas turbine for power castings. A 45 ton, 156 in. (396 cm) diameter nuclear reactor core
:
£y«ar v »^
CAST SUPPORT CAST BEARING SUPPORT

' OFFUSER CASE
T CASE
CAST INTERMEDIATE CASE
Fig. 2-81 Cast stainless steel components of FT-4 turbine add vital strength and high performance where operating conditions are most
severe.
Fig. 2-83 Nuclear reactor core support. Four castings joined by

electroslag welding
Fig. 2-82 Critical turbine components cast of hardenable
martensitic stainless steel alloy for high strength and resistance to
thermal shock. Clockwise from top: free turbine exhaust case,
intermediate case, diffuser case
Oil, Gas Field, and
Petrochemical Equipment
Steel castings for the petroleum industry are used for heavy
support, Figure 2-83, consists of four CF 8 stainless steel castings machinery and fluid handling. The heavy machinery castings in-
joined by electroslag welding. clude compressors, pumps, rotaries for drilling, and machines for
The elbow (Figure 2-84) for a nuclear reactor coolant system has the handling and pulling of drill stems and collars. The requirements
an inside diameter of 31 in. (79 cm) and weighs approximately for heavy machinery castings are exacting with the deep well drill-
10,400 lb (4717 kg). It is produced in ASME SA 351, Grade CF 8A ing that is necessary today. Castings are being utilized in an increas-
cast steel with a hot tensile strength requirement of 19.8 ksi (137 ing number of applications in oil and gas field equipment requiring
MPa) at 650 °F (343 °C). high strength and dependability with low weight.
The 38 in. (965 mm) valve body shown in Figure 2-85 is also for An example of the severe service requirements is the drilling of
nuclear plant service. It is cast in CF 8M alloy to requirement of offshore oil wells. The steel castings shown in Figure 2-86 form
Section III of the ASME Code. important segments of the mechanical unit which lowers, drives,
mam
Fig. 2-84 Cast CF-8A elbow for nuclear reactor coolant system Fig. 2-87 Hole opener castings used in the oilwell and natural gas
drilling process
V.. v
Fig. 2-85 38 in. (965 mm) cast valve body for nuclear plant
service. Weight 22,000 lb (9979 kg)
Fig. 2-86 Steel castings for barge jacking units used in off-shore oil Fig. 2-88 High strength cast steel sheave, almost 1 ft (304 mm) thick
drilling operations with 14 in. (350 mm) bore

and extracts the drilling barge pilings. The bowl castings are part of Castings are employed for fluid handling in the oil refineries as
the barge jacking unit and are connected with piston rods. The piling well as the oil fields and have proved satisfactory in varied refinery
passes through the bowl. The bowl components, made of steel applications. These conditions include corrosives, continuous and
castings and assembled by cast-weld construction, are also shown in shock loads, temperature creep, pressure containment, high velocity
this figure. fluids, maintenance limitations, and field construction. Steel cast-
Hole opener castings (Figure 2-87) are used early in the oil well ings of various carbon and alloy compositions can meet these
and natural gas drilling process. Three replaceable tungsten carbide requirements and are being produced to exacting specifications.
cutters are installed into the 120° pockets for boring through abra- Several types of stainless steel (CF8) fittings employed in the
sive formations. Casting quality is critical due to the interrupted petrochemical industry where serious corrosion problems are en-
shock loading exerted upon these components. countered, often at high temperatures, are shown in Figure 2-91.
Offshore oil drilling has provided many other applications for cast The U-bend for petrochemical service, Figure 2-92, is a high
steel. Production platforms rising from the ocean floor to a distance nickel-chromium cast steel (HK) and is welded to high alloy tubes
greater than the height of the Empire State Building need firm
foundations. To provide these foundations, pile driving systems
must drop piles over 600 ft (183 m) long through the legs of the
frame and 400 ft (122 m) into the ocean floor. The piles are 84 in.
(213 cm) in diameter, have a wall thickness up to 4 in. (10 cm), and
weigh 450 tons each. The weight of the piles, plus that of the pile
driving system, rest on light, cast steel sheaves, such as the one
shown in Figure 2-88. The load-bearing capacity specified for each
carbon steel sheave is 1,000,000 lb (453,592 kg). The groove on the
sheave was flame hardened and dye-penetrant inspected which
accounts for the discoloration of the groove in the photograph.
The rigging of a super-crane hook (Figure 2-89) used on a seago-
ing work barge weighs 33,000 lb (14,969 kg) and is rated at 1200
tons by the American Bureau of Shipping. The hooks can carry an
additional 400 tons (or a total of 1600 tons) when the crane operates
solely in an over-the-stern manner from its barge. This hook finds a
variety of uses in North Sea construction sites. It is produced in
ASTM A148, Grade 90-60 cast steel, and is heat treated to a Brinell
hardness of 210 to 250.
Pumps and compressors consisting of steel castings are employed
in oil fields and refineries. For example, the fluid end casting for
mud and slush pumps, Figure 2-90, shows a complicated single-
piece steel casting tested at 6000 psi (41 MPa), although normal
operating pressure is 2200 psi (15 MPa). Smooth, streamlined pas-
sage contours give unrestricted flow and increase the efficiency of
the pump. There is an absence of welds and square corners which
would produce turbulence and cavitation. The design freedom of
steel castings allows the production of a component which is not Fig. 2-89 Workers attach massive hawsers on huge cast steel super-
subject to the deficiencies of other fabrication methods and provides crane hook used to lift 1750-ton deck module onto platform in North
long life, low maintenance, and light weight. Sea oil field.
Fig. 2-90 Single-piece steel casting

is the fluid end of a slush pump.

Fig. 2-91 Stainless CF-8 cast steel fittings of several sizes
Fig. 2-92 U-bend castings of high alloy HK cast steel
Fig. 2-93 Typical pyrolysis coils. Centrifugally cast high alloy with-
stands very high temperatures.
Fig. 2-94 Tube support casting. Weight 565 lb (256 kg), 700 x 236 in.
(1780 x600 cm)
• *J»»"
Fig. 2-95 Tube support casting with integrally cast hooks. Weight
1185 lb (538 kg), size approximately 8 x 2 ft (2.4 x 0.6 m) Fig. 2-96 12 in. (300 mm) plug valves installed on gas scrubbers
Fig. 2-97 Pipeline T casting. Weight 900 lb (408 kg)
Fig. 2-98 Cast steel valve body and stem assembled
reliably under the exacting conditions of temperature, pressure, and

corrosive environments encountered in service.
Cast steel valves and fittings are made in sizes ranging from a few
pounds to many tons. There is a wide variation in the designs of
valves and piping components. Figure 2-96 shows a series of 12 in.
(300 mm) worm gear-operated plug valves installed on gas scrub-
bers in a compressor station.
The T casting, Figure 2-97, is for installation in an operating gas
or fluid pipeline, that has an inside diameter opening of 16 in. (40.6
cm). It is produced in ASTM A216 Grade WCB, a weldable grade
Fig. 2-99 Cast steel valve body of carbon steel. Two other examples of WCB cast steel valve bodies
are shown in Figures 2-98 and 2-99.
The drill collar safety clamp, Figure 2-100, is produced from six
steel castings. It is used on a drilling rig and is shown clamped
used in the refining of oil to produce gasoline. The tubes are around a piece of 12 in. (30.5 cm) drill pipe. Each of the six steel
generally centrifugally cast steel and are shown during fabrication castings has a different design and is, therefore, produced from a
in Figure 2-93. different pattern. These castings, however, are produced to such
Tube hangers and supports, Figures 2-94 and 2-95, are produced tolerances that they can be assembled for use without machining.
from heat-resistant cast steel. Note the integrally cast hooks on the Blowout preventers, Figure 2-101, are used to seal off oil or gas
support shown in Figure 2-95. wells when a sudden pressure surge occurs. All four blowout pre-
Oil fields and refineries use steel valves and piping castings for venters in Figure 2-101 are produced in a cast low alloy steel that
many applications. These steel castings are called upon to handle has been quenched and tempered to approximately 100 ksi (689
various corrosive liquids, steam, gases, oil, gasolines, and acids at MPa) tensile strength. Blowout preventers of the double and triple
both sub-zero and elevated temperatures. Moreover, they must op- ram type devices, Figure 2-102, sit just above the rotary table and
erate under pressures ranging from partial vacuum to high pressures. are electronically activated to shut down on any pipe and casing
Valves and piping operating under high temperature and pressure being blown from the hole.
must be trustworthy, otherwise property and human life would be in Bubble caps, Figure 2-103, for distillation stills weigh 2 lb (0.9
danger. Steel castings are used for valves and fittings because they kg) and are made of cast stainless steel (CF 8M and CN 7M) to meet
are produced from alloy compositions and designs that perform corrosive service conditions.
Fig. 2-100 Drill collar safety clamp shown around a piece of drill pipe
Fig. 2-101 Blowout preventer tree consisting of four individual blow-

out preventers which are arranged in series of three ram types and
one annular type
Fig. 2-102 Blowout preventers of the double and triple ram type de-
vices
Fig. 2-103 Bubble caps for distillation stills. Weight 2 lb (0.9 kg) each
Materials Handling Equipment
Steel castings are well adapted for use in equipment that conveys
materials from one place to another. Belt and apron conveyors,
hooks, chains, buckets, tow and lift trucks, and other materials Figure 2-106 shows a steel casting employed as a housing for an
handling equipment must be strong, durable, shock and wear resis- electromagnet. The punishing side blows to which a magnet is
tant, and in these applications, cast steel parts have proven to be an subjected call for a tough, rugged body to protect the coil and
ideal solution. prolong the life of the magnet. Some body housings are produced
Examples of steel castings that are used in the handling of mate- from dynamo steel cast in various shapes from circular to rectangu-
rials are presented in the next severalfigures.The hook casting in lar.
Figure 2-104 is traditionally thought of as a forging, but many cast Transportation of fluids over short and long distances requires
steel hooks are used in capacities from 1 to 100 tons. Cast hooks are pumps, valves,fittings,brackets, and pipes. Steel castings are pro-
produced from low alloy steel, quenched and tempered to 120 to 150 duced to fill these needs. The casting shown in Figure 2-107 is a
ksi (827-1034 MPa) tensile strength and tested by nondestructive pump casing made from corrosion-resistant cast steel (CN 7M).
testing methods. Hooks are well adapted to casting because they can The lifting forks shown in Figure 2-108 are produced in CF3M
be produced with a continuous contour, thereby eliminating edges high alloy cast steel. They are designed specifically tofitparticular
which produce stress concentrations. Another type of hook pro- materials handling applications.
duced as a steel casting and shown in Figure 2-105 is for handling A cast steel adapter is the heart of a quick-connect/disconnect
coils of wire, strips, etc. These balanced coil hooks are produced in system for the crawler crane, Figure 2-109. This system allows the
capacities up to 20 tons. upper structure to be connected or disconnected from the crawler
Fig. 2-105 5-ton capacity balanced coil hook casting
Fig. 2-104 5-ton capacity crane hook steel casting quenched and
tempered to 120 to 150 ksi (827 to 1034 MPa) tensile strength
Fig. 2-107 Pump casing. Corrosion-resistant cast steel CN-7M
steel adapter welded to the underside of the superstructure. Essen-

tially a one-piece unit, the adapter is cast in low alloy steel which is
quenched and tempered.
Cast steel components are used in critical locations throughout the
unit as well as the connect/disconnect system. For example, all of
the 110 crawler treads are steel castings weighing 450 lb (204 kg)
each for a total of almost 50,000 lb (22,680 kg) of steel castings
Fig. 2-106 Housing for an electromagnet made of steel castings in
supporting this giant machine.
sizes up to 77 in. (196 cm) in diameter and 15 x 76 in. (38 x 218 cm)
for rectangular types
mounting. The upper structure weighs about 210,000 lb (95,254 kg) Building Construction
and the cast steel adapter is almost 12 ft (3.66 m) in diameter. All of
the upper structure loads are transmitted to the crawler mounting Steel castings are chosen by architects as construction materials.
through this adapter. For various reasons, the construction of the building shown in
The quick-connect/disconnect system, Figure 2-110, consists of a Figure 2-111 required that a lightweight structuralframeworkbe
turntable bearing ring bolted to the crawler mounting and the cast placed on the outside of the walls. Assembledfromhollow tubes and
Fig. 2-109 Crawler crane with reach of 550 ft (168 m) from the base
of the tower to the end of the jib (not shown). Cast steel components
are used in critical locations throughout this innovative unit.
Fig. 2-108 Cast steel lifting forks of CF-3M material. Weight 24 lb (11
kg)each
spherical nodes, the lattice transmits the loads downward, along

vertical columns which are braced by diagonal elements that center
around the nodes. Cast stainless steel was chosen because the cast-
ing process makes it easy to obtain tubes of many different diameters
and wall thicknesses, as well as the almost two dozen sizes of nodes
required. Fabrication of these components would have been lengthy
and expensive. Figure 2-112 shows how the tubes are welded into
the node to produce a K-joint which connects the columns to the
diagonal supports. The lattice column assemblies weigh up to 14.3
tons and diagonal assemblies up to 4.4 tons. Compressive forces on
the bottom of the columns reach about 1,000,000 lb and 100,000 lb
at the K-joints (453,592 kg, and 45,359 kg).
Metal Making, Shaping,

Finishing, and Forming
There are few industries which use as much energy in the process
of manufacturing as the steel industry. Ingots weighing many tons
are pressed or forged between dies or are run between rolls where,
in a series of passes, they are reduced to billets, bars, plates, sheets,
or various other shapes. The intense squeezing action on the hot
metal calls for equipment having the strength and toughness prop-
erties that only steel can give. Modern rolling mills are of the
continuous type in which any breakdowns are costly. It is for this
reason that the wrought steel producers have selected steel castings
for widespread use in rolling, forging, and other plant equipment.
They have found over the years that steel castings are dependable
and possess the strength and toughness necessary for steel plant
services. Rolling mill housings, rolls, and many supplementary parts
Fig. 2-110 Cast steel adapter (top), mounted to the underside of su- of steel plant equipment are steel castings.
perstructure of crawler crane, bears the entire 200,000-lb (90,718 kg)
The Sendzimir mill housing, Figure 2-113, and the rolls employed
load of the upper structure assembly and also provides quick-con-
nect/disconnect feature. Square teeth on adapter (1) are lined up be- in rolling mills, Figure 2-114, are examples of the use of steel
neath corresponding teeth (2) on the turntable bearing. This bearing is castings. In the production of flat rolled products many of the rolls
located on crawler mounting using hydraulic cylinder (3) to position the are machined and ground to a mirror-like finish.
inter-race of the bearing in place. Wedge packs (4) secure the two as- The sintering pallet with grate bars, Figure 2-115, are used where
semblies to each other. iron ore fines, limestone and coke breeze are combined by sintering
Fig. 2-111 Rising to a height of

145 ft (44 m) (the maximum al-
lowed for the site) Bush Lane
House stands out from its conven-
tional neighbors. Besides support-
ing the structure, the cast stainless
steel lattice is kept full of water to
provide fire protection.
Fig. 2-113 Sendzimir mill housing. Weight 46,250 lb (20,978 kg). Ap-
Fig. 2-112 Typical cast K-joint. The node will connect to one of the proximately 4 x 8 ft (1.2 x 2.4 m) outside dimensions
main structural columns of the lattice.
tures of 1000 to 1300 °F (538-704 °C) and is produced from HD

to produce a proper fluxing charge for blast furnaces. The pallet alloy (26% Cr-4% Ni).
frame, plates, and wheels are steel castings. The grate bars shown Equipment, Figure 2-117, used in the steel mills for stripping and
are produced from a heat-resistant cast steel containing 0.85% C, moving ingots in and out of soaking pits and furnaces consists
1.25% Si, 1.75% Ni, and 30% Cr, although other compositions are largely of steel castings. Steel castings are employed as the major
also used. Sintering temperatures are slightly below 1900 °F (1038 parts of these machines because they can take the rough service that
°C). The grate bar displayed in Figure 2-116 operates at tempera- is normal for this equipment.
Fig. 2-114 Backup roll for4-high plate mill. Roll size 54 x 128 in. (137 x 325 cm). Weight 109,740 lb (49,777 kg)
^'•''''//'////'///iii.'iiiirii'.iiiiiiiiiimwv iliiiiiiiimimmmiiimiiii
yiiiiiiiiii!m\\\mmm^î
(
Fig. 2-115 Sintering pallet with grate bars for sintering ore and fluxes
forthe blastfurnace. Widthof pallet, 6ft (1.8 m). The grate bars of heat
resistant cast steel are cast separately.
Fig. 2-116 Grate bar produced from high alloy (HD) cast steel. Weight
73 lb (33 kg)
,-^**h
Fig. 2-117 Soaking pit tongs that
are to be operated from a crane
A blast furnace accessory is the cinder pot, Figure 2-118. These Pelletized ore from taconite mining regions is a common and
types of pot can only be economically produced as steel castings efficient raw material for blast furnaces. Processing plants for the
because of the corrugated design. ore employ large and rugged pallets. Cast steel containing 1.5% Cr
The basic oxygen steelmaking process depends on furnaces con- and 0.50% Mo is employed for the pallet center castings shown in
structed with steel castings. A shaft mount casting, Figure 2-119, for Figure 2-120. Note the designer's use of T sections rather than X
a BOF support ring was produced in carbon steel and weighs 30,000 sections to reduce the size of the hot spot, thereby producing a
lb (13,607 kg). higher integrity casting.
Fig. 2-118 400-ft3 (11.3 m3) corrugated cinder pot. Weight about
40,000 lb (18,143 kg)
Fig. 2-120 Pallet center casting for pelletized ore processing plant.
Weight 6000 lb (2721 kg). Note T section design.
shows a forging press of 50,000 ton capacity containing 7,000,000

lb (3,100,000 kg) of steel castings.
Carbon steel mechanical press rocker arms, Figure 2-122, are
used as an underdrive for a press employed in the automotive
industry.
Figure 2-123 shows a crankshaft for a mechanical forging press
with a cored hole through the main throw to eliminate a large
amount of machining.
The oil-quenching fixtures (Figure 2-124) are produced in type
HH heat-resisting cast steel. Cast radiant tubes (Figure 2-125) are
constructed by welding centrifugally cast tubing to statically cast
return bends. Radiant tubes are exposed to the harsh attack of
flowing corrosive combustion gases and high flame temperatures.
They must resist both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres as the
inside and outside surfaces may be subjected to quite different
chemically reactive environments. Radiant tube structures made of
high alloy castings are generally favored over wrought structures
because of the variety of cast alloys available and their long-term
creep and rupture strengths in the temperature range of 1400-2000
°F (760-1093 °C).
Fig. 2-119 Shaft mount casting for a basic oxygen furnace support
ring. Weight 30,000 lb (13,607 kg)
Gears, Pinions, and Worms

Steel castings are components in machinery used to produce
manufactured metal parts. These include presses of all types, mills, Wherever mechanical power transmission is required, gears are
upsetting machines, punches, riveters, shears, and welding ma- necessary. In service gears are subjected to compressive, shearing,
chines, as well as anvils, dies, and hammers. Gears, bearings, hous- torsional and shock loading stresses, as well as abrasion and sliding
ings, toggles, levers, arms, and a host of subsidiary structural parts wear. It is desirable that they be quiet in operation and capable of
are products of the steel foundry. withstanding heavy overload conditions.
Structural strength is of prime importance in some of this equip- Cast steel is used widely for gears because of its high structural
ment. In others, maximum rigidity is essential. Still others require strength, rigidity, and excellent impact resistance. Heat treated car-
resistance to shock loading, abrasion resistance, high hardness, or bon and alloy steels can meet the mechanical properties suited to
other specific properties. Steel castings are often selected because individual service requirements. Differential heat treatment of cast
cast steel is capable of fulfilling all the specific material properties. steel gears permits different hardness values to be imparted to the
Forging, extruding, punching and straightening presses contain rim, the arms or web, and the hub. High hardness on the rims
many steel castings, some of which are very large. Figure 2-121 produces added wear resistance on the tooth surface. Flame or
Fig. 2-121 Giant forging press.

50,000 ton capacity containing
7,000,000 lb (3.1 x 106 kg) steel
castings. The photograph shows
only that part of the press above
the floor. An equal portion of the
press is below the floor.
Fig. 2-122 Mechanical press rocker arms Weight approximately

10,000 lb (4536 kg) each Fig. 2-123 Crankshaft for a mechanical forging press. 6500 lb (2948
kg), nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy
Fig. 2-124 Oil-quenching half drum fixtures. Weight of castings 579

and 840 lb (263 and 381 kg)
Fig. 2-125 Cast radiant tubes constructed by welding centrifugally

cast tubing to statically cast return bends
Fig. 2-126 A group of gear castings, 8 to 12 ft (2.4 to 3.6 m) in diame-

ter
Fig. 2-127 Cast tooth internal gears. Weights up to 3600 lb (1633 kg)
sizes and contours. There are gears with herringbone, spiral, and
spur teeth. There are worms and pinions of every sort, racks (with
external or internal teeth or both), and sprockets of every size and
description. Cast steel is well suited as a material for these applica-
tions. Design variations do not present problems for the steel foun-
dry. The gears shown in Figure 2-126 are producedfroma quenched
and tempered low alloy steel.
Thousands of cast steel gears are made every year, some of which
have the teeth cast to shape. These cast tooth gears are sometimes
put into service without machining. Cast tooth internal gears (Figure
2-127) are produced in several sizes up to 3600 lb (1633 kg). They
are heat treated to strength levels of 100 ksi (689 MPa) and machin-
ing is not required on these gears. In circumstances where machin-
Fig. 2-128 Rack segment gear. Weight 8500 lb (3855 kg)
ing is necessary, the machining expense is reduced by casting close
to final shape. Other gear castings may be produced as blanks, the
teeth being cut by special machine tools.
Cast steel is exceptionally well suited for cut-tooth gears. Unlike
induction hardening and case hardening (nitriding and carburizing) wrought steel products, it does not possess "lines of flow". In cases
can be performed on cast steel gear teeth. where such lines run parallel to the periphery, potential cleavage
Many gears are of irregular and unusual design. Even among the planes extend transversely across the teeth and are focal points of
more conventionally shaped gears, there is an endless variety of possible tooth breakage.
Fig. 2-130 A small eccentric gear with cast teeth. Weight 2 lb (0.9 kg)
Fig. 2-129 Mn-Mo-B cast steel gear blank. Weight 1,053 lb (478 kg)
Fig. 2-132 A jet aircraft brake backing plate casting produced from
high strength Cr-Mo-V cast steel
A gear blank (Figure 2-129) produced from a water-quenched and

tempered low alloy steel is used in road building machinery.
The next two figures illustrate the size range available in cast
gears. The small steel casting in Figure 2-130 is an eccentric gear
with cast teeth weighing 2 lb (0.9 kg) and is 4 in. (102 mm) in
diameter. The large gear of Figure 2-131 consists of four steel
castings. Each quarter-section is cast individually and the teeth cut
following assembly. It is 24 ft (7.3 m) in diameter, over 3 ft (0.9 m)
wide, and weighs 70 tons. This helical ring gear will drive an
autogenous ore grinding mill.
Military
Steel castings have always been used in military components
Fig. 2-131 24 ft (7.3 m) diameter cast steel gear. Weight 70 ton including aircraft, engine parts, or airframe. These parts are not
procured in large numbers because simulated and service testing
often result in design changes to improve the performance of the
weapon. Rapid design changes are less expensive and more readily
attained by steel casting pattern alterations than in other fabricating
Twenty-four of the rack segments (Figure 2-128) are required for and machining methods. Steel castings can be produced in intricate,
a large dragline machine. These racks have been cast in a low alloy lightweight designs without extensive machining. Figure 2-132
steel (ASTM148 Grade 120-95) with a 120 ksi (827 MPa) tensile shows a jet aircraft brake backing plate produced in low alloy steels
strength. subjected to high instantaneous stresses.
~*mmmk. "***/*?**-
Fig. 2-136 Centrifugal steel castings for tank gun armament. From
left to right: recoil piston, recoil sleeve, and recoil cradle body
Fig. 2-133 Air inlet control for jet fighter plane
Fig. 2-134 Jet engine track support. Cast4140 steel
Fig. 2-137 Cast steel muzzle brake screws onto barrel of 155 mm
self-propelled howitzer to counteract recoil forces. One-piece steel
casting provides performance and cost advantages over original
forged unit.
(Figure 2-134) is produced in cast low alloy steel heat treated to 175
Fig. 2-135 Front wheel arm steel casting ksi (1207 MPa) tensile strength.
Many Army ordnance vehicles use large quantities of steel cast-
ings. Some of the exposed parts on these vehicles are cast armor.
Other cast alloys are used for machinery parts, crawler wheels, and
tank treads. One of the parts of a tank exposed to ballistics is the
The shell molded stainless steel casting shown in Figure 2-133 is front wheel arm assembly, Figure 2-135.
a part of an air inlet control on a fighter plane. The section thickness Centrifugal steel castings have been produced in large numbers
is light and the circular bosses are drilled. for tank parts since they can be made in various diameters, wall
Many aircraft steel castings are produced by the investment cast- thicknesses, and lengths. Figure 2-136 illustrates, from left to right,
ing and ceramic molding processes. The jet engine track support the recoil piston, recoil sleeve, and recoil cradle body for a tank.
-"'**k^
I
Fig. 2-138 Muzzle brake emerges from ceramic mold with clean,
smooth surface. The only machining required is for the threads to at-
tach the unit to the barrel.
Fig. 2-139 Investment cast ordnance hardware
Fig. 2-140 Assorted corrosion resisting steel castings for gas turbine
applications. Weights 25 to 400 lb (11 to 181 kg)
These parts are produced in a low alloy cast steel and are fullyma-
chined.
Views of a 155 mm howitzer muzzle brake steel casting are shown
in Figures 2-137 and 2-138. All combat equipment must be rugged
and reliable, however, the achievement of reliability is more difficult
when the equipment must meet maximum weight standards when Fig. 2-141 Upper half of turbine engine shell showing cooling fins on
the outer surface. Diameter of shell 50 in. (127 cm)
air drop requirements are imposed. The muzzle brake was originally
designed as a forging, but the reliability/weight requirement
prompted a switch to cast steel. These muzzle brakes are now
produced in a modified AISI4330 cast alloy, normalized, quenched, this turbine require that they be produced from 18-8 Cr-Ni stainless
and tempered with 165 ksi (1138 MPa) yield strength, 10% elonga- steel (Type HF). The turbine engine shell, Figure 2-141, is designed
tion, and Charpy impact values of 20 ft lb (27 J) at -40 °F (-40 °C). with integral cooling fins. The casting process is ideal for providing
The investment casting process is also used to produce many steel an extended service for better heat transfer from the shell to the
castings for military applications. Three steel investment castings cooling air. To produce the turbine shell two halves, the upper and
are shown in Figure 2-139. At either end are machine gun housings, the lower, are combined in cast-weld construction.
the largest weighing 75 lb (34 kg). The center casting is a hydraulic The casting shown in Figure 2-142 is an intermediate case for a
housing. land-based gas turbine. This high alloy steel casting is produced
from a corrosion-resistant material, CA6NM.
Steel castings are used in nearly all types of pumps: reciprocating,
Special Machinery, Products, centrifugal, etc. The components are produced in carbon and low
and Components alloy steels and, where necessary, special corrosion and abrasion-re-
sistant alloy steels. Most pumps have intricate designs with many
Components for various industries are discussed together under internal chambers and channels (Figure 2-143) which require spe-
this heading since the steel castings are of special design for the cial foundry techniques. The steel casting process is especially well
machinery or products of these industries. suited to produce these complicated parts.
The group of assorted steel castings in Figure 2-140 are heat-re- Other cast steel pump parts include a 1000 lb (453 kg) diffuser
sistant cast steel parts for gas turbines. The service requirements of bowl, Figure 2-144, and an impeller, Figure 2-145. The impeller is
Fig. 2-143 Centrifugal pump casting. Length 38 in. (96 cm). The intri-
cate coring was designed especially to reduce the amount of machin-
ing.
Fig. 2-142 Intermediate case for a land based jet engine. Weight 600
lb (272 kg)
Fig. 2-144 1000 lb (453 kg) pump diffuser bowl
Fig. 2-145 Cast steel impeller for hydraulic pumping station
«^4
Fig. 2-146 Miscellaneous small steel castings for special machinery.
Weight from 0.5 to 2.5 lb (0.230 to 1.1 kg) Fig. 2-147 Logging rigging castings

Fig. 2-148 High speed impeller for refrigeration equipment which op-
erates at 12,500 rpm
Fig. 2-149 Chopper worm for a commercial meat chopper. Tensile

strength 110 ksi (758 MPa)
Fig. 2-150 Food machinery frame. Weight 386 lb (175 kg)
used in a hydraulic pumping station and has an outside diameter of

77.5 in. (197 cm), a height of 34 in. (88 cm), and weighs 9000 lb
(4082 kg).
Four miscellaneous steel castings, Figure 2-146, are used in vari-
ous applications. The upper left is a 1.5 lb (.68 kg) screen plate for
a sulfite pulp digester made in CF8M stainless cast steel. The lower
left part is a 2.5 lb (1.13 kg) Mn-Cr-Mo low alloy casting for high
speed can manufacturing. The next casting is a stainless steel (CF8)
plumbing fixture weighing 0.5 lb (0.23 kg). The casting on the right
is a 2 lb (0.91 kg) CA 15 stainless steel support bracket. Service
versatility can always be obtained by designing and building with
steel castings.
Machinery for the logging industry contains many large steel Fig. 2-151 Beater casting for dough mixing equipment. Stainless cast
castings, e.g., log transporters, yarders, and log debarkers. Other steel CF-8M
logging equipment consists of smaller parts used in large quantities
such as the rigging parts in Figure 2-147.
Refrigeration equipment requires components that must have
excellent properties at sub-zero temperatures. Several cast steels of Food processing equipment incorporates steel castings for baking
varying compositions are able to meet the required properties. An machinery, bottle washing and filling machines, candy making
example of the steel castings required for refrigeration equipment is machines, dairy equipment, and meat packing machinery. Figure
the third stage, high speed impeller (Figure 2-148) which attains a 2-149 shows a low alloy steel chopper worm for a commercial meat
speed of 12,500 rpm. This particular casting was produced in a chopper.
ceramic mold to obtain close dimensional control as well as a Other examples of steel casting applications in the food process-
smooth surface finish. Steel castings for pressure-containing parts ing field are the food machinery frame, Figure 2-150, and the cast
suitable for low temperature service are often ordered to the speci- steel beater for dough-mixing equipment in Figure 2-151. Both are
fication requirements of ASTM A352. produced in stainless steel.
Fig. 2-152 Roller shaft assembly for annealing furnace. Tubes are
centrifugally cast of heat-resistant 25% chromium, 12% nickel steel.
Fig. 2-153 Open radial compressor wheel. Weight 800 lb (363 kg)
Fig. 2-154 Closed compressor wheel. Weight 85 lb (38 kg)
Fig. 2-155 Canning machine part. Weight 72 lb (33 kg)

The heat treating and industrial furnace industry employs many
cast steel furnace parts. Most of these parts must be heat-resistant
steels. The roller-shaft assembly for annealing furnaces, Figure
2-152, is produced in various lengths from centrifugally cast 25%
Cr, 12% Ni (HH) tubes. The trunnions and tube ends are statically
cast and welded into place.
Examples of the versatility of design available in cast steel are
shown in the next four figures. The open and closed compressor type of casting that might find service in a number of special
wheels, Figures 2-153 and 2-154, are produced by the ceramic machinery applications.
molding process. Not only is the design extremely complicated with The cast rotor, Figure 2-157, is used in huge rubber mill mixers to
precise tolerances and finish requirements, but the size varies prepare the rubber prior to vulcanizing.
widely. The closed compressor wheel weighs only 85 lb (39 kg), Non-magnetic parts can be produced as steel castings from high
while the open radial compressor wheel weighs 800 lb (383 kg). The manganese steel or from austenitic types of stainless steel. The
one-piece steel casting, Figure 2-155, is a part for a canning ma- castings in Figure 2-158 are assorted cylinders for a non-magnetic
chine. The 75 lb (34 kg) even-flow impeller, Figure 2-156, is the diesel engine in naval service and are 18-8 austenitic stainless.
Fig. 2-157 Rotor for a rubber mill mixer. Length 9 ft (2.7 m), weight
3940 lb (1787 kg)
Fig. 2-156 Even flow impeller. Weight 75 lb (34 kg)
Fig. 2-158 Non-magnetic (austenitic stainless steel) cylinder castings

for a diesel engine which powers a mine sweeper. Weights 35 to 150
lb (16 to 68 kg)
Fig. 2-159 Steel grid casting used in carburizing automotive pinions
Fig. 2-160 Cable pullers of carbon cast steel. Weight 10 lb and 5.5 lb Fig. 2-161 Investment cast medical hardware
(4.5 and 2.5 kg)
Summary
The steel castings shown in Figure 2-159 are heat-resistant chemi-
cal compositions (38% Ni and 18% Cr) and are used as grids in The variety of applications for which steel castings can be sup-
carburizing automotive pinions. plied and their range of sizes has only been briefly touched upon by
Two types of cable pullers or pulling eyes are shown in Figure this chapter. Many other uses and illustrations have not been shown
2-160. The cable is inserted through the holes in the base and simply because of the space available.
clamped in the recess by "leading in". The cable pullers are pro- It is probably true to say that any component that can be imagined
duced in carbon steel to ASTM specification A27. can be produced as a steel casting. The responsibility for the devel-
Steel castings produced by the investment process are used in the opment of these parts and uses rests with both the designer and
medical field. Figure 2-161 shows the orthopedic hip ball-and- foundry. The only way to optimize the use and development of
socket castings produced in a cobalt-base alloy and the dental pliers castings is through a close relationship between the supplier and
are CB 7Cu (17 4 PH type) castings. user.
CHAPTER 3
Advantages of Steel Castings
Page
Introduction 3-2
Design Flexibility 3-2

Rapid Translation of Design to Finished Shape 3-2
Rapid Alterations in Shape 3-3
Unlimited Choice and Range of Sizes and Shapes 3-3
Streamlined Shapes for Minimum Stress Concentration 3-3
Designs for Statically Loaded Parts 3-4
Designs for Dynamically Loaded Parts 3-4
Shapes for Attachments and Assemblies 3-5
Weight Considerations 3-5
Single, Integral Components 3-6
High Dimensional Accuracy 3-6
Desirable Surface Finish 3-6
Few or Many Parts 3-6
Metallurgical Versatility 3-6

Diversified Services 3-6
Choice of Mechanical Properties Through Heat Treatment 3-6
Uniform Properties in All Directions 3-7
Excellent Weldability 3-7
Readily Machinable 3-7
Economic Benefits of Steel Castings 3-7

Economies of a One-piece Finished Part 3-7
Weight Reduction Economies 3-8
Short Delivery Periods 3-8
Reliability 3-8

Nonferrous Cast Metals 3-9
Gray Cast Iron 3-9
Malleable Cast Iron 3-10
Ductile Iron 3-11
Compacted Graphite Cast Iron 3-11
Steel Castings Compared to Steel Weldments 3-13

Welding Concerns 3-13
Directionality of Properties 3-14
Steel Castings Compared to Steel Forgings 3-16

Reliability 3-16
Directionality of Properties 3-16
Casting Advantages 3-17
Summary 3-17
References Copyrighted content, licensed for the sole use of: 3-17

Welded fabrication
o
o
o>
c
o
C Casting
as
5
Increasing: Section thickness *•

Shape complexity
Stiffening
Fig. 3-1 Schematic cost comparison between cast and fabricated

components
Introduction
Steel is strong, steel is tough, steel is dependable! Casting steel to
shape represents the most direct method of producing parts to final
form, while retaining all the advantages of steel. A wider range of
physical and mechanical properties can be obtained in cast steel than
in any other cast metal by simply varying either the carbon and alloy
content, the heat treatment, or both.
Casting is one of the basic processes used for the shaping of steel.
It is economical in both cost and time of production. Numerous
components are produced from cast steel because of the advantages
of the process. These advantages can best be described under the
following headings: 1) design flexibility, 2) metallurgical versatility
and quality, and 3) economic benefits (Figure 3-1).
Also of major interest is the comparison of cast steel with wrought
steel and weldments in terms of properties, availability, cost, and
quality. Information on cast steel compared to other cast metals and
other methods of steel fabrication is also included in this chapter.
Design Flexibility
Steel castings offer greater freedom to design engineers. The
casting process permits the formation of streamlined, intricate, inte-
gral parts with strength and rigidity which is not obtainable by other
methods of manufacture. The shape and size of a part are primary
considerations in any design, and in this category steel castings are
unsurpassed. The flexibility of cast steel design gives the engineer
wide scope in converting his ideas into an engineered part.
Rapid Translation of Design to Finished

Shape
The component can be quickly produced as a finished part if cast
steel is the mode of manufacture, since casting requires fewer
operations than other methods to produce the finished part. Pattern
procurement and sampling are the only steps between the design and
production of a completed casting. The machining operation can be Fig. 3-2 A. Four cast steel ratchet components. B. Partially
short and low in cost, and many surfaces will not require machining assembled ratchet. C. Completed ratchet assembled from four
or dressing. Many steel castings are assembled as completed parts steel castings with no machining required
without machining operations. Figure 3-2 is an example of a steel
Advantages of Steel Castings 3-3
Fig. 3-3 Large node casting for an off-shore oil production platform Fig. 3-4 A series of small castings for can making equipment pro-
duced in tool steel by the investment casting process
Fig. 3-5 Grooved roll for steel mill of Cr-Mo alloy steel, 120 in.
(3048 mm) roll face, 45 in. (1143 mm diameter, 74,940 lb (33,985
kg). Back-up roll suspended from overhead crane weighs 95,000 lb
(43,082 kg).
casting which did not require any machining operations, since a

small weld holds the assembly together.
Rapid Alterations in Shape

Fig. 3-6 A 1300 pound nickel-base CX2MW pump housing
The trend in steel casting design is towards highly stressed, thin
sections. These designs can be produced as solid models which may
be integrated with the solidification models commonly used in many
foundries. When required, relatively inexpensive pattern changes
can readily be made to the pattern of the prototype casting to any size limitations, except the ability of transportation carriers to
improve the load-carrying ability. This procedure permits stress ship them.
concentrations in the casting to be minimized and stresses distrib- Steel parts may be obtained in innumerable shapes through the use
uted more uniformly. of the casting process, from simple shapes of block and plate-like
Further alterations in shape can be made rapidly with a minimum structures to those of highly intricate forms with the most complex
delay in the final production of the casting. The advantages obtained internal passages. Figures 3-5 and 3-6 show two extremes of shape.
in securing a fully engineered part more than justifies such proce- Both are functional for the service intended and both must withstand
dures. exacting requirements.
Unlimited Choice and Range of Sizes and Streamlined Shapes for Minimum Stress
Shapes Concentration
Figure 3-3 shows a large node casting. In contrast, Figure 3-4 Notches, abrupt changes in section, and sharp fillets often result
shows small steel investment castings. Steel castings do not havein premature failure of parts in dynamic service. Steel castings
permit the use of shaped fillets and blended sections at any location needed, for resistance to bending and tension forces. Thefreedomto
including highly stressed areas. Furthermore, those streamlined de- design as strength and section calculations indicate is available only
signs which confer minimum stress concentration in service also when castings are utilized. Structural members that connect impor-
tend to be best from the standpoint of castability. Examples of tant sections, but which carry little stress, can be made of suitably
streamlined casting designs are shown in Figure 3-7. Steel castings thin sections to produce strong, lightweight parts. The wire rope
of streamlined shapes are advantageous for minimum resistance to sockets of Figure 3-9 carry primarily static loads. They are produced
flow of liquid or gas, such as in pumps and stream turbines, stern from ASTM A148 Grade 90/60 cast steel. The small one weighs 7
frames and bow stems for ships, and castings used in high speed lb (3 kg) and is for a 7/8 in. (22.2 mm) diameter wire rope. The larger
transportation where wind resistance is a factor. Streamlined design one weighs 750 lb (360 kg) for a 4-1/4 in. (108 mm) diameter wire
permits weight reduction in high-strength, lightweight parts. Figure rope. Larger sizes are made routinely.
3-8 shows the appearance of a steel casting contrasted with a
weldment designed for the same service. The steel casting is not Designs for Dynamically Loaded Parts
only a more functional part, it also has an inherently pleasing sales
appeal. The large majority of steel castings are designed for service under
fatigue or impact loads. Cast steels have uniform properties in all
Designs for Statically Loaded Parts directions and they are excellent for parts operating in dynamically
loaded service. A steel casting designed for alternating loads in
In steel casting designs, the metal may be distributed to those service is illustrated in Figure 3-10. This 3200 lb (1450 kg) track
positions where it will do the most good for maximum strength and shoe is used on an open pit coal mining machine.
minimum weight. The design engineer can add metal, where
vt
Fig. 3-7 (a) Cast CF-8M alloy gate valve designed for a BWR
reactor [4325 lb (1961 kg) for 22 x 18 x 22 in. (589 x 457 x 589
mm) pipe sizes], (b) Corkscrew agitator used in soft ice cream
dispenser is cast in one piece from CF-8 alloy.
Fig. 3-8 Comparison of steel casting and weldment for the same
service to illustrate the professional appearance necessary for
sales appeal. Height 16 in. (40.6 cm). Section thickness 3/4 in. (19
mm). Weight 100 lb (45 kg). The casting customer reported, "the
castings were considerably neater and stronger and were in every Fig. 3-9 Wire rope sockets [one weighing 7 lb (3 kg), the other,
respect far superior to any weldments we had ever fabricated." 750 lb (360 kg) subjected to static loading]
Shapes for Attachments and Assemblies steel parts is shown in Figure 3-11. The base is fabricated steel plate.
The sheaves and swivel head are static steel castings, and the barrel
Steel castings can be readily attached to parts of either wrought or welded to the fabricated base is a centrifugal steel casting. The
cast steel by welding or bolting, thus producing a composite assem- assembly weighs 14,000 lb (6345 kg).
bly. There are numerous examples of such types of construction; for Steel castings, because of their various shapes, can be assembled
example, valve or fitting castings welded to fabricated or centri- to produce complete parts for industry. An attractive design of a
fugally cast steel pipe, or cast bearing housings in a machine base rugged assembly is illustrated by the oil well drilling hook of Figure
fabricated from plate. Shape requirements usually make steel cast- 3-12. This hook, with a capacity rated at 500 tons, consists of an
ings the most economical parts to install in composite structures. An assembly of 25 steel castings. Assemblies of steel castings such as
example of steel castings attached integrally by welding to wrought this are used in many industries such as logging, earthmoving, and
land clearing equipment.
Weight Considerations
The design engineer, by employing steel casting designs, can
distribute the weight of the part with a freedom not readily available
to other forms of steel fabrication. Weight distribution and dynamic
balancing in a part are often imperative; for example, in parts
operating under high speeds or for optimum section modulus.
Weight considerations are also of premium value in transportation
equipment where the flexibility of design for optimum weight dis-
tribution is essential (Figure 3-13).
Fig. 3-10 3200 lb (1450 kg) track shoe for open pit coal mining
machine. Special alloy complies with ASTM A-148, grade 120/95
with 15 ft • lb at -50 °F (20 J at -46 °C) and meets 180° bend test.
Fig. 3-11 Composite fabrication using both static and centrifugal

steel castings and steel plate. Assembly weighs 14,000 lb (6349 kg).
Fig. 3-12 Oil well drilling hook, 11 ft 7-1/2 in. (3.54 m) tall. An
assembly of 25 steel castings Fig. 3-13 Equalizer for 4 spring suspension
Fig. 3-15 Mass production of railroad steel castings to close toler-

ances and high quality. Several thousand truck side frame castings in
Fig. 3-14 Cast tooth bevel gears produced by the shell molding various stages of the final inspection and gaging operation
process to obtain excellent surfaces and close tolerances
Single, Integral Components best combination is available for the intended service. Many illus-
Designing for steel castings allows parts to be combined. Obvi- trations of steel castings for exacting service conditions are shown
ously, single-piece construction affords greater structural rigidity in Chapter 2. The chemical compositions of these steels are carefully
than can be obtained in an assembly of a number of parts, and there considered and detailed in the materials selection sections of this
are no joints with the possibility of leaking or of loosening of handbook.
fasteners, no misalignments or assembly errors, nor delays necessi- Steel castings offer the designer a choice of many alloys which
tated by a short order on one of the parts of the assembly. An can only be produced as castings. Austenitic manganese alloys have
example of a single piece steel casting construction that replaced a excellent wear-resistant properties because of their ability to be
multiple part assembly is illustrated in Figure 3-8. work hardened. It is this ability which prohibits their being produced
in the wrought form.
High Dimensional Accuracy The series of corrosion-resistant CF cast high alloys is comparable
Steel castings, if required, can be produced to high dimensional to the wrought AISI300 series. The wrought 300 series, however, is
accuracy. Tolerances of 0.25 to 0.001 in. (6.35-0.025 mm) are produced in the wholly austenitic condition because the presence of
possible depending on service requirements, pattern equipment, size ferrite causes the alloy to crack when rolled or forged. The CF series
of casting, process employed, and finishing requirements. The of cast high alloys can be produced to contain 5 to 25% ferrite which
reader is referred to Chapter 16 for a full discussion of casting makes the alloy more weldable.
tolerances. Also in the heat-resistant grades of cast high alloy, a higher carbon
content can be obtained than in comparable wrought grades. This
Desirable Surface Finish higher carbon level makes the alloy stronger at service temperatures.
A surface finish of from 1000 to 63 microinches can be produced Wrought grades with this carbon content cannot be rolled or forged.
on steel castings in the unmachined condition, depending on the
casting method employed. An example of a steel casting with excel- Choice of Mechanical Properties Through
lent finish is shown in Figure 3-14. A full discussion of surface finish Heat Treatment
and ASTM A802 is presented in Chapter 4.
Cast steels are available in a wide range of mechanical properties
depending upon the composition and heat treatment. Properties
Few or Many Parts within the following ranges can be obtained at normal temperatures:
Steel castings can be produced as single castings or in many
thousands. Certain steel foundries specialize in producing castings Tensile strength, ksi (MPa) 60 to 300 (414-2068)
where a run of 50 of the same design may be considered as large. Yield strength, ksi (MPa) 30 to 250 (207-1724)
Such foundries are well equipped to produce as few as only one Elongation, % 50 to 4
casting of a particular design. Other steel foundries have the capa- Reduction of area, % 65 to 5
bilities to produce long runs of several thousand castings of one Brinell hardness 120 to 623 BHN
design. Figure 3-15 shows a view of a shop with several thousand Charpy V-notch impact, ft • lb (J) 200 to 5 (271-6.8)
railroad truck side frames in various stages of the finishing opera-
tion. National specifications are available covering most of the proper-
ties in the above ranges. Steels with special properties can be made
by steel foundries because small furnaces are often employed and
Metallurgical Versatility tailor-made heats can easily be produced. The number of analyses a
foundry is willing to produce depends on various factors, among
There are a number of metallurgical advantages which favor steel which are production and economic considerations. Properties are
castings as the preferred method of manufacture. These advantages available in steel castings that will fit any segment of the wide range
are as follows: of requirements employed in the design of steel parts.
Steel castings can be readily heat treated. Special surface harden-
Diversified Services ing treatments can be applied. Steel foundries are fully equipped to
Cast steels are being produced for many exacting service condi- carry out most heat treatments under the supervision of qualified
tions. The compositions of these cast steels can be varied so that the metallurgical engineers.
Fig. 3-16 Large machined cast

steel gear
'I
i
¥*«-
Uniform Properties in All Directions eliminated, and the errors due to assembly are eliminated. Finally,
the need to store many component parts is eliminated.
The directional variation of properties found in forged or rolled An example of a steel casting which replaced an assembly of
shapes does not occur in steel castings. There is no difference wrought steel parts is shown in Figure 3-17. The economic benefits
between the transverse and longitudinal mechanical properties of of the one-piece steel casting include the following:
steel castings, such as is experienced in rolled steel products and
forgings. 1. Fasteners need not be purchased.
2. Extra parts need not be purchased.
Excellent Wettability 3. Lower inventory costs.
All cast steels can be welded and most compositions are readily 4. Less engineering time because one drawing replaces many draw-
weldable. Steel castings can be welded to each other or to wrought ings. No assembly instructions to prepare.
steel shapes. Details of the welding of steel castings and their use in 5. Assembly costs of machining and labor are eliminated.
cast-weld and composite fabrications are given in Chapters 11 and 6. Lower handling costs.
25. 7. Less paperwork in following fewer parts through the shop.
8. Lower costs for time study, time keeping, recording, indirect labor,
Readily Machinable supervision, and accounting.
9. Less downtime with no delay of assembly of any essential parts not
Steel castings are as readily machinable as wrought steels, and the delivered on time.
machinability will depend on the microstructure, composition, hard- 10. No assembly errors with a single component casting.
ness, and surface condition of the steel. Chapter 26 presents detailed 11. A single component results in a single manufacturer's responsibil-
information on the machining of cast steel. Figure 3-16 illustrates a ity.
machined cast steel gear. 12. Less inspection.
Another example of an integral lightweight steel casting is the

Economic Benefits of Steel bolster shown in Figure 3-18. Attention is directed to the extensive
Castings use of cores (shown with the casting) necessary to provide the
hollow sections of the bolster. A typical casting has an overall length
of 97 in. (2.46 m) and an average thickness of 1.5 in. (38 mm). It
Economies of a One-Piece Finished Part weighs 1400 lb (653 kg). Forty-four sand cores are used in its
One-piece construction has a number of economic advantages production and weigh 636 lb (288 kg).
over assemblies requiring welding and metal fasteners. The one- Steel castings can be cast to close tolerances. The fifth wheel of
piece casting eliminates machining charges necessary for the match- Figure 3-19 employed to couple a truck to its trailer must be smooth
ing parts of an assembly. Labor costs for the assembly of parts are and true for slack-free coupling. These castings are produced in
Fig. 3-18 Cast steel bolster casting for railroad application shown
with cores necessary to produce this high strength, lightweight,
thin-walled part
Fig. 3-17 Single casting replacing a weld assembly which required

one weld plus one machining operation. Weight 1 lb, CF8M
stainless steel
Fig. 3-20 Single unit brake beam casting for railroad freight cars.
Overall length 70 in. (1778 mm). Sections 1/2 to 1-1/2 in. (14.7-38
mm)
Fig. 3-19 Top view of fifth wheel for truck application
Another example of the use of steel castings to reduce weight is

the coupler knuckle of Figure 3-21. The knuckle acts as a protective
"weak link" in the assembly and on occasion is subject to replace-
large numbers to very close tolerances. Many machining and drill- ment in thefield.The casting process allows the designer to produce
ing operations have been eliminated. Cored holes in these castings hollow sections as shown in the sectioned knuckle of Figure 3-21.
reduce boring costs, and castings produced to close final contour
minimize cam milling, boring, die sinking, planing, contouring, and Short Delivery Periods
profiling machining costs. Steel castings can be quickly produced shortly after the patterns
Certain engineering designs are difficult to produce economically are delivered to the foundry. No delay results from the preparation
in quantity by any other method than by casting. Complex or of dies, special tools, welding positioners or presses. It is possible to
intricate shapes, whether they be large or small, are usually designed produce steel castings in very short runs of one to three in a few days
as castings. Some designs contain internal passageways that cannot to repair an equipment breakdown at considerable economic benefit
be economically formed by machining, but can be easily produced to the casting buyer.
through the use of refractory cores positioned accurately in the mold
cavity. Reliability
Designs embodying streamlined, complex curves, especially
when the wall sections are varied, do not lend themselves to fabri- Steel castings give dependable performance for the required serv-
cation by forging, welding or machining, but can be cast easily. The ice loads and times. Research indicates that of the few failures that
same is true of parts with undercuts. occur, over 90% are related to improper design, such as designed-in
or machined-in notches and other stress raisers resultingfromserv-
ice conditions, the improper joining of sections, and the failure to
Weight Reduction Economies observe the rules of good design. Steel castings are capable of giving
Organizations, such as the Association of American Railroads, long life in exacting service. Figure 3-22 shows an examplefromthe
whose designers have had over 60 years' experience in using steel nuclear power generating field.
castings, employ low safety factors and secure lightweight parts Steel castings are used in safety critical applications where human
with the weight distributed exactly where needed. This is illustrated safety is a prime factor, such as the steel castings in the ladder-hoist-
in the single-piece brake beam casting shown in Figure 3-20. The ing mechanism of a fire truck, or the piping components of nuclear
brake beam is another steel casting which has reduced dead weight power stations. The cast steel valves similar to those of Figure 3-23
on the railroads. are used to control the flow of liquids and gases at normal or high
equipment employing the iron castings have changed so that higher

stress levels or sudden impact loads have been encountered. The
casting purchaser is truly penalizing himself by using the same
design for steel as he did for cast iron, simply because he wishes to
use the same old pattern. Differences in modulus of rigidity,
strength, endurance, and toughness allow low safety factors for steel
compared to the much larger safety factors necessary for the brittle
materials.
A conversion should mean a redesign of the part as a steel casting
to take advantage of the lower factor of safety that is widely used. A
section one-third of that employed for the nodular iron can be used.
Of course, there is a limit to the minimum wall thickness that can be
poured in steel as discussed in Chapter 7. Likewise, it obviously
would be unsafe to convert a part for dynamic service that has been
properly designed as a steel casting into nodular iron unless critical
sections are increased three-fold. Conversely, a steel casting that can
be safely converted to nodular iron without change is prime evi-
dence of poor design and excessive weight, both of which are open
to correction. It follows that a conversion cannot be intelligently
made until a careful analysis of all pertinent engineering facts and
properties has been made.
Fig. 3-21 Railroad car coupler knuckle (center) with sections cut
from identical knuckle to sow interior passageways designed for Nonferrous Cast Metals
weight reduction and strength considerations
Nickel-base alloys have the best strength properties of the nonfer-
rous cast alloys. The nickel-base alloys are discussed in greater
detail in Chapter 21.
Aluminum alloys are lightweight (roughly 1/3 as heavy as steel)
and have good machinability. The modulus of elasticity is only
one-third that of steel (Figure 3-24), which gives steel castings
greater stiffness. Cast aluminum alloys have a good combination of
electrical and thermal properties. The surface can be easily finished
and takes well to various coatings.
Magnesium-base cast alloys are lighter in weight than aluminum,
and can be heat treated to the same strength as aluminum alloys with
excellent machinability. These alloys are more expensive than alu-
minum.
Copper-base casting alloys offer advantages in some corrosive
environments, and in thermal and electrical conductivity applica-
tions. Only certain of the copper-base alloys, such as aluminum or
Fig. 3-22 Atomic reactor fuel rod holder approximately 4 in. (102
silicon bronzes, can be hardened by heat treatment.
mm) square. This part is investment cast from stainless steel. The ferrous cast alloys are all based on the element iron. Despite
this common ancestry, there are important differences among steel,
gray iron, nodular iron, and malleable iron. The characteristics of the
irons are discussed below.
pressures and temperatures. They are used in many industries where Gray Cast Iron
safety to personnel and equipment is mandatory. Gray cast iron offers excellent casting characteristics and good
Castings subject to special service requirements are usually pur- machinability. The damping capacity is high in the softer grades. It
chased to specifications listing the inspection methods to ensure the has the lowest cost per pound of all the cast metals. Gray cast iron
degree of reliability desired. Steel foundrymen are not sufficiently is described by its appearance on fracture. Gray iron appears gray
familiar with the service requirements of the casting to specify the because a relatively large percent of its carbon content is in the form
quality level needed and the degree of inspection that should be of graphite, which causes the fracture to be a characteristic gray.
performed. Chapter 4 provides further details on specifying steel Gray cast iron is an Fe-C-Si alloy containing 2.80 to 3.80% carbon,
castings. 1.50 to 2.50% silicon, and 0.50 to 0.80% manganese.
The graphs of Figures 3-24 to 3-33 show the properties of gray
cast iron and cast steel in comparison with other cast metals. Steels
Cast Steel Compared to Other can have greater strength and hardness than gray cast iron, and can
Cast Metals be much tougher and more ductile. Because gray iron is not ductile,
its yield strength is close to its tensile strength. The modulus of
Each cast metal has its own distinct advantages and therefore steel elasticity of gray cast iron is arbitrarily defined, and is not strictly
castings seldom compete in the market of the other cast metals. The comparable to the modulus of elasticity for steel.
few areas of overlapping which do exist are the result of a lack of The graphite flakes act as stress raisers and therefore gray cast iron
understanding of the properties, design scope, and costs of produc- has low impact resistance and low ductility. To a design engineer,
ing castingsfromthe different metals. gray cast iron is strictly a non-ductile material.
Patterns for gray cast iron castings have been sent to the steel The graphite flakes in gray iron also make it easier to machine
foundry for production in steel because operating conditions of the than most steels. They break up the matrix much like the addition of
Fig. 3-23a Butterfly valve with cast

stainless steel parts
Fig. 3-23b Assembly of 24 in. valves
lead in afree-machiningsteel. This property is of great importance content (0.60 to 1.50%) are lower than in gray iron. The necessity of
in the high production automotive industry. beginning with a white iron casting limits the section thickness of
malleable iron castings. If the section is too thick (somewhat over 1
Malleable Cast Iron in. [25 mm]), the solidification may be so slow that the center of the
Malleable and pearlitic malleable irons offer a wide range of section will solidify as gray iron. Malleabilizing is a heat treatment
tensile strength with some ductility. Section of size of malleable iron which causes the carbon to precipitate as graphite rosettesfromthe
castings, while not entirely limited, is usually less than 2 in. (51 white iron by decomposition of the carbides.
mm). Malleable cast iron is not just a form of gray iron. The nodules of
Malleable iron is produced from white iron in which all the carbon temper carbon do not disrupt the matrix as do theflakesof graphite.
is combined with iron to form cementite; there is no free graphite. For this reason, malleable cast iron has higher strengths and ductility
The carbon content of malleable (1.8 to 2.4%) and the silicon than gray cast iron. Pearlitic malleable iron has even higher strength
o
CL TITANIUM ALLOY
NICKEL CAST
MALL. STEEL
\ o I2.0 ESSKf CAST
30 BASE NOD IRON 20. I x
IRON I0.0 ] WROUGHT
25 fc.E MAGNES. STEEL.
TITANIUM GRAY CO UJ o BASE ALUM.
8.0
LE STR
Y RATI
MODULU
20 ALLOYS IRON n BASE
TITANIUM 1 COPPER n TITAN."- 1
METAL 4 , BASE 6.0 M
I I A L COPPER NICKEL NOD.
15 - 10
ALUM. tfl BASE BASE IRON
RaMALL.
BASE c75t 4.0 l ) ^ IRON
10 "MAGNES Z C/) GRAY K;
co IRON ^
BASE !^z 2.0
5 o •- UJ
zZ) Q
o 0
0
>-
Fig. 3-25 Comparison of strength/weight ratios for various cast
Fig. 3-24 Comparison of Young's modulus for wrought alloys, cast and wrought alloys (1)
irons and cast steel (1)
240 -
- 1600
300 220 - — STEEL
o
280 - 2000
200 1400 Q-
o
260 I800 Q. I80
1200 i
240 -STEEL 5
1600
I60 NODULAR X
w 220 X I40 IRON NICKEL i ooo <3
COPPER BASE z
TRE NGT
"* 200 I400 5 I20 MALLEABLE BASE 800 ^

I
180 NODULAR
1200
U I00 GRAY IRON (-
S l60
IRON NICKEL IRON 600 «
C0PPER
\-
co
80
ALUM. Q
MALLEABLE n I000 CO 60
l40 BASE 400 _|
u IRON BASE
ni MAGNES. ZINC UJ
SILE
40
D
800 BASE BASE
hi
jE I20 u - 200 >~
"> I00
GRAY
IRON
ALUM. ZINC
600 Z
,
>- 20
0 • D
W 80 MAGNES l-
CO 6 0 BASE BASE 400
BASE
Z
UJ 40
20
0
D D D 200
Fig. 3-27 Comparison of the range of yield strengths for cast
metals
Fig. 3-26 Comparison of tensile strength of cast metals as to the

range possible for each metal COPPER
BASE
50 - NICKEL
BASE
z STEEL
UJ
values with lower ductility, and is less machinable than regular o 40
malleable. It does not have the strength or toughness of steel. or

UJ
0. NODULAR ALUMINUM
30 IRON MALLEABLE BASE
Ductile Iron z IRON r~I
o
Ductile cast iron is comparable to malleable iron in properties, but I-
it is not limited by section size. It has comparable machinability, < 20
CD
wear resistance, and damping capacity. MAGNESIUM
BASE ZINC
Reported impact test properties for nodular and malleable cast BASE
10
irons cannot always be compared to steel. Unnotched bars, larger GRAY
size bars, variations in notch depth, and shape are often used in IRON
testing nodular cast iron and naturally give large numbers for impact _£L_
resistance. When tested under identical conditions, e.g., in a Charpy
V-notch impact test, the Charpy V-notch impact properties of nodu- Fig. 3-28 Comparison of the range of tensile elongation usual in
lar and malleable cast iron are low compared to cast steel (see Figure commercial cast metals
3-31).
Compacted Graphite Cast Iron

Compacted graphite cast irons have structures and properties
generally considered to be intermediate to those of gray and nodular approach those of nodular castings. The ductility varies from 1 to
cast iron. They are characterized by interconnected graphite, inter- 6%, depending on the strength. The thermal conductivity is gener-
mediate to the flake graphite of gray iron and the nodular graphite ally greater than that of nodular iron, and less than that of gray iron.
of nodular iron. Because of this structure, they are frequently re- The impact properties are substantially better than those of gray
ferred to as vermicular irons. iron, although lower than those of nodular iron. The fatigue proper-
Tensile strengths of compacted graphite irons are equal to, or ties are not as good as those of nodular iron, but substantially better
greater than, those of alloyed high strength gray cast irons, and than those of gray iron.
Cast Steel Compared to Other Cast Metals 70

STEEL
Steel is by far the most versatile cast metal. It is readily weldable.
The other cast metals either are not weldable or are weldable only 60
by special techniques that are often not satisfactory for industrial
UJ
applications. Cast steel offers a wide range of properties (Figures o
ce NICKEL
3-24 to 3-33) exhibiting high strengths with toughness, endurance, UJ 50 BASE
and ductility values exceeding anything that can be obtained by any Q_
i COPPER
other cast metal. Cast steel is the only material for the high stresses
of dynamic loading in fatigue and impact. Cast steel is machinable,
< 40
BASE
UJ
and it may be alloyed for excellent resistance to corrosion, heat, and or
< NODULAR
abrasive conditions.
u. IRON
A comparison of the properties of the normally used cast metals o 30
MALLEABLE
is given in Figures 3-24 to 3-33, and in Table 3-1. The reader's IRON
attention is directed to the fact that a change in one mechanical o
i- 20
property will produce a change in another property; for example, as o
tensile strength increases, ductility decreases. These relations do not z>
Q
always readily appear when data are presented in tabular or bar UJ 10
graph form. or
GRAY
IRON
Fig. 3-29 Reduction of area range comparison of cast metals. Not

applicable to aluminum, magnesium, or zinc alloys
800
x 70
700 - o STEEL 90
STEEL
60 80
600
<n >•
V) 0. 70 ~3
UJ or 50
<
PACT ENERGY-
2 500 -
Q COPPER
x 60
CC o
< NODULAR
8 A S E
NICKEL
40
X 400 - IRON GRAY BASE
1 IRON
IRC
50
MALLEABLE
IRON r so 40
300
1
ce >- 30 5
CD (0
200 rr 20
ALUMINUM UJ
2 NODULAR MALLEABLE 20
BASE ZINC UJ
IRON IRON
MAGNES. BASE 10
f-
BASE u
100
D - o GRAY - 10
U D <
0.
5
IRON
0 n
Fig. 3-31 The Charpy V-notch impact property range of ferrous
Fig. 3-30 Comparison of the range of hardness commercially cast metals. Standard Charpy [0.394 in. (10 mm) bar with 45°
found in cast metals notch 0.08 in. (2 mm) deep). Test too severe for nonferrous alloys
Table 3-1 Comparison of Certain Engineering Properties of Cast Metals

Damping
Casting Weldability Castability Capacity Machinability
Steel Excellent Fair Fair Fair

Nodular Iron Difficult Good Fair Good
Gray Iron Difficult Excellent Excellent Good
Malleable Iron Difficult Good Roughly related inversely to the Good
modulus of elasticity
Aluminum Base Highly susceptible to cracking Excellent Good to Excellent
Copper Base Careful control needed Fair to Good Fair to Good
Magnesium Base Readily welded-Preheat needed Good to Excellent Poor Excellent
Nickel Base Fair Fair Fair
Zinc Base Difficult Excellent Excellent

Certain misconceptions regarding steel castings may arise be-

Steel Castings Compared to cause of confusion with other materials. Steel castings, for example,
Steel Weldments should not be confused with the various types of cast irons because,
as shown in the previous section, cast steel has an entirely different
Steel castings, as components for industry, can be substituted for composition and many superior mechanical properties and welding
steel weldments or rolled steel plates with bolted or riveted con- characteristics. The wrought form of steel is not superior to the cast
struction because steel castings, plates, and weldments are all steel form, as is the case in wrought and cast aluminum. Forged alumi-
and because they have similar properties. Certain mechanical and num has superior properties when compared with cast aluminum.
physical values of steel pertain to steels regardless of the methods However, strength properties of cast steel are similar to those of
of manufacture. Among these are the modulus of elasticity, the rolled steel, if comparisons are made on the basis of similar compo-
modulus of rigidity, Poisson's ratio, density, volume changes, melt- sitions and heat treatments.
ing and solidification temperatures, thermal, electric, and magnetic There are differences that exist between the properties of steel
values. castings and those of steel weldments because of the method of
manufacture. These differences will be explained in this section.
Welding Concerns
STEEL
30
'NODULAR NICKEL - 20
Steel weldments are produced by welding together various steel
IRON MALLEABLE BASE o
Q.
shapes to form the final part. These shapes are generally pieces of
I IRON
25 5 wrought steel that have been worked or cut into the desired configu-
GRAY COPPER 15 *
rations.
IRON BASE For a designer specifying a weldment, this method of manufacture
<o 20
O
CO
leads to a number of concerns, each of which can be overcome by
Hio3 specifying a steel casting. Fewer internal stresses usually exist in
ZINC
Co ALUM.
BASE steel castings than in fabrication weldments. Steel castings are
r> BASE Q
_i O
IO - MAGNES.
a BASE
o
130
Fig. 3-32 The elastic modulus of cast metals
20 GRAY
CO IRON
Q 18 -
LU MALLEABLE
h-
co
16 - IRON
CE
UJ 14
O
I 12 -
O 10 -
rr NODULAR
o IRON
u.
UJ NICKEL
6 - BASE
> STEEL
o 4 - n
rx
UJ
o
o
Fig. 3-33 Coercive force range of iron and nickel-base cast metals
20 40 60 80
A f ANGLE OF TEST PIECE, deg.
(a) (b) (c) ORIENTATIONS

— V — TESTED:
CENTER OF
ROLLED SLAB
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 3-35 Relation between the mechanical properties of rolled

Fig. 3-34 Various weld corner joints (2) steel and the angle of inclination of the test specimen (3)
almost always completely heat treated, whereas weldments are complicated sections easily accomplished with steel castings reduce
seldom even stress relieved. stress concentrations and increase the appearance of the part.
Less distortion is encountered in steel castings than in weldments
because of the localized effect of the heat from welding. Directionality of Properties
There are no joints in steel castings and since no human element An important characteristic of rolled or wrought steels, known as
is involved in joining as there is in welding, no leaks or partial lack directionality or fiber, should be understood by all design engineers.
of attachment can occur. Also, misalignment is not a problem with The nonmetallic inclusions, which are in a plastic condition at
steel castings. rolling temperatures, are elongated in the direction of rolling. At the
Perhaps the designer's most important concern when specifying
weldments are stress concentration factors. Two common locations
for stress concentration in the design of any part are abrupt changes
in section thickness and corners where fillets are not well radiused. 85 1—I I I llllj I I II llll| 1—I I I M l l j
The junctions of welded sections produce flat surfaces and poorly
radiused fillets as shown by Figure 3-34 from The Procedure Hand- 80 UNN0TCHED NOTCHED
book ofArc Welding (2). It is not economical to contour the junction
4135 CAST STEEL A •
welds by grinding or machining. 75 100
4140 (LONGITUDIAL) I O
Steel casting designs result in reduced stress concentration be- fNO. 32 _
4140 ( TRANSVERSE) 0
cause of the smoother curved construction utilizing well-radiused
70 -
fillets and section junctions. Streamlining of parts and the use of
65 -
60 - 80
Q.
5
CO
55
CO
LLl CO
<r 5 0 CO
I- LLl
co rr
t-
45 - - 60 co
40
35
30 40
Ni - Cr - Mo STEEL 25 i i mill l l I mill

10' I03 10° 10'
CYCLES TO FAILURE
Fig. 3-37 S-N curves of a normalized and tempered AISI4140

wrought steel in the longitudinal and transverse direction and cast
Fig. 3-36 Charpy V-notch impact properties (ft • lb) of a Ni-Cr-Mo cast 4135 steel normalized and tempered. Tensile strength for wrought
steel tested longitudinal and transverse to the dendrite growth (Con- steel: longitudinal, 110.0 ksi (758 MPa); transverse, 110.7 ksi (763
version: 1 ft • lb = 1.4 J. 1 in. = 25.4 mm) MPa); cast steel: 112.7 ksi (770 MPa)
Table 3-2 Charpy V-Notch Energy Absorption Data for A516-70 Steel Plates Studied (4)
Gage Melting Heat E-SO(d) E-10(e) E-80(f)
Plate in. mm practice(a) treatment^) Orientation(c) ft lb J ft lb J ft lb J
1 4 102 Ca A LT 75 102 95 129 115 156

TL 80 109 115 156 150 204
ST 35 48 65 88 85 116
2 4 102 ESR A LT 145 197 155 211 175 238
TL 85 116 95 129 100 136
3 4 102 Conv. A LT 30 41 45 61 75 102
TL 20 27 25 34 40 54
ST 10 14 20 27 40 54
4 9 229 Ca A LT 30 41 75 102 130 177
TL 40 54 70 95 105 143
ST 25 34 65 88 95 129
(a) Ca, Calcium treated low sulfur (Fineline); ESR, Electroslag remelted (Lectrefine); Conv., Conventional electric furnace vacuum degassed, (b) A, 1650 °F/4 h—AC
(900 °C/4 h—AC), (c) LT, Longitudinal; TL, Transverse; ST, Through gauge, (d) E-50, Energy absorbed at -50 °F (-46 °C). (e) E-10, Energy absorbed at 10 °F (-12
°C). (f) E-80, Energy absorbed at 80 °F (27 °C)

same time, localized chemical segregations that have taken place shows Charpy V-notch energy absorption data for carbon steel
during solidification of the steel are also elongated. The directional- plates produced by calcium treatment, ESR, and conventional melt-
ity produces "anisotropy" of mechanical properties and occurs in ing. It should be noted that even the steel shown to be convention-
nearly all cold-worked and hot-worked steels. These conditions ally melted has been vacuum degassed. Even these steels, which
reduce the ductility, impact, and fatigue properties transverse to the
direction of rolling. The tensile and yield properties of wrought steel
exhibit only slight changes in directional properties. Figure 3-35
CASTING
shows the relation between mechanical properties of rolled steel and LONGITUDINAL PR0 P
. _ E . R J| E _ S TRANSVERSE
M P a
J
the angle of inclination of the test specimen. Observe that the *• 600 120
transverse ductility property dropped as much as 53% and the TENSILE STRENGTH
impact value dropped 72% because of the directionality effect. ksi
Tables and handbooks tabulating wrought steel properties gener- 500 I00
ally present only the values from test bars taken in the direction of
rolling.
This problem of directionality of properties is discussed openly in YIELD 4 0 0 -- 8 0
the wrought steel industry. A paper by representatives of a major * YIELD STRENGTH
ksi
steel company presented at a meeting co-sponsored by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers and the Metal Properties Council ^ \ y CHARPY 300 -- 60
REDUCTION K v
explains the situation as follows: 'The rigors of modern design IN AREA X NOTCH
\IMPACT
require that only material of the highest quality be used in critical * \FT-LB
applications. These applications often place tri-axial stresses on CHARPY "REDUCTIONS. 200 40
materials and utilize materials to their maximum capability in the ELONGATION OF AREA^S**^
K
three primary directions" (4). The paper goes on to explain that early
attempts to improve properties in the transverse direction were ELONGATION, % \
I00 20
through methods such as cross rolling. It should be stated here that I I
rolled steel for weldments that might be competing with most steel 0 4 8 12 0 4 8 12
castings is seldom, if ever, cross rolled. The process and size of plate REDUCTION RATIO
that can be cross rolled makes the steel too expensive to be competi- BY FORGING
tive with steel castings.
The main thrust of this article (4) concerns the fact that special Fig. 3-39 The influence of forging reduction on anisotropy for a
processes such as calcium argon blowing (CAB) and electroslag 0.35% carbon wrought steel (1). Properties for a 0.35% carbon
remelting (ESR) produce steel that is less susceptible to the prob- cast steel are shown in the graph by a star (*) for purposes of
lems of directionality than conventionally melted steel. Table 3-2 comparison.
TENSILE STRENGTH-MPa YIELD STRENGTH-MPa

890 900 9I0 920 930 550 600 650
I I i I I "
LOCATION avg.-^
1 TANGENTIAL I I
2 RADIAL i- 1 —i
3 TANGENTIAL ft 1050 STEEL
1
4 RADIAL i- 1
5 RADIAL i i
6 TANGENTIAL I i
7 AXIAL
« ,
i i
i i i
128 130 132 134 136 75
TENSILE STRENGTH - ksi YIELD STRENGTH - ksi
LOCATION avg. —^
1 TANGENTIAL 1 1
2 RADIAL
3 TANGENTIAL r-«-i 1—""I
4 RADIAL 1 1 1 « 1
5 RADIAL • 1 I-1—I
»t -.
6 TANGENTIAL I l r-1—i WHEEL FORGING
7 AXIAL 1 i i i
i i t i i i 24-in.(6IO-mm)DIAM., I50lb(68kg)
14 16 18 20 22 40 45 50 55 60
ELONGATION - % REDUCTION OF AREA-%
Fig. 3-38 Effect of test specimen orientation and location on the tension test properties of a 150 lb (68 kg) wheel forging of water quenched
and tempered AIS11050 steel. Each bar on the chart represents maximum, minimum, and average values of three tests. (3)
have been given expensive melting treatments, continue to exhibit a done on wheel forgings as shown in Figure 3-38. The tensile
directionality of properties. strength of these forgings varied from 128 to 134 ksi (876-917
There are no directional variations in cast steel and, therefore, the MPa), yield strength from 78 to 89 ksi (538-614 MPa), elongation
mechanical properties are uniform in all directions. from 16-21%, and reduction of area from 40-55% depending upon
Wrought steel advocates sometimes point out that steel castings the location of the test specimen in the forging.
have a dendritic structure that is oriented in the direction of the Directionality occurs because the nonmetallic inclusions in the
dendrite growth. It is true that the universal pattern of crystal growth steel are elongated during forging and have an orientation resulting
during casting solidification is dendritic (a dendrite is a branched or from the direction of the forging operation. The reduction ratio in
tree-like crystal that may range in size from microscopic to large forging refers to the total reduction in cross-sectional area from the
enough to be visible to the unaided eye). Directional properties, original steel mill ingot to the final forged part. Cross-sectional
however, are not exhibited by such structures in conventionally cast reduction by forging up to about 3 to 1 improves both the longitudi-
shapes as can be observed by studying Figure 3-36. Charpy V-notch nal and transverse ductility. Continued reduction beyond this point
impact specimens were machined from a coupon of Ni-Cr-Mo, improves the longitudinal properties somewhat, but the transverse
normalized and tempered cast steel (0.30 C, 0.76 Ni, 0.77 Cr, 0.43 properties deteriorate markedly. This condition is summarized in
Mo), and notched so that specific impact values would be recorded Figure 3-39 showing the effect of the degree of forging on a 0.35%
longitudinally and transverse to the cast shape. Impact values ob- carbon steel. It will be observed that directionality or anisotropy has
tained were not related to the casting shape and the direction of no effect on the tensile and yield strength, but that the ductility and
dendrite growth. impact properties are affected considerably.
In general, if the longitudinal and transverse ductility, impact, or Generally, the reduction ratios in the forging billets are many
fatigue property values of rolled steel are averaged, they will be times greater than 3 to 1 before the actual shaping process begins.
about the same as properties of cast steel. One example of this is Figure 3-39 also illustrates the properties of a 0.35% carbon cast
shown in Figure 3-37 where a 4140 rolled steel was tested in fatigue steel. Cast steel is not mechanically worked and, therefore, is iso-
in the longitudinal and transverse position and compared with a
similar Cr-Mo cast steel.
The American Society for Testing and Materials recognizes that
cast steel does not exhibit directionality of properties, while this is a 130 IUUI
concern with wrought steel. ASTM designation A-370, "Mechanical U.T.S . J ^ N G . ^ - ^ ^ . . - ^ : 2
Testing of Steel Products", contains a section on orientation of test . 120- : _ =
I
x ~ ~~~U.T.S. TRANS. - 800 1
specimens. This section states "the terms 'longitudinal test' and t-
o MO o
'transverse test' are used only in materials specifications for wrought z _0- -o z
products and are not applicable to castings." Further details on w Y.S. LONG
er 100 -A- -A
6 0 0 tr
111
mechanical properties of cast steels are discussed in Chapter 18. to Y.S.TRANS.I t/>
20 40 60 80 100
60 R.A. LONG —•
Steel Castings Compared to 55

" -~ R.A. TRANS.
Steel Forgings 50
Steel forgings sometimes compete with steel castings. Generally,
steel castings are favored by the designer because of 1) the ability of K
casting processes to produce complex shapes, and 2) the metallurgi- (J 4_ EL. LONG
cal versatility available with cast steel. Economic considerations of o 20 A Z~~
producing expensive forging dies for short-to-medium production EL.TRANS
runs also are a factor in favor of steel castings. The final cost of the
finished cast part and the finished forged part should be fully
XL I . I
0 20 40 60 80 100
explored. While the casting may be more costly than the forging, the CAST % REDUCTION ( DEFORMATION )
final cost for the cast part may be substantially less. In areas where
steel forgings might compete with steel castings, a designer should TESTING TEMPERATURE - ° C
have available to him the following information to assist in making -120 -80 -40 0 40 8 0 120 160 2 0 0 240
1 1 1 1
his decision. 100
L-FORGED,
• ' 8 7 % RED.
Reliability L-CAST 80
Reliability is not a function of one or another method of manufac-
T-CAST
ture. Reliability relates to performance in service for a forging as
well as a casting. This means that the correct selections have been 60 -,
made relative to the type of steel and to the method of forging or T- FORGED, t
87 % RED.
casting, and that the part (casting or forging) will be nearly identical >•
o
to the one that precedes it and the one that follows it. It does not 40 tc
ui
necessarily refer to dimensional control. It means quality control of z
the steel making and processing methods. A lot of forgings may be 20
produced from forging blanks that come from different ingots and
steel heats just as a lot of castings may be produced from different
heats. There are no outstanding differences in the steel for forgings
and for castings. -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
TESTING TEMPERATURE-°F
Directionality of Properties Fig. 3-40 The effect of hot forming (swaging) and directionality on
Forgings, being wrought material, exhibit directionality of prop- tensile and Charpy V-notch properties of normalized, quenched
erties in the same fashion as steel used for weldments. Studies were and tempered boron-bearing structural steel (0.35 C, 0.0015 B) (6)

tropic. It has equal properties in all directions with values roughly I I I lllllj—I I 1111111—I I 11 Mill
in between the longitudinal and transverse properties of forged steel.
Work done at the Watertown Arsenal Laboratories further illus- 90
trates this point. Figure 3-40 shows the effect of hot forming and 600
directionality on tensile and Charpy V-notch properties of normal- 85
ized, quenched, and tempered boron-bearing structural steel (0.035
C, 0.0015 B). The wrought data were obtained by hot swaging cast 80
ingots to various degrees of deformation. The cast properties were o
obtained from the original ingot prior to its being deformed. 75 0-
The fatigue strength and endurance limits of forged steel also 500
70
ksi
exhibit anisotropy as shown in Figure 3-41. It may be observed that
the endurance limit of the forged AISI4340 steel (reduced 20 to 1
from the ingot and quenched and tempered to a tensile strength of
i 65 co
CO
STRESS
LONGITUDINAL
120 ksi [827 MPa]) in the longitudinal direction was approximately UJ
60 rr
50% of the tensile strength, but the transverse direction value was i-
only about 35% of the tensile strength. - 400 (O
55
Casting Advantages 50
Because of differences between the casting and forging processes, TRANSVERSE
other advantages can be claimed for steel castings. The designer has 45
- 300
greater freedom in specifying shape when steel castings are em- i i i i i i Mini
40
ployed. Complex shapes can be produced through the casting proc-
I0< 10 = 10* 10'
ess that would be impossible or uneconomical to produce as forg-
ings. Cores may be employed in the casting process to produce CYCLES TO FAILURE
hollow sections. Steel casting size is virtually unlimited, while
forging size and weight are limited to the availability of forging 3-41 Anisotropy exhibited by fatigue strength and endurance limit
hammers and presses. Patterns are generally more adaptable to in SAE 4340 forged steel (7)
alterations and are less expensive than are forging dies. The avail-
ability of inexpensive patterns for short run jobs leads to further
economic advantages for steel castings.
There are many similarities also between steel castings and steel
forgings. For example, the properties of both are subject to the effect References
of section size. This mass effect is discussed further in Chapter 18. 1. The Design and Properties of Steel Castings, Steel Castings
Also, items such as dimensional tolerances and surface finish are a Research and Trade Association, Sheffield, England, 1962,88
function of the cost of the part, whether it is cast or forged. In
general, the best design for either casting or forging will be the one PP
which produces the strongest part with large radiused fillets and 2. The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, 12th ed., Lincoln
streamlined changes in section thickness to eliminate areas of stress Electric Company, Cleveland, OH, p 2.2-1
concentration. 3. Metals Handbook, 8th ed., Vol 1, ASM, Metals Park, OH, 1961
4. R.H. Elwell, J.K. Stratton, and R. A. Swift, "The Improvements
in Mechanical Properties of Heavy Gauge A516-70 Carbon
Summary Steel," Effects of Melting and Processing Variables on the
Mechanical Properties of Steel, ASME, New York, 1977
In this chapter, we have looked at the design flexibility, metallur- 5. Part 3, ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and
gical versatility, and economic benefits of steel castings. Cast steel Materials, Philadelphia, PA
has been compared to other cast metals, steel weldments, and steel 6. E. DiCesare, Forging Effects on the Mechanical Properties of
forgings. While each of the materials and processes have their place Three Boron-Treated Steels, Technical Report, No. WAL TR
in our industrial society, cast steel allows the designer an unequaled 312/80, Watertown Arsenal Laboratories, July, 1959
combination of design freedom and choice of properties for a wide 7. A, Trojano and L. Keugler, Welding Journal, May, 1954, p
variety of service conditions. 209-S

CHAPTER 4
Specifying Steel Castings

Page
Introduction 4-2
Definitions 4-2
Specification 4-2
Standard 4-2
Code 4-2
Specifications 4-2
General 4-2
Chemical Composition 4-2
Mechanical Properties 4-3
Physical Properties 4-4
Processes and Procedures 4-5
Examination, Inspection, and Test . 4-5
Conflicting Requirements 4-7
Codes and Standards 4-8

General 4-8
Certification 4-8
Testing 4-9
Examinations 4-9
Test Methods and Practices 4-9
Procedures 4-9
Facilities 4-9
SPC 4-9
Documentation 4-9
Selection of Specifications 4-9

Application 4-9
Cost of Specifications 4-10

Document Maintenance 4-10
Testing, Inspection, and Quality Assurance Cost 4-10
Qualification of Facilities and Personnel 4-10
Specified Range vs. Process Capability 4-10
Recommended Further Reading 4-11
Appendix 1 4-11
Appendix 2 4-11

4-2 Part 2: Purchasing Castings
Standard
Introduction A standard may be defined as a specification, test method, defini-
tion or recommended practice that has been approved by a nation-
Steel castings like any manufactured item are purchased to fill a ally or internationally recognized specification-writing body such as
predetermined role. The necessary attributes of the casting such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Interna-
strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, heat resistance, soundness tional Organization for Standardization (ISO), or Society of Auto-
and dimensional tolerances are dictated by the user. These charac- motive Engineers (SAE). A standard can further be defined as a
teristics are based on the conditions that will be encountered in document which details properties, processes, dimensions, material
service. These requirements must be clearly and accurately stated compositions, relationships, or concepts. This connotation follows
with nothing taken for granted. Webster's definition of "something set up and established by author-
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) stan- ity as a rule for the measure of quantity, weight, extent, value or
dards that are applicable to steel castings include approximately 25 quality". There is overlap in the definitions of a specification and a
that deal with material specifications, one that deals with welding, standard, and for that reason the two terms are often used inter-
and over 40 that deal with nondestructive testing. ASTM is only one changeably in the context of steel castings. For instance, ASTM
of many standards-writing organizations throughout the world. documents are termed "standard specifications".
Specifying steel castings is not a simple matter.
This chapter will endeavor to clarify the role of specifications as Code
lines of communication among all parties concerned. The reader will
The word "code" is a term of much broader meaning than either
quickly realize that nationally or internationally recognized stan- specification or standard, and can best be described as a set of rules
dards and specifications should be used whenever possible. The use established by a recognized authority such as the American Society
of proprietary specifications is discouraged except where an indus- of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
try-wide specification does not exist. or the American Welding Society (AWS) Dl.l, Structural Welding
One very important point should be kept in mind when specifying Code-Steel. A code is a complete set of rules for manufacturing
steel castings. It is very easy to overspecify, especially when using some item that involves design, materials, testing, fabrication, non-
proprietary specifications; these often result in higher costs and destructive examination, personnel qualification requirements,
longer lead times. It is equally wrong to underspecify, leaving health, safety and environmental protection. The code-formulating
requirements vague or wide open will usually lead to the foundry bodies, in addition to writing their own rules, usually adopt ASTM
supplying castings to a different quality level than that expected by material specifications either in total or in part as part of the code.
the user. For example, consider the following nondestructive testing
requirements:
"The castings shall be magnetic-particle tested on all accessible Specifications
surfaces in accordance with ASTM E709 with acceptance per
ASTM El 25. The castings shall be radiographed in critical areas as
shown on the drawing in accordance with ASTM E1030 with accep-
General
tance per ASTM E446." Most of the specifications used in the production of steel castings
Obviously, valid ASTM documents were specified. The problem are issued by ASTM, ASME, SAE, AISI (cast equivalent), AAR,
is that the allowable severity levels of El25 and E446 were not Military, or ISO. Proprietary and client specifications are also
given. If this shortcoming was not remedied before production, the widely used, especially for specialized applications. As previously
foundry may supply a casting with a severity level 3 shrinkage, stated, these should only be used when an applicable industry-wide
which is entirely serviceable in many applications. However, if the specification is not available.
user requires severity level 1 in a weld preparation area of the Requirements which may be specified include:
casting, this can give welding problems. It is important to recognize
that the severity levels of discontinuities in so-called "commercial" 1. Chemical composition
castings are not defined. It is incumbent on both the buyer and the 2. Mechanical properties
foundry to resolve any requirements that are not precisely defined 3. Physical properties
before and not after production begins. 4. Processes
5. Procedures
Terms used interchangeably in this chapter are: Foundry and
6. Testing and examination requirements
producer for the casting manufacturer and Buyer, user, client and
7. Surface roughness and integrity
customer for the party who specifies, orders and takes delivery of
8. Internal soundness
the casting.
ASTM standard specifications take into account these items and
more, so when using an ASTM specification, there seldom is a
Definitions problem with omissions. Additional information on ASTM product
specifications may be found in Chapter 18. Special requirements not
In the specification process for steel castings, there are three key covered in an otherwise suitable specification may often be added
words which should be understood. These are specifications, standby invoking a supplementary requirement. If it is necessary for the
ards, and codes. user to issue a separate specification to cover special requirements,
it is highly advisable that it be limited in scope, and that it direct the
Specification user to the main specification for the balance of the requirements.
A specification is a form of standard which precisely states a set These items will be discussed in more detail in the following
paragraphs.
of requirements to be satisfied by the casting. Some of these require-
ments might be chemical composition, mechanical properties, repair
procedures or any other requirement that is necessary to develop the Chemical Composition
quality of the casting needed for its end use. Specifications for steel Begin by looking at applications, not compositions, since stan-
castings are sometimes expanded or limited by standards and codes. dard specifications are written around applications. The same com-
Specifying Steel Castings 4-3
position may appear in several specifications, but that is only part of nickel for low temperature toughness and chromium and molybde-
the story: the test and qualification criteria will be different. num for higher temperature service. Other combinations of alloying
A good example is a mild carbon cast steel with composition elements are based upon wrought steel compositions or experience
maximums of 0.25% C and 0.75% Mn. In ASTM A27 (Steel Cast- by one or more foundries over the years where large tonnages of
ings, Carbon, for General Application) it appears as two grades: N-l castings have been produced and resulted in de facto industry
and U-60-30. Grade N-l requires only the chemical analysis to be standards. Grades such as those found in ASTM A487 (Steel Cast-
reported. It does not require either heat treatment or mechanical ings Suitable for Pressure Service) and A732 (Castings, Investment,
testing. Grade U-60-30 does not require heat treatment, but requires Carbon and Low Alloy Steel for General Application, and Cobalt
both the chemical analysis and the tensile properties to be reported. Alloy for High Strength at Elevated Temperatures) grades fall into
A list of standardized supplementary requirements for use with A27 these categories. Specification ASTM A915 contains carbon and
grades may be found in A781. low alloy steels with chemical composition ranges very similar to
The same approximate analysis appears in A216 (Steel Castings, several of the widely used AISI grades. This specification allows
Carbon, Suitable for Fusion Welding, for High-Temperature Serv- those who have worked with AISI steels, but are unfamiliar with the
ice) as Grade WC A. Grade WC A requires heat treatment and report- cast grades to order cast versions.
ing of the composition and the tensile properties. Weld repair re- Chemical analysis is performed in accordance with ASTM A751
quirements are more rigorous under A216 than under A27. The list (Test Methods, Practices, and Definitions for Chemical Analysis of
of standardized supplementary requirements for use with A216 is Steel Products). Tolerances for chemical analysis have been added
found in A703 rather than in A781. to steel casting specifications in recent years. These tolerances are
The analysis appears again in A352 (Steel Castings, Ferritic and based upon the limitations in the methods of analysis, and vary with
Martensitic, for Pressure Containing Parts, Suitable for Low-Tem- the element of interest and the amount contained. A product analysis
perature Service) as Grade LCA. The requirements are similar to tolerance specifies the amount by which an analysis of a sample
taken from a casting may deviate from the specified composition
those of A216 with the addition of sub-zero impact testing.
range. For example, if the ladle or heat analysis requirement for
Generally any property mentioned in an ASTM specification must
carbon is 0.30% maximum and the tolerance for carbon is 0.01%,
be verified. The preceding example shows how material of the same
then the sample taken from the casting may be 0.31% and still be
composition may have widely differing verification requirements acceptable. A value of 0.32% would be rejectable even if the ladle
depending upon the specification. analysis was 0.29%. The product analysis tolerance does not apply
Compositions are chosen based upon the end use. When the main to the ladle analysis, therefore, a ladle analysis of 0.31% would be
consideration is a special property such as corrosion resistance, heat rejectable in the above example.
resistance or low magnetic permeability, there is usually little lati-
tude in the chemical composition. High percentages of elements
such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, and/or silicon may
be necessary to meet these requirements. Often there are small, Mechanical Properties
controlled percentages of elements such as niobium and nitrogen
added to further enhance the desired properties. The stainless and Steel castings should be purchased to meet service requirements
high alloy steels are typical of this class. rather than to chemical analysis specifications whenever possible.
Many of the national and international specifications are written in
When the main consideration is tensile strength, toughness, wear
terms of tensile properties. Hardness values, impact values, and
resistance, etc. singularly or in combination, there is more latitude hardenability ranges are sometimes added. Specifying the property
in the composition. Each steel foundry normally has a series of low requirements permits the foundry to help in selecting the alloy
alloy steels from which the best grade can be chosen to meet a compositions which will best meet the user's need. Procedures for
particular need. An ASTM specification that allows maximum flexi- tensile, bend, hardness, and impact testing are detailed in ASTM
bility in the choice of composition is A148 (Standard Specification A370 (Table 4-1).
for Steel Castings, High Strength, for Structural Purposes). Maxi-
Mechanical properties of steel castings may be categorized as
mum phosphorus and sulphur contents and minimum tensile prop- follows:
erties are specified. The carbon and alloying elements necessary to
meet the specification requirements are left to the discretion of the
1. Tensile properties. Tensile properties include tensile strength,
foundry. The purchaser may ask the foundry to list the composi- yield strength, elongation, and reduction of area. Tensile strength
tional ranges that will be used and in turn may make this control a is a measure of the ability of a material to resist an applied stress
requirement. By working with the foundry in deciding upon the without fracture. Yield strength is a measure of the ability to resist
composition, the user may gain a cost saving. an applied stress without permanent deformation. The yield point
The aim quantities for the various alloying elements in the high- marks the onset of plastic deformation. For materials which do
alloy ASTM material specifications are based upon experience and not have a clearly defined yield point the offset yield point is
research and development to determine the minimum amounts nec- used, typically an offset strain of 0.2% is specified. Ductility is a
essary to obtain the desired properties. Ranges have been estab- measure of the ability to deform plastically without fracturing; in
lished by considering the sizes of the "windows" needed for the specifications it is expressed as elongation and reduction of area.
melting and chemical analysis procedures in general use. Minimiz- Ductility is inversely related to strength: as strength increases,
ing the amounts of high-cost alloying elements such as nickel and ductility decreases.
molybdenum, and keeping the maximum levels low enough to 2. Bend properties. A bar of some given rectangular dimensions is
ensure that there will not be any degradation of properties from an bent around a pin of some given radius to a given angle without
excessive amount of a given alloying element are important consid- objectionable cracking on the convex surface of the bend.
erations. Maximums for phosphorus, sulfur and other residual (un- Though occasionally required for castings, the bend test is more
intentionally added) elements are set low enough so that they will often applied to welding qualification tests.
minimize the deleterious effects on the performance of the casting, 3. Impact properties or toughness. Impact properties are most often
but not so low as to be impractical to meet with current melting and determined by the amount of energy absorbed during fracture in
material technology. a Charpy V-notch impact test; this involves both ductility and
Ranges for the carbon and low alloy steels have been established strength. Impact strength or resistance to fracture is given in "foot
in much the same way. It has been well-documented that certain pounds" in U.S. specifications and in Joules in metric (kilogram
properties are enhanced by specific alloying elements. Examples are force metres) and ISO specifications.
4. Fatigue properties. Most fatigue testing results are expressed in ranges for the casting. It is important to remember that hardness,
terms of the applied stress versus number of cycles to failure. strength, composition, and heat treatment are interrelated and cannot
Plots of this data are often referred to as "S-N" curves, where S be specified as though they were independent. It is recommended
represents stress and N, the number of cycles of stress to cause that the casting buyer specify the parameters that are most important
failure. The stress level at which failure does not occur regardless and discuss with the foundry the best way to meet these require-
of the number of cycles is known as the endurance limit of the ments.
material. For steel, testing to 10 million cycles is considered One measure of hardenability is DI or the ideal critical diameter.
sufficient to establish that the endurance limit has been reached. This is the diameter of the largest cylinder which, in a perfect
Fatigue tests are sometimes used to qualify casting designs, quench, will harden to 50% martensite at its center (considered
processes, procedures, and materials, but are not used for regular through-hardening). DI values vary with composition and can be
heat-by-heat evaluation. calculated from composition and grain size in accordance with
5. Hardness and Hardenability. Hardness and hardenability should ASTM A255 (Method for End-Quench Test for Hardenability of
not be confused. Hardness is the property usually specified, and Steel). A more detailed description of hardenability and DI is avail-
is a measure of the resistance to indentation during the hardness able in Chapter 24.
test. Hardenability is the property that determines the depth and Hardenability is more often used in selecting materials than as an
distribution of hardness induced by quenching. The importance acceptance criterion. The most common hardenability test is the
of mechanical properties at a depth below the surface of the "Jominy End-Quench" test.
casting of a given design determines the significance which the
engineer must place on hardenability. This can be particularly Physical Properties
important in heavy section designs. Carbon steels are less har-
denable than low alloy steels and should not be used in applica- Among the important physical properties of steel castings are the
tions requiring high hardenability. linear dimensions. Variations occur in the linear dimensions and
weights of parts made by any metal-shaping process. Tolerances are
Hardness is directly proportional to strength and is related to wear the expressions of the expected or acceptable variations. Most speci-
resistance, but it is not necessarily the same thing. Different compo- fications require that the casting drawing call out tolerances. Three-
sitions and heat treatments provide different wear resistances at the dimensional tolerance systems have been developed: (1) SFSA
same hardness level. Casting Tolerances; (2) ISO 8062 "Castings — System of Dimen-
Hardness is usually specified by a Brinell hardness range: either sional Tolerances and Machining Allowances" and (3) Deutsches
an impression diameter in mm or a Brinell hardness number (BHN). Institut fur Normung DIN 1683. Further information on tolerancing
A useful approximation of the tensile strength of heat-treated carbon can be found in Chapter 16.
and low alloy steel may be made by multiplying the BHN x 500. The buyer should consult with the foundry to determine toler-
This relationship is frequently used in specifications by specifying ances which can be achieved on particular features of the design. It
minimum tensile properties for test coupons and Brinell hardness should be recognized that the processes employed at the foundry
Table 4-1 ASTM Testing and Inspection Specifications Applicable to Steel Casting Production
General requirements
A703 Generalrequirementsfor pressure containing parts
A781 Common requirements for general industrial use
Mechanical testing: Methods and definitions
A370 Test methods and definitions for mechanical testing of steel product
E208 Method for conducting drop-weight test to determine nil-ductility transition temperature of ferritic steels
Welding: Qualification of procedures and personnel
A488 Recommended practice for qualification of procedures and personnel for the welding of steel castings
Radiography: Procedure
E94 Standard guide for radiographic testing
E1030 Standard test method for radiographic examination of castings
Radiography: Reference radiographs
El 86 Reference radiographs for heavy-walled (2 to 4-1/2 in. [51 to 114-mm]) steel castings
E192 Reference radiographs of investment steel castings for aerospace applications
E242 Reference radiographs for appearances of radiographic images as certain parameters are changed
E280 Referenceradiographsfor heavy-walled (4-1/2 to 12-in. [114 to 305-mm])
E390 Reference radiographs for steel fusion welds
E446 Referenceradiographsfor steel castings up to 2 in. (51 mm) in thickness
Magnetic particle: Procedure
E709 Practice for magnetic particle examination
Magnetic particle: Reference photographs and acceptance standards
E125 Reference photographs for magnetic particle indications on ferrous castings
A903 Steel castings, surface-acceptance standards, magnetic particle and liquid penetrant inspection
Liquid penetrant: Procedure
E165 Practice for liquid penetrant inspection method
Liquid penetrant: Reference photographs and acceptance standards
E433 Reference photographs for liquid penetrant inspection
A903 Steel castings, surface-acceptance standards, magnetic particle and liquid penetrant inspection
Visual
A802 Standard practice for steel castings, surface acceptance standards, visual examination
Ultrasonic: Procedure and standards
A609 Practice for castings, carbon, low-alloy, and martensitic stainless steel, ultrasonic examination thereof

may have very marked effects on the tolerances which can be invoked by the customer. Visual examination or inspection is re-
achieved. quired by all specifications, while other forms of nondestructive
examination such as magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, radio-
Processes and Procedures graphic, and ultrasonic are usually supplementary requirements.
Webster defines "process" as "a series of actions or operations It is important for the customer to realize that the cost of the
conducing to an end; a continuous operation or treatment especially minimum specification requirements will be included in the base
in manufacture." A "procedure" is defined as "a particular way of casting price, but that there will be extra charges for additional
accomplishing something...; a series of steps followed in a regular requirements whether supplementary or proprietary. Any foundry
definite order." These definitions are not dissimilar. Roget's Thesau- would be glad to indicate what would be automatically furnished for
rus even lists the two words as synonyms for each other. Within the material ordered to a particular specification and what the extra
context of steel-casting manufacture, however, a process is usually charges would be for additional requirements.
understood to be an action or group of related actions. A procedure Whether or not to invoke extra testing and how much is dependent
lists the steps to be used in that process. One might speak of the upon several factors. Extra testing might not be needed if:
molding process, the melting process, the heat-treating process, or
the welding process. The instructions for accomplishing these proc- 1. The part is a trouble-free design with a proven history
esses are contained in procedures or methods which are often unique 2. The design incorporates large safety factors and operates under
to the particular foundry. Since various foundries have variations in predictable conditions
the methods used to achieve the same end results, the insistence of 3. The grade of steel has more than adequate strength and toughness
a casting buyer on the use of pre-set process/procedure specifica- 4. The part is easy to cast (ask the foundry)
tions is to be discouraged. No matter how well versed the customer 5. The application is not critical
is in steel foundry processes, the foundry will have a much better
idea of their capabilities and limitations. Preferably the foundry will Extra testing should probably be specified if:
be allowed to write manufacturing procedures based on the cus-
tomer's requirements, which are compatible with their unique facili- 1. The part is a new, untested design
ties. These procedures may be submitted to the customer for review 2. The design does not incorporate large safety factors
and approval before manufacturing begins. In this way, there will
not be any barriers to the use of the latest innovations in equipment Extra testing should definitely be required when the application is
and techniques available at the foundry. critical, that is, when failure could endanger life or health, or lead to
The processes and procedures most commonly specified by the heavy replacement or production losses. This should override all
customer are those for heat treating and welding. It is easy to other considerations. Parts for power plants, for example, are usu-
understand the concerns of the user, as these processes have the ally proven designs, have large safety factors, and are made of
greatest effects on the metallurgical quality and serviceability of the strong, tough material; but because failure can be so disruptive,
casting, however, both are routine in a steel foundry. The enlight- these parts always undergo further testing. The important criteria of
ened casting user will require that the temperature controlling and casting quality are surface appearance and integrity, soundness of
recording equipment on the heat treatment furnaces be calibrated at sections, and accuracy of dimensions. Most inspection standards are
specified intervals and that the welding procedures and personnel be concerned with these attributes.
qualified. Most ASTM steel casting specifications require these Often the designer is unfamiliar with the foundry process and may
items automatically. Procedures and welders qualified to ASME, specify a quality level higher than the design demands. A more
Section IX (Table 4-1), are automatically qualified to ASTM A488. favorable price and delivery can be obtained by first selecting the
The foundry can be required to submit these procedures and quali- material specification (preferably ASTM) which meets the mechani-
fications for review and approval before manufacturing begins. In cal test property requirements, and whose scope encompasses the
this way, the user will be sure that all of his requirements have been service for which the part is intended. The necessary quality level
incorporated, and the foundry will have acceptable procedures. can then be established by specifying special inspection procedures
Procedures that have been developed in another foundry or in the and dimensional tolerances.
customer's own shop are often included as part of the processing
Table 4-1 lists the more commonly used ASTM testing and exami-
requirements. These may result in increased costs.
nation specifications applicable to steel casting production. Table
4-2 lists documents issued by other organizations that are often
Examination, Inspection, and Test referenced. A limited compilation of ASTM and ISO specifications
Webster defines examination, inspection, and test as follows: may be found in Appendix 2.
Examination: the act of inspecting closely, testing the condition of, Visual examination of the casting surface is the first type of NDE
investigating or inquiring into closely. employed. Typical criteria are surface texture, roughness (smooth-
Inspection: the viewing closely of an object in critical appraisal; ness), and discontinuities.
a checking or testing of an object against established standards. The surface texture of steel castings is more difficult to assess than
Test: a critical examination, observation or evaluation; a trial; a machine surfaces but standards can be established by the use of a
procedure of submitting an object to such conditions or operations visual comparator. The ASTM A802 Al to A4 plates (Figure 4.1)
that will lead to its acceptance or rejection; a basis for evaluation. can be used for this purpose.
In view of these definitions, the terms may be used almost inter- Surface discontinuities are the irregularities, or linear discontinui-
changeably such as a nondestructive examination (NDE),a nonde- ties that may be found on the surface of the casting. Although some
structive inspection (NDI), or a nondestructive test (NDT). In the are of such size that they can be seen unaided, others are either not
following paragraphs, the word most often employed in a particular visible or go unnoticed without special inspection methods such as
context will be used. magnetic particle or liquid penetrant examination. For the examina-
Certain minimum testing and examination requirements are set tions to be meaningful as a basis for purchase, all parties concerned
forth in most standard casting specifications whether ASTM or must use inspection methods that are standard.
others. Chemical analysis is required for essentially all grades, and Most ASTM specifications contain a requirement stating that the
mechanical testing—tensile and/or hardness—for most. A few surface of the casting be examined visually and be free of adhering
specifications require impact or bend testing, while in others these sand, scale, cracks, and hot tears. Visual Method MSS-SP-55 (Table
are supplementary requirements which are not applicable unless 4-2) available from the Manufacturers' Standardization Society of
Table 4-2 Testing and Inspection Specifications

Issued by Other Organizations Which Are
Frequently Referenced for Steel Casting
Production
Organization Specification
ASME Section DC Welding and brazing qualifications
MSS-SP-55 Quality standard for steel castings for valves, flanges
andfittingsand other piping components-visual
method
ASNT SNT-TC-1A Recommended practice for nondestructive testing
personnel qualification and certification
MIL-STD-410 Nondestructive testing personnel qualification and
certification
Fig. 4-1 ASTM A802 A1 to A4 surface texture comparators
the Valve and Fittings Industry has been the most widely used
document in the past to define acceptable surface discontinuities.
This standard consists of a series of photographs which are defined unless special procedures are used, and (5) additional examination
as acceptable and unacceptable. ASTM A802 (Table 4-1) utilizes the is often needed as the size of the visible dye indication may be much
Casting Technology International (formerly SCRATA) graded refer- larger than the actual discontinuity. The equipment for the more
ence comparators for the visual determination of surface texture, elaborate types of liquid penetrant inspection may be quite expen-
surface roughness, and surface discontinuities in several categories. sive (the same may be said for magnetic particle inspection).
The comparison standards are available as plastic replicas of the Neglecting these limitations, both methods of surface inspection
original standards. A802 is more complete than MSS-SP-55, and are very flexible and excellent tools when properly applied.
should be used to establish visual examination criteria. Magnetic particle inspection is normally performed in accordance
Before the highlights of other types of NDE are discussed, men- with ASTM E709 (Table 4-1) which covers the methods for several
tion should be made of inspection personnel qualifications. Interpre- types of inspection including dry and wet, visible and fluorescent.
tation of the indications obtained by the various types and methods The reference photographs of ASTM E125 (Table 4-1) may be used
of NDE is often very subjective. It is highly recommended that the to establish acceptance levels for the various types of discontinui-
personnel from the foundry and the customer who are responsible ties. Because of controversy over the dimensions of typical indica-
for acceptance or rejection of the castings be formally trained, tions in some of these reference photographs and the need to address
tested, and certified in the inspection method of choice. The Ameri- smaller indications than the examples in E125, ASTM has issued
can Society for Nondestructive Testing recommended practice SNT- A903 (Table 4-1). A903 has five levels of acceptance with sizes
TC-1A (Table 4-2) and the similar MIL-STD-410 (Table 4-2) are ranging from 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) for linear
widely accepted vehicles for this type of qualification. indications and 1/8 in. (3.8 mm) to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) for nonlinear
The most frequently specified additional requirement is surface indications. The size and number of relevant indications in a given
examination either by magnetic particle or liquid penetrant inspec- area are the only criteria. Their origin is not addressed.
tion. (Further information on NDE can be found in Chapter 15.) Magnetic particle inspection has probably led to more misunder-
standing than any other inspection tool. It has made possible the
Magnetic Particle Inspection: if the material is ferromag- manufacture of castings for critical applications by greatly assisting
netic (can be magnetized) as are all carbon and low-alloy and many the upgrading effort. When improperly applied, it will increase the
high-alloy steels, magnetic particle inspection is the best choice.
cost of a casting without improving its performance. It is therefore
Some types of magnetic particle equipment can pick up near sub-
essential that the acceptance standards be applied with discretion.
surface as well as surface discontinuities. Cleaning after magnetic
Liquid penetrant inspection is used when magnetic particle in-
particle inspection is usually easier than it is after liquid penetrant
inspection. Inspection at somewhat elevated temperatures is possi- spection cannot be used for surface inspection. Procedures prohibit
ble with the magnetic particle technique. Within reason, the surface shot blasting prior to inspection as it may peen shut defects other-
texture is not so critical as it is for some types of liquid penetrant wise open to the surface and capable of detection. Inspection of
inspection. Disadvantages include the potential for burning the rough cast surfaces is not recommended because of the difficulty in
surface at the contact locations unless precautions are taken. De- removal of the excess penetrant. Special methods such as the use of
magnetization is usually required. Experience is needed to distin- a water-washable penetrant can be employed for these types of
guish magnetic anomalies from actual defects. surfaces. Under normal circumstances, the best results are obtained
on machined, ground, pickled, or very smooth "as cast" surfaces.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection: if the material cannot be Practices for liquid penetrant inspection may be found in ASTM
magnetized such as austenitic stainless steels and austenitic manga- E165 (Table 4-1). ASTM E433 (Table 4-1) contains reference pho-
nese steels, or the casting is in the final-machined condition and the tographs that may be used as an aid in setting acceptance standards,
risk of arc burns cannot be tolerated, liquid penetrant inspection is however, degrees of severity have not been established. The users
in order. The advantages of liquid penetrant inspection, for instance, must specify actual dimensions including maximum length of indi-
the visible-dye, solvent-removable method, include a very low capi- cations and number of indications per unit area. If E433 is to be used,
tal investment, ease of use with little training or experience required, there should be a prior agreement of interpretation and acceptance
no potential for arc burns or need for demagnetization, and very to prevent subsequent misunderstandings. ASTM E125 is frequently
good sensitivity. Disadvantages include: (1) an allowable tempera- used even though it is meant for use with magnetic particle testing.
ture range of only 60-125 °F (16-52 °C) unless special procedures ASTM A903 has been expressly issued for use with either liquid
are used, (2) the ability to detect only indications open to the surface penetrant or magnetic particle inspection. Two things to remember
(shallow indications may not hold penetrant and thus escape detec- are to specify the surface method most suitable for the material
tion), (3) the materials used are messy, cleaning the casting after involved, and to specify magnetic particle or liquid penetrant in-
inspection is more involved, (4) as-cast surfaces are hard to inspect spection, not both.
Volumetric or internal inspection of steel castings is performed austenitic stainless steel castings because of the large, irregular grain
using radiography, ultrasonic testing or both. structure. The smoother the surface finish of the areas to be tested
When radiographic inspection is specified, the recommendations the better the transducer coupling and the better the results to be
and methods outlined in ASTM E1030 (Table 4-1) should be fol- expected. Parallel opposite sides or walls are also easier to test.
lowed to ensure consistent quality of the technique and film. This Testing is performed in accordance with ASTM A609 (Table 4-1).
standard test method has enough latitude that few, if any, deviations There are 7 quality levels in A609. These levels are based on
should be needed for most casting radiography. There is a tendency increasing sizes of indication lengths and areas which are, in turn,
on the part of some casting buyers to forget that radiographic film is based on the continuous loss of or reduction in the back echo during
a means to an end, not the end in itself (which is to ensure the casting examination. The primary disadvantages of ultrasonic testing are
meets the quality level specified). Requiring a greater degree of that a permanent record is not generated unless special techniques
sensitivity than needed, for instance, merely increases the cost are used and the operator must be well-trained and experienced.
without improving the quality of the casting. Ultrasonic inspection and radiography are not directly compara-
As with surface inspection, the acceptance levels for various types ble, however, the ultrasonic technique is invaluable in locating the
of discontinuities must be specified. The three basic groups of depth of an indication in a heavy section. Ultrasonic testing is often
reference radiographs used for steel castings are shown in Table 4-1 used in conjunction with radiography with each technique comple-
as ASTM E446, El 86, and E280 for thicknesses up to 2 in. (51 mm), menting the other. An area in which suspicious indications are found
2 to 4-1/2 in. (51 to 114 mm), and 4-1/2 to 12 in. (114 to 305 mm), with ultrasonics can be radiographed for verification thereby pro-
respectively. Each group is available in a choice of sets based upon ducing a permanent record. Conversely, indications on a radiograph
the source of radiation employed, such as low-voltage X-rays, of a heavy section may be pin-pointed as to depth with ultrasonics
iridium-192, cobalt-60,1 to 2 Mev X-rays or 10 to 24 Mev X-rays. to minimize defect removal and repair costs.
Each of these references contains examples of discontinuities such The severity levels of the reference photographs of ASTM El25
as gas porosity, inclusions, and several types of shrinkage in severity and the reference radiographs of E446, El 86, and E280 are arbitrary.
levels of 1 to 5. Level 1 is the most severe and level 5 the least severe They represent the opinions of the various interested parties who
requirement. helped to write these standards. The casting sections containing the
A special set of reference radiographs for investment castings is reference discontinuities were not available for destructive testing,
available as ASTM E192 (Table 4-1). so the various severity levels were not based on service require-
Reference radiographs of discontinuities common to steel weldments or on the load-carrying ability of the castings. Another point
ing are categorized in ASTM E390, however, finishing welds should to remember is that a given severity level of one type of discontinu-
be inspected to the same standards employed for the original cast- ity is not directly comparable to the same severity level of a different
ing, i.e., E446, El 86, or E280. E390 is applicable to inspection of type of discontinuity with regard to the effect on the serviceability
welds used for cast-weld construction. of the casting. Some research work by SFS A, for example, indicates
Reference radiographs become standards for acceptance and re- that severity level 2 shrinkage would have roughly the same effect
jection only after the purchaser and the producer have agreed, in the as severity level 5 gas porosity. To add to the confusion, a given
purchase order or contract, to the acceptable severity level for each severity level of a given type of discontinuity is not necessarily of
individual type of discontinuity. The choice of discontinuity severity
the same severity in E446, El 86 and E280. This is partially because
levels should ideally be based upon realistic evaluation of design
the committee that prepared the standards was of the opinion that
and stress analysis criteria under anticipated service conditions.
severity levels could be relaxed somewhat as the section size in-
Generally, low severity levels are specified for pressure-containing
creased. These points emphasize how important it is for the user of
castings with high pressure ratings and wall sections of 1 in. (25
a casting to carefully evaluate what severity levels are needed in the
mm) or less. Likewise, low severity levels are specified for machin-
different parts of the casting.
ery or dynamically loaded castings subject to high fatigue and
impact stresses, and with wall sections of less than 1/2 in. (13 mm).
As wall sections increase and as the fatigue and impact stresses are Conflicting Requirements
reduced, severity levels become somewhat relaxed. For structural Conflicting requirements often arise among the various specifica-
castings which are not dynamically loaded, moderate severity levels tions and other documents involved in casting procurement. Follow-
are usually specified; for heavier sections of about 3 in. (76 mm) ing are some of the more common instances:
higher severity levels are usually specified.
To require quality levels in excess of those justified by actual 1. The minimum tensile properties of the material specification and
service conditions adds needlessly to the cost of the casting. It is the hardness range for the casting given on the drawing do not
advisable to avoid requiring a single across-the-board severity level correspond. Sometimes this is justified such as when a 1 in. test
for all types of discontinuities. Some types of discontinuities are bar is used to verify the properties in a heavier-sectioned casting.
more detrimental than others, depending upon the nature of the In such a case, the casting buyer should realize that the subsur-
stresses to which the casting is subjected in service. For instance, face properties in a casting of a given analysis will be different
severity level 2 might be specified for shrinkage, and severity level for different thicknesses when the casting is quenched from
3 for gas porosity, since the latter is generally much less deleterious austenitizing temperatures. Occasionally, however, the unknow-
to tensile properties. It should also be kept in mind that the entire ing buyer requests tensile requirements and hardness ranges so
casting need not necessarily require radiographic inspection and that incompatible that the casting and test material cannot even be
the same severity levels need not apply to all areas of the casting. heat treated together without one being out of specification.
This again is governed by the type of stress and the stress levels in 2. The material specification, the casting drawing, and/or the pur-
the given casting section. Careful analysis or, at least, good judg- chase order have incompatible requirements which might in-
ment can result in sizeable cost savings. In any case, the areas to be volve mechanical properties, chemical analysis ranges, heat
radiographed with the required severity levels should be indicated treatment, NDE methods and acceptance standards, weld repair
on the casting drawing. procedures, dimensional tolerances, or just about any other at-
Ultrasonic testing is frequently used on heavy-section castings tribute that can be specified.
where the time involved for radiography would be prohibitive. It 3. The drawing revision number referenced in the inquiry is not the
works best on heat-treated carbon, low alloy and high alloy castings same as that referenced in the purchase order. A variation on this
with relatively fine, uniform grain sizes. It is normally unsuitable for theme is supplying a drawing or other document with one revi-
sion number while specifying a different revision number in the 1. Management responsibility
purchase order. 2. Quality system
4. The inquiry and the purchase order have different NDE or other 3. Contract review
processing requirements. 4. Document control
5. Acceptance standards are not clearly defined. While not exactly 5. Purchasing
a conflicting requirement, there may be a real conflict if all 6. Purchaser supplied product
parties concerned are not in agreement on acceptance standards 7. Product identification and traceability
before manufacturing begins. 8. Process control
6. A third-party inspector invokes requirements differing from 9. Inspection and testing
those furnished to the foundry by the casting buyer. 10. Inspection, measuring, and test equipment
11. Inspection and test status
Such instances will rarely arise if all concerned parties are as 12. Control of nonconforming product
careful as possible at all stages including: (1) assembling of the 13. Corrective action
documents to be sent with the inquiry, (2) reviewing the inquiry and 14. Handling, storage, packaging, and delivery
obtaining written clarification if some items are unclear, (3) docu- 15. Quality records
menting any necessary deviations in the original requirements after 16. Internal quality audits
review of the inquiry, (4) issuing the purchase order. 17. Training
As has been repeatedly stressed in this chapter, the use of estab- 18. Statistical techniques
lished, industry-wide specifications, such as those issued by ASTM,
will simplify the quoting process. A quality assurance system based upon these 18 points will
When there is an unavoidable conflict in requirements among the probably satisfy the major requirements of any agency, organiza-
various documents, the usual order of precedence is (1) the sales tion, or customer. Among other things, the ISO 9000 model empha-
order contract, (2) the purchase order, (3) the casting drawing, (4) sizes at all levels: training, defined responsibilities for everything
the material specification. The order of precedence should be noted that relates to product quality, detailed processing procedures in
on the procurement documents in such cases. each operating department, detailed flow sheets or processing in-
structions for each part, and corrective action. The extensive use of
statistical techniques is encouraged for process analysis and control.
Codes and Standards Major goals are to prevent nonconformity through personnel train-
ing, process optimization, and detailed procedures. If a quality
problem occurs at any step in the manufacturing process or after
General shipment to the customer, the system is designed to find the cause
To paraphrase the definitions given at the beginning of this chap- and initiate corrective action in a timely manner.
ter, a specification is a standard, but a standard is not always a The establishment and maintenance of such a quality system is not
specification. A standard may also be a test method, definition, quick or cheap. Depending upon the amount of documentation and
recommended practice, or reference; technically the term "standard" training needed, it can take 1 to 2 years and tens to hundreds of
has a broader meaning than "specification", however, in practice the thousands of dollars. The casting user should keep matters in per-
terms are almost synonymous. The most widely-used stand- spective. If their products are not in the category where a failure
ards/specifications involving steel castings are those issued by the could cause loss of life or bodily harm to individuals, or significant
ASTM. costs in downtime or equipment, and their customers do not demand
A code incorporates standards and specifications and much more a detailed, formal quality assurance system, then they should not
as it includes a complete set of rules for manufacturing an item from require such a program from their suppliers including foundries.
A to Z. Probably the most familiar code is the ASME Boiler and A steel foundry may voluntarily choose to become "self-certified"
Pressure Vessel Code. in accordance with some set of rules issued by an organization that
The next part of this chapter will discuss how certification, testing, is involved in the area of interest. An example of this is the qualifi-
examination, methods, practices, procedures, facilities, SPC, and cation and certification of welding procedures and welders in ac-
documentation relate to codes and standards. cordance with ASTM A488 or the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section DC Another example is the training, testing, and
Certification certification of NDE personnel in accordance with a program based
on the recommended practices in SNT-TC-1 A. These types of self-
Certification requirements for a manufacturing facility may in-
certification are recommended in that they are formal, well-organ-
volve a number of items including any or all of the following:
ized, widely-recognized programs which are accepted and often
systems, processes, personnel, equipment, and facilities. Some ex-
required by steel casting users.
amples are: a quality system, a welding process, NDE personnel, a
heat-treating furnace and instrumentation, a specific manufacturing A second type of certification, usually more formal and involved
facility or plant. than self-certification, is by a client (customer) or by the client's
As a general rule, buyers and/or users of high-integrity steel client. This can range from mere documentation of the capabilities
castings require their suppliers to have a quality system in place of the key personnel and submittal of the processing procedures that
which is normally described in a quality assurance manual. Among directly relate to the quality of the parts supplied to the client up to
the better-known agencies and organizations which publish detailed and including requirements for a formal, inclusive quality system
quality assurance system requirements are ASME, Department of such as that defined by ISO 9000 or equivalent.
Defense, and ISO which published the ISO 9000 series in 1987. The The third and usually most formal type of certification is by an
section of ISO 9000 which is applicable to most foundries is ISO agency of the federal, state, or even a foreign government or by (or
9002, "Quality systems—Model for quality assurance in production under the auspices of) an organization such as the ASME or ISO. To
and installation". If a foundry is designing parts then it will need to become certified, a formal quality system and very detailed docu-
meet the requirements of ISO 9001. The areas requiring coverage in mentation of every person, process, and procedure relating to the
a system conforming to the requirements of any of these organiza- quality of the part are required. As stated previously, it is important
tions are essentially the same. Those from ISO 9002 are shown for the casting buyer to carefully review their requirements and
below. those of their customers to establish the degree of formality and
documentation needed in the quality programs of their suppliers. Facilities

This point will be stressed in the following paragraphs.
When a code mentions a facility in the context of a steel foundry,
it is referring to a specific manufacturing site. A corporation with
Testing several steel foundries would not receive a blanket quality assurance
Testing, as used in this section, refers to items such as chemical system approval from an organization such as ASME or from a
analysis, mechanical testing, pressure testing, and fatigue testing. customer. The systems, procedures, and personnel of each separate
The latter two are normally performed by the customer. The impor- facility would be audited and receive a separate approval.
tance of the chemical analysis and mechanical testing results was
discussed in some detail in the sections on specifications, however SPC
the personnel, procedures, and equipment needed to obtain these SPC (statistical process control) and SQA (statistical quality as-
results are equally important. Written procedures, whether formal or surance) are being used extensively in modern manufacturing.
informal, and an equipment calibration program are needed under When properly applied, SPC is of immense value in detecting
any quality system to ensure that the results of the tests are reliable. quality problems in a manufacturing operation at a stage early
Training may be on-the-job and/or classroom, but must be complete enough that timely corrections can be made. Statistical analysis can
enough for the operators to perform the tests and evaluate the results be used to interrelate the variables in the different manufacturing
when required. areas to determine their effect on quality. As with any manufacturing
Sometimes end users or third-party inspectors require that the tool, SPC should be well understood by its users and carefully
castings be held at certain stages until the testing can be witnessed. planned if the maximum benefits are to be gained.
This may be necessary for critical-service castings, but it will
lengthen lead times and sometimes increase the cost. A less expen- Documentation
sive alternative would be for the outside inspector to review and
approve the test procedures and perhaps witness the testing of the Documentation of the processes, procedures, calibrations, certifi-
first heat to verify that the procedures are followed. Another prob- cations, test results, and examination results as required by the
lem with mandatory hold points and witness points is that an purchase order is the final step before shipping the casting.
allowance must be made for the inevitable delays in scheduling When critical service castings are manufactured, the documenta-
visits by the outside inspector. tion system must ensure absolute traceability of each casting. A
commonly-used method of traceability is to identify the casting by
Under the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, a casting user
the customer, the purchase order number, the part number, the heat
who has been audited by ASME and awarded a quality systems
or lot number, and a unique serial number. This information appears
certificate is allowed to audit and approve the quality systems of
on every piece of documentation that is sent to the customer with the
their sub-vendors. Unfortunately, some end users will still require
casting including test results, certifications, and anything else re-
third-party inspection at the sub-vendor's facility.
quired by the purchase order. Keep in mind that the chemical
analysis and tensile properties are furnished automatically for steel
Examinations castings furnished to most ASTM specifications. There will prob-
Examinations normally performed at a steel foundry include vis- ably be additional charges for anything beyond these basics. Unnec-
ual inspection and other types of NDE. Dimensional layouts may essary tests, examinations, and documentation will almost always
increase costs without making the casting any more useable.
also be classified as examinations. The observations listed under
'Testing" about personnel, procedures, equipment, and witness
points hold true for examinations.
Selection of Specifications
Test Methods and Practices
Application
Certain foundry and client proprietary standards might be called
test methods or practices, however, these terms are usually applied The selection of specifications for steel castings begins with
to formal standards such as those issued by ASTM. defining the service requirements of the casting. If the casting is to
ASTM defines a practice as "a definitive procedure for perform- be manufactured under a code such as the ASME Boiler and Pres-
ing one or more specific operations or functions that does not sure Vessel Code, the design rules and other requirements including
produce a test result." A test method is defined as "a definitive items such as safety factors, quality system details, approved mate-
procedure for the identification, measurement and evaluation of one rials, required tests and examinations, and weld-repair limitations
or more qualities, characteristics, or properties of a material, prod- will be detailed. If the manufacturing process to be used for the
uct, system, or service that produces a test result." In other words, a casting is not governed by a code or similar rules, a different
test method produces a test result, and a practice does not. Examples approach is needed regarding specifications.
of each appear in Table 4-1. It is highly advisable that the component be designed as a casting
If ASTM has issued a test method or practice that meets the rather than trying to use an existing forging or fabrication design.
requirements of the casting buyer, it is preferable to specify it rather This means that the design engineer should be aware of the advan-
than using a proprietary standard. tages and limitations of the steel casting process. By doing so it is
possible to take full advantage of the benefits of steel castings.
After reviewing the service conditions to which the component
Procedures will be subjected, the designer can choose an ASTM or other
Most codes require that certain procedures be approved by the material specification containing the grade of cast steel that will
client before manufacturing begins. Usually included are proce- meet those requirements. ASTM specifications for steel castings are
dures for welding, heat treatment, NDE, and those which detail how located in the Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 01.02,
the applicable requirements in the quality assurance system are Ferrous Castings; Ferroalloys. More than twenty material specifica-
implemented on the shop floor. Guides for qualifying several types tions dealing with steel castings are grouped in the table of contents
of procedures such as welding and NDE may be found in some of under such headings as: "Alloy Steel Castings"; "General Applica-
the ASTM standard practices and test methods. Unusual procedural tions, Structural Purposes"; "High Temperature/Pressure Service";
requirements should be avoided when possible as they will raise the and "Low-Temperature Service". The titles of the individual speci-
costs and lengthen the delivery times. fications give the general type and intended use of the grades
contained therein. Each specification begins with a scope that goes Testing, Inspection, and Quality Assurance
into more detail about the grades it covers and their uses. Practices Cost
and test methods such as those listed in Table 4-1 have the same
format. Standards pertaining to NDE may be found in Volume The principal costs in this area are incurred when the castings are
03.03, Nondestructive Testing. processed through the shop. Testing, inspection, and documentation
It is worth repeating that most steel foundries welcome the oppor- to ensure exceptional quality levels requires the careful efforts of the
tunity to help a customer with casting design, specifications, and quality control staff. Copies of the documentation must be supplied
processes. to the customer on or before the time of shipment. Other copies must
be maintained on file at the foundry in a manner that provides for
limited access, easy recovery, and protection from deterioration.
Cost of Specifications Coincident with any extra testing and inspection is the cost of
upgrading by skilled operators, followed by further inspection and
additional production time. Narrow ranges of acceptability are usu-
The cost of specifications arises in two entirely different ways.
ally congruent with high quality levels, and a higher percentage of
The first is the cost of overspecifying which invariably wastes time
rejected and reworked castings is probable.
and money and seldom adds anything of value to the product.
Levels of quality which are higher than demanded by the service
Examples of overspecifying include:
are excessively cosdy, and do not add to the serviceability of the
casting. Necessary quality requirements should not be compromised
1. Requiring a more highly alloyed steel than necessary
in order to obtain a low price, but it must be recognized that the more
2. Specifying unneeded or redundant tests or examinations requirements specified to attain higher levels of quality, the more
3. Specifying unnecessarily stringent NDE acceptance standards costly will be the product.
The second cost of specifications is the actual cost of the specifi-
cations, codes, standards, and other documents that must be main-
Qualification of Facilities and Personnel
tained at the foundry. The production of high quality castings requires skilled and quali-
Steel castings are specially designed and manufactured parts, fied personnel working in a facility with proper equipment. The
therefore, the cost of castings will depend upon the complexity of qualification of both facility and personnel is ensuring that the
the design of the part and upon the purchaser's requirements. The producer has the capability of supplying castings to the specified
cost of one casting cannot necessarily be compared to the cost of requirements.
another casting, although similar in weight, and design, because Inspection personnel are often required to be certified as a Level
differences in quality requirements may exist. Two castings which 1, 2, or 3 inspector in accordance with the American Society for
may look alike may have different costs because the service require- Nondestructive Testing's Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. Radiographic
ments of the two are entirely different. This dictates that the quality facilities must be certified and licensed by city, state, and/or federal
and tolerance requirements of one may be of a distinctly different agencies. Welders and welding procedures must be qualified to
ASTM A488 or to ASME Section K . Quality assurance programs
order than those of the other.
may be approved annually by customer audit. The maintenance of
Steel casting costs reflect variations resulting from differences in any quality assurance program requires approval and certification of
material specifications, tolerance limits, inspection requirements, equipment such as tensile testing machines, impact testing ma-
acceptance standards, affidavits, and certification requirements. The chines, magnetic particle inspection equipment, heat-treating fur-
casting cost may escalate to several times its basic manufacturing naces and temperature controllers, calibration standards, and numer-
cost depending on the complexity of the requirements. The pur- ous other items to prove conformance to the specification.
chaser should always rely on value analysis in the specifying and
buying of steel castings.
Specified Range vs. Process Capability
A wide range in estimated casting costs from several foundry
bidders often reflects that the purchaser was not specific as to the The determination of an economical specification range, whether
properties and requirements desired. Specifying the minimum qual- it be for chemical analysis, mechanical properties, hardness, dimen-
ity requirements is necessary if castings at a minimum cost are sional tolerances, or any other attribute, requires careful study, much
desired. statistical information, and common sense. The preparation of a
specification is an exacting undertaking in which buyers and pro-
ducers should collaborate. Specification control can be obtained
Document Maintenance only when the normal expected value and the deviation are known.
A cost area often overlooked is that of maintaining the most The proper creation of a specification is much more time consum-
current editions of specifications and reference standards. To pro- ing than is often supposed. Averaging the results of a few tensile
duce valves, fittings, or other pressure castings, a foundry would tests, or thumbing through the pages of handbooks and selecting
have to have, as a bare minimum, ASTM Reference Radiographs average values and adopting them as specification limits is never
satisfactory. When the distribution curve is normal, half the results
El 86, E280, and E446, in addition to the ASME Boiler and Pressure
are higher than the average and half the results are lower. If the
Vessel Code and related ASME and ANSI standards. The foundry
average value is taken as the specification limit, half the results will
would also have to have documents such as the ASTM Standards,
be immediately rejected. Specification limits are never based on
the American Petroleum Institute Standards, and any applicable ISO averages.
Standards. To purchase these standards and keep them up to date is
A specification range should be as narrow as necessary and
expensive, however all are considered necessary to properly process practicable; however, if it is too small, rejections become excessive.
an order for parts for the construction of steam power plants, refin- A balance, therefore, must be maintained between the value of
eries, and chemical plants. establishing a narrow specification range and the cost increase
There is also the necessity of maintaining up-to-date files of resulting from the more exacting quality control required in holding
specifications for the military and for other customers, some of the process to the rather narrow limits. On the other hand, if the
which have dozens of separate specifications. As a result, a foundry range is too wide, additional processing costs in other areas may be
doing extensive work of this nature must have a large quality incurred. For instance, if the chemical ranges for a low alloy,
assurance department. heat-treatable steel are too wide, the hardenabilities of the castings
from different heats of that grade of steel might have a wide vari- components are heavily influenced by ASME requirements. The
ation which will result in excessive heat-treating costs when heat same holds true for those dealing with welding and NDT.
treating to a narrow hardness range.
It is probably much more economical and advantageous in the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
long run for purchasers, producers, and engineering groups to dis- SAE issues specifications for steel castings which will be used in
card propietary specifications and replace them with specifications trucks, automobiles, etc. The most commonly used is J-435, "Auto-
prepared by nationally and internationally known specification writ- motive Steel Castings." Except for limits for phosphorus and sulfur
ing bodies. and for carbon in some grades, normally only a hardness range and
In the ASTM specifications, there will probably be found a closer minimum tensile properties are specified. The requirements are
balance between process capabilities and purchasing requirements essentially the same as ASTM A27, "Specification for Steel Cast-
than in any other group of specifications. ings, Carbon, for General Application," and A148, "Specification
for Steel Castings, High Strength, for Structural Purposes." Within
reasonable limits, the foundry is at liberty to chose the best alloy for
Recommended Further Reading: their particular shop.
1. "The Specifications Maze," CASTEEL Summer/1982, Steel
Founders' Society of America
American Association of Railroads (AAR)
2. "Ferrous Castings; Ferroalloys," Vol 01.02,7997 Annual Book of AAR issues specifications for steel castings that will be used in
ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and Materials railroad cars and locomotives. The most commonly used is M 201,
3. "Nondestructive Testing," Vol 03.03, 7997 Annual Book of "Steel Castings," which covers six different tensile grades of carbon
ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and Materials. and low alloy steels. Limits for phosphorus and sulfur are given for
4. ISO 4990-1986 (E), "Steel castings-General technical delivery all grades; and limits for carbon and manganese are given for some.
requirements," International Organization for Standardization Otherwise, the choice of the alloying elements needed to meet the
5. ISO 9002-1987-03-15, "Quality systems-Model for quality as- mechanical properties is left up to the foundry.
surance in production and installation," International Organiza-
tion for Standardization American Institute of Iron and Steel (AISI)
A new ASTM specification A915 has been developed which
specifies cast equivalents of the common AISI grades. This should
Appendix 1: be of great value to the foundry and purchaser as much of the
confusion associated with cast equivalents of these materials will be
eliminated. Stainless steel castings should never be ordered to an
Major Specification-writing AISI rather than to a cast designation unless the producer and user
Organizations are very knowledgeable of the differences in the analysis ranges.
The balance of chromium-equivalent elements and nickel-equiva-
Most of the specifications, standards, and codes used in the lent elements is not the same because of the differences in the way
production of steel castings are issued by the ASTM, ASME, SAE, the wrought and cast materials are made and processed.
AAR, AISI, Military, and ISO.
Military and Other Government
American Society for Testing and Materials There are dozens, if not hundreds or thousands, of governmental
(ASTM) specifications that deal with steel castings. There are specifications
dealing with just about everything that their civilian counterparts
ASTM issues standard specifications, methods, recommended deal with plus a few extra such as those for ordnance, aircraft and
practices, guidelines, and similar items. Those dealing with steel naval applications. Fortunately, most government agencies are get-
castings originate in Subcommittee 18 of Committee A-l. This ting away from the practice of writing specifications and into the
subcommittee is made up of approximately equal numbers of users practice of using those of ASTM or other widely known and ac-
and producers; the number of user voting representatives must be cepted organizations.
equal to or greater than the number of producer voting repre-
sentatives. Each active specification has a producer and a user International Organization for
sponsor who are members of the subcommittee.
Standardization (ISO)
Requests for specification revisions may be proposed by any
interested party whether or not they are a member of ASTM. The The ISO functions in a manner similar to the ASTM. The format
proposed revision is prepared by the sponsors and voted on by the of their material specifications is somewhat different as shown in
subcommittee. If the revision passes, it goes to the main committee Appendix 2. There are some 7778 specifications overseen by 653
ballot and ultimately to the general membership ballot. Requests for subcommittees which are under 172 technical committees. The
new specifications are handled in the same manner. All specifica- secretariats of the technical committees are held by 33 different
tions are reviewed at 5-year intervals to determine if they should be countries. The technical committee for steel, TC 17, oversees about
left as is, revised, or removed. Other ASTM committees which 100 specifications, one of which is described in Appendix 2.
oversee standards related to steel casting production, such as those
for NDT and chemical analysis, function in a similar manner.
Appendix 2:
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) ASTM vs ISO
ASME is best known for the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and
similar documents. With regard to steel castings, ASME material The purchaser of steel castings made in the United States and
and nondestructive testing specifications are almost identical to their Canada will probably order to specifications prepared by ASTM
ASTM counterparts. Often there are limitations or additional re- (American Society for Testing and Materials). The purchaser of steel
quirements in the ASME specifications. The ASTM specifications castings made in other areas of the world will probably order to the
which deal with pressure-containing castings for pump and valve national standards of the country of manufacture or, especially if the
country is in Europe, to specifications developed by CEN which are all individual product specifications which reference A781 require
generally developed from the standards prepared by ISO (Interna- tensile testing.
tional Organization for Standardization). ASTM and ISO specifica- ISO 4990 is very similar to A703 and A781 in most respects,
tions are similar in many respects, however, they diverge in verifi- except that it provides for several levels of inspection, testing, and
cation of composition and characteristics. documentation. The following summary has been excerpted from
Most of the ASTM standard specifications for steel castings list Paragraph 3 and Table 1 of ISO 4990.
compositional and mechanical requirements that must be verified
through tests performed on material poured in the same heat and
heat treated in the same manner as the castings it represents. This is Level
automatic. In contrast, this level of verification may have to be
specifically called out when ordering to an ISO specification. 1. Non-specific inspection and testing: Inspection and testing car-
Some of the differences between ISO and ASTM will be high- ried out by the manufacturer in accordance with his own proce-
lighted by comparing the following documents: dures, on test blocks or castings made by the same manufacturing
process, but not necessarily on the test blocks or castings actually
1. ASTM A703/A703M-90: Standard Specification for Steel Cast- supplied. May not require a document, a statement of compli-
ings, General Requirements, for Pressure-Containing Parts ance, or a test report.
2. ASTM A781/A781M-90a: Standard Specification for Castings, 2. Specific inspection and testing carried out by the qualified de-
Steel and Alloy, Common Requirements, for General Industrial partment of the manufacturer's factory: Inspection and testing
Use carried out on the test lot to be supplied, in order to verify
3. ISO 4990-1986 (E): Steel castings-General technical delivery whether these products comply with the requirements of the
requirements order. Requires inspection certificate signed by the representative
of the qualified department of the works.
Under ASTM, the compositional and mechanical property re- 3. Specific inspection and testing carried out in the presence of the
quirements for particular grades of steel are contained in an individ- purchaser or of a body named by him: Requires an inspection
ual product specification. The product specification directs the user certificate signed by the purchaser or the representative of the
to A703 or A781 as applicable for the balance of the requirements. body named by him, or an inspection report signed by the
Paragraph 5.1 of A703, Heat Analysis, states that "An analysis of manufacturer and the purchaser or his representative.
each heat shall be made by the manufacturer to determine the 4. Specific inspection and testing carried out by an independent
percentages of the elements specified....The chemical composition body, the tests being carried out outside the production works:
thus determined shall be reported to the purchaser or his repre- Requires an inspection certificate signed by the independent
sentative, and shall conform to the requirements in the individual body.
specification for the grade being poured." Paragraphs 7.1 and 7.2 5. Continuous inspection: Documentation is by agreement between
state that "One tension test shall be made from each heat, and shall the interested parties.
conform to the tensile requirements specified. Test bars shall be
poured in special blocks from the same heat as the castings repre- As this comparison shows, it is important that the steel casting
sented. The bar from which the test specimen is taken shall be heat buyer be familiar enough with the specifications to know what
treated in production furnaces to the same procedure as the castings minimum level of verification will be furnished. Anything beyond
it represents." The requirements of A781 are similar except that not this minimum level requires special instructions.

CHAPTER 5
Purchasing Policy
Page
Purchasing Policy 5-2
Inquiry 5-2
Quotation Procedure 5-2
Selection of Casting Supplier 5-2
Specifications 5-2
Patterns 5-3
Order Placement 5-3

5. Delivery. Present and anticipated casting needs should be in-

Purchasing Policy cluded in inquiries together with required delivery schedules.
The responsibility for buying steel castings lies primarily with the
Beyond these basics, there are levels of buyer requirements that
purchasing department. However, contributions towards the evalu-
could include vendor liabilities which affect the casting cost drasti-
ation, selection, and monitoring of vendors are being made more
cally. These could include receiving inspection acceptance and
frequently by various departments. These may include product de-
back-charge policy, casting return policy, expediting procedures,
sign, manufacturing, quality control, inspection, and general man-
and sophisticated controls not normally associated with the standard
agement. This trend towards broad input clearly indicates the need
inquiry. A complete understanding of these areas is best developed
for an established purchasing policy that defines the responsibilities
of the people involved and the extent of their authority. The objec- by an open relationship between the buyer and the casting repre-
tives of the steel casting buyer still remain: acceptable costs, quality, sentative, and the professional attitudes and experiences that both
reliability, and delivery, and can be readily attained when all forces can provide during the quotation evaluation phase.
of an effective program are put into action.
A steel casting is specifically designed and manufactured to per-
form a given function under predetermined operating conditions. To Selection of Casting Supplier
obtain optimum value from the steel casting requires total coopera-
tive effort on the part of the buyer and of the seller from the early The information provided in the casting quotations is very useful
stages of the conception of design through the manufacturing proc- to the buyer in making a purchasing decision; however, the overall
ess. Because of the varied requirements of a "one of a kind" market, capability of the foundry should also be a major factor in that
the steel casting industry has staffed itself with qualified personnel decision.
to provide the casting user with expertise in the selection of specifi- Every service a steel casting buyer may need is available in the
cations, casting design, foundry techniques, and finishing processes. steel foundry marketplace. The Steel Founders' Society of America
All of these functions are significant to the casting user interested in publishes a directory of its membership and a detailed listing of steel
attaining the established objectives. foundries in the United States, Canada, and Mexico providing the
buyer with pertinent information relative to plant personnel, capaci-
ties, special services, types of steel produced, and relative size of
Inquiry castings. With this document as a starting point, an initial list of
potentially acceptable suppliers can be established.
The more information the casting supplier has on an inquiry, the In order to have a more detailed record of capabilities for a
greater the probability they will provide an accurate quote in a potential casting supplier, it is often necessary to request completion
timely manner. The following is an outline of information most of a questionnaire. The following is an example of a comprehensive
useful to the casting supplier (Figure 1). questionnaire which can be modified to the buyer's needs (Figure
Both casting and machining drawings, including location of da- 2).
tum points, should preferably be supplied at the time of the inquiry. Every buyer may have different priorities relative to the impor-
tance of a foundry's expertise and/or special capabilities. For this
reason, once the questionnaire has been evaluated, it is often neces-
sary to set up an audit of potential suppliers to verify and further
Quotation Procedure evaluate their capabilities.
The purpose of an inquiry for a steel casting is basically to
determine the lowest purchased casting cost. The buyer then must
weigh all the provisions of the quotation including exceptions taken
Specifications
to drawings, specifications, and processing requirements, as well as
Industry approved specifications as discussed in Chapter 4,
vendor experience, tooling requirements, tolerances, finish allow-
"Specifying Steel Castings," provide the casting buyer with the tools
ances, and delivery. Such factors as reduced machining, better
necessary to establish criteria for almost any casting application.
tolerances, and reliability are particularly important to determine the
However, these specifications do not preclude special requirements
lowest "final" or "end cost" of the casting. The one truism is that the
that the buyer's technical staff members may require. Variations
casting "final cost" is the basis by which the casting supplier will be
from standard specifications should be carefully selected to avoid
judged.
misunderstandings, higher costs, and disqualification of potential
To avoid misunderstandings, reduce costs, and expedite the proc-
vendors. If exception is taken to a provision in the main body of a
essing of quotations, the following information should be clearly
specification (as opposed to taking exception to a supplemental
presented in an inquiry:
requirement of a specification), the resulting casting cannot be said
to comply with that specification.
1. Material and inspection requirements. ASTM or other nation-
ally recognized specifications should be used whenever possible There can be no doubt that special applications exist. Proprietary
to identify the material and inspection requirements (see Chapter specifications developed over the years by field service experience
4). will dictate the selective need for these nonstandard specifications.
2. Casting weight. Actual weight information is preferred. Esti- Historically, it is found that these special situations are isolated
mates should be provided in the absence of actual weight infor- cases. A review of operating conditions almost invariably indicates
mation. that one of the updated standard specifications, or one of the newly
3. Drawing. Machine drawings are preferred over casting draw- developed and industry-approved specifications, will provide the
ings. Target points should be included in the drawing (see Chap- same qualities required by the proprietary specifications.
ter 9). Drawings are required regardless of the existence of The increasing awareness of product liability and the trend to a
patterns. protective posture can generate different but equally burdensome
4. Pattern. If patterns and core boxes are available, the request for and costly supplemental specifications. Non-destructive examina-
a quotation should indicate the type and condition of the equip- tion techniques and special testing, in addition to those required by
ment (see Chapter 12). standard material specifications, are often used to guarantee the
Date
Inquiry Form
Company Phone
Address Fax
City, State, Zip
Individual Title
Pattern No. Part No.
Release Quantity Est. Annual Usage
First Article Req. Yes / No
Delivery Required of First Article Qty. .

Delivery Required of Production Qty.
Estimated Wt. Actual Weight
Quote Quantity Breaks
Quote New Pattern/Tooling Yes / No
Pattern/Tooling Supplied Yes / No
Description
Quote Machining Yes / No
Material
Specifications
Other Requirements (which may include: special qualification tests, critical surfaces and plating - location, type, thickness and surface
preparation. Protection for shipment, export packaging, routing, schedule requirement and Q.A. documentation.)
Fig. 5-1 Inquiry form
successful application for the service intended. Overspecifying, cost and casting quality evolve from the more sophisticated pattern
however, adds costs and may create delays. equipment, but, unfortunately, the highest initial pattern cost is also
A properly designed and effective sampling program can be apart generated.
of the customer's purchase specification. Such sampling plans can Optimum casting costs depend on successful adaptation of pattern
be valuable tools to reduce the need for costly supplemental speci- equipment to the steel foundry's manufacturing facilities and exper-
fications. A consistent level of soundness and quality can be fully tise. Disregard of this principle can only result in eventual dissatis-
realized only when surface and sub-surface examination techniques faction of the buyer or the vendor. The process of evaluating a
are specified for the sampling program. Further refinements in the quotation should therefore always include in-depth discussions of
sampling process, particularly for high production castings, often the pattern equipment to be used and its total effect on final cost of
dictate pre-production runs to verify compatibility with sophisti- the castings.
cated machining techniques. Once the decision to buy is made and the vendor selected, a record
The foundries should be consulted with respect to process con- of pattern history should be developed. The record should be com-
trols and documentation which may be available. prehensive and include a description and complete chronology of its
cost, amortization program, life expectancy, engineering changes,
related drawing numbers, associated fixtures, and usage figures.
Patterns
Details relative to the varied types of patterns that are available Order Placement
and the advantages of each are found in Chapter 12, "Patterns for
Steel Castings." Pattern equipment design and the resultant costs Once the buyer is satisfied with the capabilities of the foundry and
can constitute a major source of misunderstanding between buyer the information included in the quotation, a purchase order can be
and vendor. The need to construct new pattern equipment when placed.
existing equipment is available, a requirement for a full split core- Information included on the purchase should be based on the
box in place of a half corebox, pattern material, and mounted or inquiry and the resulting quotation. If requirements change since the
loose patterns are but a few of the many areas of discussion that quotation or from the last time the casting was ordered, it is very
affect the total cost of the equipment. Invariably, the best casting important to highlight these changes as they may affect price or how
Date
Questionnaire
Name of Company. Name of Parent Company _
Address Address
Telephone Telephone .
Fax Fax
Number of Employees. Number of Employees
Duns Number Duns Number
Types of Metals Poured
Melting/Refining: ( ) Electric arc, ( ) Induction, ( ) AOD, ( ) Ladle metallurgy
Chemical Analysis Q.A.
Casting Process
Heat Treating
Pattern Making Facilities.
Welding Capabilities . Qualifications.
Machining Facilities
% Capacity for Own Use .
Preferred Quantities . Minimum Production Quantity
Weight Range
Specialty Castings
Quality Approvals
Industries Served/%.
NDT Capabilities _
Process Control/TQM/ISO 9000, etc.
Future Plans
Completed by: Name. Title
Fig. 5-2 Questionnaire
the part is produced. Any items not covered on the inquiry or 4. Quantity required
quotation, such as special packaging or method of shipment, are 5. Material specification
important and should also be a part of the purchase order. 6. Q.A. requirement and documentation
Verbal purchase orders are handy but the increased chance for 7. Casting price
error usually outweighs their convenience. The near universal use of 8. Delivery requirements
facsimile machines makes sending confirming orders a clear prefer- 9. Shipping instructions
ence. 10. Terms of payment
For purchase commitments to be fulfilled according to schedule,
all relative information previously developed in the preliminary If sample castings are required, the following additional require-
phases must be detailed in the purchase order. The basic elements of ments should be provided:
the order that should be clearly defined are:
1. Number of samples required
1. Purchase order number and date 2. Non-destructive examination requirements, if any, and applica-
2. Pattern number and/or part number ble specifications with acceptance standards
3. Pattern and machine drawing numbers with current revision nota- 3. Dimensional examination requirements, if any
tion 4. In-process inspection, if required
5. Final machining approval, if required If the castings are to be supplied to special process specifications,
6. Special tests, if required any or all of the following additional requirements should be re-
quested:
If patterns are to be constructed by the foundry, the following
additional information should be provided: 1. Chemistry certification
2. Mechanical test certification
1. Pattern price 3. Brinell hardness ranges and test location
2. Description of pattern to be supplied 4. Impact test, type, and results required
3. Pattern delivery 5. Ultrasonic examination, including coverage requirements, specifi-
cation, and quality levels
If the patterns are to be supplied by the buyer, the following 6. Magnetic particle or dye penetrant testing, including coverage
additional information should be provided: requirements, specification, and quality level
7. Radiographic examination, including coverage requirements, ap-
1. Pattern mounting and rigging price proved shooting sketch, specification, and quality level(s)
2. Description of pattern services 8. Special tests, including description, specification, and acceptance
3. Pattern accuracy liability criteria
9. Special surface requirements
If the buyer accepts full dimensional responsibility for the casting, 10. Special packaging
no further action is required. If the buyer expects the foundry to 11. Preferences regarding the method of shipping
accept responsibility for full dimensional accuracy including finish
allowance, he must expect to accept the cost of a pattern layout to It is extremely important that initial orders be complete and
prevent possible error, or accept a potentially rejectable casting and accurate, and that the buyer specify either procedure or results but
the cost to correct the pattern. not both which may result in conflicting requirements. It is also
preferable that initial verbal orders be avoided due to their propen-
4. Pattern delivery sity for generating errors through omission.

Chapter 6
Functional Considerations of Design
Page
General Considerations in Design 6-2

Component Function and Performance Objectives 6-2
Design Constraints 6-2
Evaluation of Service Conditions 6-2
Evaluation of Possible Failure Modes 6-2
Design Against Excessive Yielding 6-3

Local Yielding 6-3
Plastic Collapse . 6-5
Design for Repetitive Loading 6-6

High Cycle Fatigue Design 6-6
Sample Problem 6-8
Low Cycle Fatigue Design 6-10
Fracture Mechanics Approach to Fatigue Design 6-12
Sample Problem 6-14
Design Against Brittle Fracture 6-15

Transition Temperature Approach . 6-15
Fracture Mechanics Approach to Design Against Brittle Fracture 6-17
Sample Problem 6-18
Design Against Excessive Deflection 6-19

Elastic Deflection 6-19
Buckling 6-19
Design Against Creep and Stress Rupture 6-20

Creep 6-20
Stress Rupture . 6-21
Parametric Life Predictions 6-21
Corrosion Considerations In Design 6-21
Wear Considerations In Design 6-23

Design Against Wear 6-25
Stress Concentration Factors 6-25

Reinforced Holes 6-25
Fillets 6-26
Fillets and Corners of L Junctions 6-26
Section Modulus, Moment of Inertia 6-26
General Considerations of Safety Factors 6-27
References 6-30
6-2 Part 3: Designing Castings
based on conventional strength of materials approaches or by in-

General Considerations in creasingly popular finite element computer-assisted techniques. The
Design complex shapes permitted by casting may make experimental stress
analysis methods more feasible. Photoelastic, brittle lacquer, and
The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of factors strain gage techniques are commonly used for complex cast shapes.
which must be considered in the design of structural components for In considering the stress environment, thermal stresses, resulting
satisfactory service performance in terms of mechanical behavior. from the constraint of differential thermal expansion and contrac-
Satisfactory structural behavior depends on the interaction of com- tion, and residual stresses, stemming from fabrication techniques or
ponent design, service conditions, and material properties. Tech- component assembly, must be added to the stresses generated by
niques to evaluate these interactions, and thus ensure that the com- external loads.
bination of component design and material properties is sufficient to Service temperatures are another primary consideration in evalu-
meet expected service conditions, will be described. While such ating the service environment. Again, transient as well as steady
considerations are not specific to any product form, emphasis will state conditions are important. Material properties are temperature-
be placed on steel castings. dependent and hence, operating temperatures must be known to
Design must be a cooperative effort involving the effective inter- allow correct choices of materials and safe stress levels. In addition,
action of design, metallurgical, and steel foundry engineers. This is temperature variations can induce thermal stresses, and, depending
evident from the diversity of information needed to begin the design on the alloy and its heat treatments, sufficiently high temperatures
process. will lead to time-dependent changes in metallurgical structure and
thus a change in material properties.
Component Function and Performance The chemical environment may, at times, be a more crucial factor
Objectives than the mechanical and thermal environments. Transient and steady
An obvious first step in the design process is to define the function state chemical environment must be known to evaluate corrosion
of the desired component, including secondary as well as primary problems. The mechanical, thermal, and chemical environments
functions. Performance objectives should be established, such as discussed above are not the only environments to be considered;
design life and criteria for acceptable functional performance. These however, in ordinary circumstances, they are the most important.
criteria reflect in turn the modes of failure to be avoided. Combinations of sustained tensile stresses and certain environments
Another important consideration is the evaluation of the conse- may lead to stress corrosion cracking.
quences of component failure. While all designs have a goal of
satisfactory service performance, severe safety and/or economic Evaluation of Possible Failure Modes
consequences of failure will dictate a more conservative design and Criteria for acceptable functional performance will indicate some
influence tradeoffs with other design parameters such as component of the failure modes of concern. This section deals primarily with
size and shape, material selection, and cost. possible mechanical modes of failure.
Historically, one of the first modes of structural failure to be
Design Constraints treated quantitatively is that of plastic collapse. If service loads are
The performance objectives of a component may constrain the high enough to cause general yielding of a component, excessive
design in terms of permissible size, general shape, or weight. These plastic deformation that may render the part unserviceable and
constraints may then influence material selection and foundry prac- eventually fracture must follow. Component size and shape and
tice. For example, a size limitation for a given load-carrying capac- material yield strength must be adjusted such that service stresses
ity will require the choice of a higher strength material. Additional will not cause widespread plasticity. This design concept is well-
design constraints to consider are cost, material and/or supplier known and nearly all structural failures occur at general stress levels
availability, and production requirements. A high volume produc- less than yield strength values.
tion run may dictate the choice of foundry practice. As discussed Most structural failures are due to repetitive loading with stresses
above, the consequences of component failure in cases may be which may be well below yield strength levels. Cyclic stressing
severe enough to be considered as an additional design constraint. produces such fatigue failures by the initiation and subsequent
growth of cracks in the structure. Eventually the load-bearing areas
Evaluation of Service Conditions of the part are reduced sufficiently to cause final abrupt fracture. A
Satisfactory structural performance and efficient design hinges on key point in eliminating fatigue failures is the reduction of local
a thorough assessment of expected service conditions. Obviously stresses by the elimination of sharp corners or abrupt changes in
failure is to be expected if actual service conditions are many times thickness. This is easily accomplished in steel castings, and in fact,
more severe than design base values. Conversely, overly conserva- facilitates the casting process.
tive designs will be costly and inefficient. Low toughness materials can fail by brittle fracture with little or
Transient as well as steady state operating conditions must be no macroscopic plastic deformation. Brittle fracture is promoted by
considered. Transient conditions are a normal part of service life, low temperatures, impact loads, notches and other stress concentra-
such as proof testing and start up and shut down cycles, or they may tion sites, material discontinuities, and large section sizes. Good
result from accidents or failures in other parts of the operating casting design and proper material selection will eliminate this
system. In some instances, assembly and shipping environments problem.
may be more severe than normal operating conditions. For example, While plastic collapse and fracture are obvious modes of failure,
fatigue cracks in steel line pipe have been caused by vibration of a excessive elastic deflection can also destroy functional perform-
stack of pipe sections during rail transportation. ance. Castings can be efficiently designed for the proper section
For structural components operations and transient loads must be stiffness and resistance to buckling.
established. The time history of such loads must also be evaluated. At high temperatures, time-dependent deformation can occur at
Repeated low level loads can lead to fatigue failure. stresses below the short-time tensile yield strength. This creep de-
A major step in determining the safe load-bearing capacity of a formation may cause failure by excessive deformation. Stress rup-
part or steel casting is the translation of applied loads into applied ture or time-dependent fracture of the material under sustained
stresses in the material. A correct design of component size and loading at high temperatures is perhaps a more serious problem. The
shape will limit the stress levels to allowable values for the failure stress rupture life decreases as the applied stress and operating
modes and materials of concern. The stress analysis of a part may be temperature increase.
Design for Function 6-3
Material loss from wear or corrosion are other possible modes of entirely across a structure and strain hardening will not be sufficient
failure. Functional performance may be impaired or destroyed by to ward off plastic collapse. In this case, very high ductility is of no
the loss of critical dimensional tolerances or by the loss of load-bear- help. The strength of the structure has been exceeded and, as long as
ing areas. the load is maintained, plastic deformation will continue until frac-
The following sections discuss the above failure modes in more ture occurs.
detail and present techniques for the choice of component size, With respect to structural failure by excessive yielding, a tensile
geometry, and material that will provide satisfactory performance specimen is a deceivingly simple structure. There is only one direc-
for the intended service life. tion of stressing. The stress is uniform and consequently plasticity
develops uniformly across the test piece as the yield strength is
exceeded. Real structures are more complex. Multiaxial stresses
Design Against Excessive must be considered and yielding at one location may occur at much
Yielding lower loads than the load required for a general plastic collapse. The
next two sections deal with local yielding under multiaxial stresses
A typical stress-strain curve for mild steel is shown in Figure 6-1. and a brief treatment of the problem of plastic collapse.
At low stresses the material behaves in a linear elastic manner. Strain
Local Yielding
is directly proportional to stress and the deformation fully recovers
as the load is released. Upon loading to higher stresses, the material As noted above, the stress state in a real structure is seldom
plastically deforms and on release of the load, a permanent set is uniaxial or uniform. A criterion for yielding under multiaxial
observed. An engineering boundary between elastic and plastic stresses is needed. The stress state at some point in a body can be
deformation is given by the 0.2% offset yield strength value, ays- described in terms of three normal stresses and three shear stresses,
This is the stress required to produce a permanent extension of 0.2%. as shown in Figure 6-2. Two of the most popular criteria for yielding
As the strain is increased beyond the yield point, the material are the Von Mises and Tresca yield rules. The Von Mises criterion
strain-hardens and the stress must be increased to continue the predicts yielding at a point when
deformation. As the tensile specimen elongates, its cross-sectional
2 2 2 f 2 2 1 V4
area decreases to maintain an essentially constant volume. At the ( O x x - a yy) + ( O y y - Ozz) + ( O z z " Oxx) + 6 I X xy + viz + Tyz
maximum load point, the increase in strength due to strain hardening V2~
is balanced by the reduction in cross-sectional area. Now deforma-
tion can continue under a decreasing load until final fracture occurs.
The stress at maximum load on the tensile specimen is the ultimate (Eq 6-1)
tensile strength of the material, OUTS-
The yield strength is a fundamental material property and may be The quantity on the right bottom is often referred to as the
viewed as an approximation of the elastic limit. The value of the effective stress, o. The Tresca or maximum shear stress theory
ultimate tensile strength depends on the strain hardening properties predicts yielding when the maximum applied shear stress reaches a
of the material and the geometry of the test piece. At stresses above critical value. The coordinate system used to describe the stress state
the yield point, significant plastic strains develop. In materials of in a body is arbitrary. The volume element in Figure 6-2 can be
limited ductility, fracture may occur before the load goes through a rotated in space to give the orientation for maximum normal stress
maximum. at zero shear stresses. The stress state itself does not change, only
Another failure mode may be the development of an excessive our description of it changes. The orientation where the shear
permanent set. At sufficiently high loads, plasticity will spread stresses disappear reveals the principal stresses and the principal
stress directions.
yy
(/)
10
ui
rr
h-
m yz
LU
<
UJ
, Tzy
> [
< XX
r
zx
a
zz
STRAIN
Fig. 6-1 Schematic stress strain curve Fig. 6-2 Stresses acting on a volume element
The maximum shear stress occurs on planes at 45° angles to the

principal stress directions, the algebraically largest stress, oi, and
algebraically smallest stress, 03, as shown in Figure 6-3. Commonly,
a tensile stress is positive and a compressive stress is negative. The
maximum shear stress, xmax, is equal to one half of the difference
between 01 and 03.
(o-i - a3) (Eq6-2)
At yielding in a tensile test
(Eq 6-3)
Hence the maximum shear stress yield rule is
0l-03=0yp (Eq 6-4)
Eq 6-4, commonly referred to as the maximum shear stress crite-

rion for yielding, is simpler than Eq 6-1 for the Von Mises yield rule. > a
°"l ^Z > Z
However, the principal stresses must be known to use Eq 6-4. For
some geometries this is not a problem. Shear stresses are zero along Fig. 6-3 Volume element oriented in principal stress directions
lines of symmetry and hence the principal stress directions can be
found by inspection. In the general case the Von Mises criterion is
preferred. The principal stress directions need not be determined. It
also agrees better with experimental data. The difference between
the Tresca and Von Mises criteria depends on the state of stress. The
maximum disagreement is about 15%, with the Von Mises criterion
giving a slightly higher load for yielding. This maximum difference A A A A A A A
is found when 02 is exactly midway between Oi and 03. In terms of
principal stresses, the Von Mises yield rule is
( a i - a 2 ) 2 + (<J2 - 03) 2 + ( c i - CJ3)2 (Eq 6-5)

V2"
Comparison of calculated service stresses with either the Tresca

or Von Mises yield criteria will indicate whether or not plastic
yielding is to be expected. If yielding is indicated, the stresses and
strains upon yielding are obviously different from those calculated 3 a-
with the assumption that the material behaves elastically. Yielding
will limit the stress level but the resulting plastic strains may be
much larger than calculated elastic strains. The extent of plastic
straining can be computed from plasticity theory. Simplified esti-
mates of plastic strains at stress concentration sites are presented in
a later section of this chapter on stress concentration factors.
Applied stresses in a real structure will, in general, vary from one
point to another. Hence, a prediction of yielding at one point in a
structure does not necessarily imply that other areas of the structure
will yield. For a relatively simple structure such as a long thin-
walled pipe with internal pressure, the stress state is uniform. In this
case, when the hoop stress in the pipe reaches the yield strength of 3o-
the material, the entire structure will yield. Excessive distortion at
this point may prevent the pipe from performing its intended func-
tion. Even for highly ductile materials, the burst pressure will soon
be reached, depending on the strain hardening properties of the
material. From the standpoint of either excessive distortion or burst-
ing, a prudent design will limit the hoop stress to well below yield
point levels. A typical value is on the order of 2o yp /3 or OTJTS/3.
In most structures stress concentration sites are unavoidable. Here
a design constraint of "no yielding" may be impractical. Consider,
for example, the case of a small hole in a large plate under uniform
tension. At distances far from the hole (several hole diameters) the ,l ,, w v u «r I y
stress state will be uniform at some level o. As shown in Figure 6-4
the stress at the surface of the hole will rise to 3o due to the change
in geometry at this point. Since the hole represents a negligible loss Fig. 6-4 Stress concentration due to a hole in a plate
O" < O" A design which minimizes stress concentration factors by elimi-
max yp nating sudden changes in geometry will limit or remove the problem
of local yielding and permit the efficient use of the full load-bearing
^ TI-NSION capacity of a structure. The casting process is ideally suited to
M produce gradual transitions in size and shape, and thus lower stress
M concentration factors.
Plastic Collapse
-i*
/* The previous section dealt primarily with yielding at a point or a
COMPRESSION localized region. The maximum load-carrying capacity of a highly
ductile structure will be reached only after yielding has spread along
a continuous path through the structure. This may be termed plastic
collapse or general yielding.
ma x yp Methods are available to estimate or rigorously calculate plastic
*•
>•
collapse loads. A more detailed treatment of these methods can be
*• found in references (1) to (3). Only the lower bound method will be
M, discussed here because it provides a quick engineering estimate of
•* the loads required for general yielding. In this method one assumes
•* a stress distribution in the component which does not violate the
< yield criteria at any location. In addition, the assumed stress distri-
•«
B.
bution must be such that any small volume element in the body is in
Fig. 6-5 Rectangular beam subjected to pure bending, (a) Elastic equilibrium, that is, not subject to any net force or moment. Finally,
stress distribution, (b) Assumed lower bound stress distribution for the resultants of the internal stress distribution must match the
plastic collapse intended applied load conditions such as the ratios of tension,
bending, and shear loads. Under those requirements the sum of
resultants of the assumed internal stress distribution is a lower
bound estimate of the plastic collapse load.
As an example, consider the rectangular beam subject to pure
*• P
bending in Figure 6-5. In the elastic range the longitudinal stress
varies linearly with distance from the neutral axis. Yielding will first
occur at the outer fibers and spread through the body of the beam as
the load is increased. The assumed lower bound plastic collapse
stress distribution is shown in Figure 6-5b. The top half of the beam
is assumed to be just below yield point stresses in tension. The
bottom half is assumed to be nearly at yield in compression. This
stress distribution does not provide a net force in the longitudinal
UNIT THICKNESS direction and thus matches the intended boundary condition of pure
bending. From a free body diagram of Figure 6-5b we find that
Fig. 6-6 Linkage arm with eccentric loading
., h„ h h_ h h „ (Eq6-7)
ML = o- y p-B- + a y p - B - = ayp — B
of cross-sectional area of the plate, the plate will yield overall when where B is the thickness and h is the height of the cross section. ML is
the applied stress o reaches o y p . However, yielding at the hole the lower bound plastic collapse moment. In general the problem is to
occurs when o equals o"yp/3. Hence, a criteria of no yielding any- find a stress distribution, according to the requirements described
where in the structure may limit the applied stress to a value far above, which leads to the highest lower bound collapse load.
below that required for general yielding of the structure. This prob- In the above problem the elastic solution for the outer fiber stress
lem is worsened as the stress concentration becomes more intense. is
The severity of a stress concentration site may be described by an
elastic stress concentration factor, Kt. This factor is simply the ratio M W2) _ M
of the actual elastic maximum stress to a nominal stress which does Êlastic : (Eq6-8)
I ~S
not consider the stress concentration site.
where S is the section modulus and I is the moment of inertia. The
(Eq6-6) elastically computed outer fiber stress at the lower bound plastic col-
Kt = -
G nominal lapse load is 1.50yp. Hence, the beam will become fully plastic at a
moment which is 50% higher than the moment required to first yield
the outer fibers. Note that the ratio of plastic collapse load to the load at
The section on stress concentration factors tabulates Kt values for first outer fiber yielding will depend on the geometry of the cross-sec-
a range of common geometries. tion. Using the technique described above, the plastic collapse moments
The problem of yielding at stress concentration sites has led to the for beams of arbitrary cross-section may be computed without diffi-
concept of a "forgiving" material. This is simply a material which is culty.
ductile enough to tolerate limited plastic strains at stress concentra- Pure bending is a useful limiting case. A more general problem is
tion sites thus enabling the remainder of the structure to be loaded shown in Figure 6-6 where a cast bracket or linkage arm with
to significant fractions of the yield strength of the material. It should eccentric loading is considered. For the moment let us consider
be noted that allowing limited yielding at stress concentration sites location B. A free body diagram (Figure 6-7) shows a tensile force
may increase the likelihood of brittle fracture and often results in a and a moment acting at this location. The assumed lower bound
limited fatigue life. stress distribution reflects the presence of a net tensile force by a
greater area in tension compared to compression. In general, the area

in tension can be computed from the requirement that the resultant *-P
forces and moments of the assumed stress distribution must relate
according to the ratio, M/P = 1, as indicated from the free body
diagram. Solving for the plastic collapse load with the type of stress
distribution shown in Figure 6-7b yields an Eq 6-9 of the form
M IP_ (Eq6-9)
=1
M L + PL
-CENTROID OF
CROSS SECTION
where ML is the lower bound moment for pure bending and PL is the
lower bound load for pure tension. This is simply the yield strength A.
times the cross-sectional area. Eq 6-9 thus indicates the combinations of
loads and moments which will lead to the plastic collapse of beams.
In the above examples the only material parameter used was yield
strength. No consideration was given to strengthening due to strain
hardening. Strain hardening may be considered in an approximate
manner by picking an effective yield strength. A good engineering
estimate for effective yield strength is the average of the yield and
ultimate tensile strengths.
In design a lower bound estimate of the plastic collapse loads
should be considered as an upper bound estimate of the load-carry- cr ~ c r TENSION
ing capacity of a structure. It is a realistic estimate for highly ductile
materials which can tolerate high local strains as yielding proceeds
across the component. Obviously, materials with limited ductility
will fail prior to general yielding.
A knowledge of the loads leading to first yielding, and those for
plastic collapse, gives some insight as to why typically used safety
factors may vary with the type of loading. For instance, a smooth cr - o- COMPRESSION
rectangular bar under uniaxial tension at a stress of 2/3o yp will have
the same safety margin in terms of plastic collapse as the same bar B.
loaded in pure bending to an outer fiber stress of rjyp.
Fig. 6-7 Free body diagram and lower bound stress distribution for
linkage arm. A. Free body diagram of Figure 6-6. B. Assumed lower
Design for Repetitive Loading bound stress distribution for plastic collapse
Repetitive or cyclic loading is by far the most common cause of

structural failure. Cyclic stressing well below yield point values can
lead to the initiation and growth of fatigue cracks which ultimately
become large enough to cause failure. There are three main ap- cracks or crack-like discontinuities on cyclic life can be evaluated.
proaches to evaluating and designing structures relative to fatigue Here reasonable acceptance criteria for crack-like discontinuities
resistance: 1) the S-N curve approach for high cycle fatigue, 2) the can be established. Use of the fracture mechanics approach to
strain range approach for low cycle fatigue, and 3) the fracture fatigue design is attractive if the increased costs of engineering
mechanics approach. analysis and data collection or generation are outweighed by the
The S-N curve approach is the oldest and perhaps most common subsequent lessening of scrap and rework costs. It is also attractive
fatigue design technique. It deals with high cycle fatigue, that is, in the design of critical components where safety issues dictate a
cyclic lives greater than 10 cycles. At long lives, in the absence of quantitative description of the flaw tolerance of the component and
pre-existing cracks, fatigue life is dominated by the cycles to crack stringent nondestructive examination procedures.
initiation. Here the principal mechanical parameters of concern are The following paragraphs describe the three main approaches to
the cyclic stress range and the mean stress. fatigue design and include illustrative examples.
Fatigue failure in the low cycle regime usually requires significant
cyclic plastic strains in contrast to failure in the elastic range for high
cycle fatigue. As the number of cycles to failure is lowered, the High Cycle Fatigue Design
dominant factor in fatigue life switches from crack initiation to crack The principal mechanical variables which determine fatigue life
growth. The principal mechanical parameter in low cyclic fatigue are the cyclic stress range and mean stress. Figure 6-8 illustrates
life is the cyclic plastic strain range. these variables for a periodic stress time profile of constant ampli-
In the fracture mechanics design approach to fatigue, a crack-like tude and frequency.
discontinuity is assumed to exist in the structure at the start of life. The number of cycles to failure of a structure subjected to the
The cyclic life is then computed from the rate of growth of the crack above stress history can be expressed in terms of the S-N curve of
from the initial to the critical crack size. Figure 6-9. The fatigue life increases as the cyclic stress amplitude
The principal difference between the conventional and fracture decreases. For ferrous alloys a true endurance or fatigue limit is
mechanics approaches to fatigue design lies in the specification of reached below which fatigue failure is not observed.
the type of discontinuities to be allowed in a structure. Notches and The data in Figure 6-9 illustrate several important points. First, a
surface imperfections can be reasonably treated in conventional fatigue limit is evident. That is, below a certain cyclic stress ampli-
fatigue design approaches. Criteria for their acceptance or rejection tude, fatigue failure will not occur for any arbitrarily large number
can therefore be established. Crack-like discontinuities must be of cycles. Secondly, while the fatigue properties of cast steel are
eliminated. With the fracture mechanics approach, the effects of lower than those obtained with the wrought steel, it has less anisot-
ropy. And, finally, the presence of a notch equalizes the fatigue

properties of cast and wrought steels. STRESS
AMPLITUDE-
Note that Figure 6-9 also illustrates that the fatigue limit of
notched test specimens is substantially below that of unnotched
samples when the fatigue limit is computed on the basis of nominal
stress. This point will be treated later. It is sufficient here to note that
a similar lowering of the S-N curve can be caused by an increased
mean stress or surface discontinuities.
Several techniques are available to correlate and compute the
effect of mean stress on the endurance or fatigue limit (5). One of
the simplest yet effective approaches is illustrated by the modified
Goodman diagram of Figure 6-10. Typical laboratory fatigue tests TIME
are conducted with a mean stress of zero (equal amounts of tension
and compression). The fatigue limit at zero mean stress is indicated Fig. 6-8 Schematic of constant amplitude constant frequency
by the length of line A in Figure 6-10. Increasing the mean stress stress-time profile
decreases the cyclic stress range permitted for infinite life. The
length of line B is the fatigue limit in terms of the cyclic stress range STRENGTH
for zero to tension loading. Naturally, as the mean stress approaches TENSILE YIELD ELONG
the tensile strength, the fatigue limit tends to zero. It is helpful to ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) BHN
note that the fatigue limit in the literature is generally given in terms CAST 4135 113 ( 7 7 9 ) 87 ( 5 6 0 ) 43 223
WROUGHT 4 1 4 0 - L 110(758) 80(552) 61 217
of the stress amplitude which is one-half of the stress range.
-T III (765) 81 ( 5 5 8 ) 30 217
Agreement of test data with the modified Goodman diagram is
amply demonstrated in Figure 6-11. The diagram is clearly a suc- 80
cessful approach in representing the effect of mean stress on the WROUGH'T"!-! '
CAST
fatigue limit. Note that the fatigue limit stress amplitude is about 75
500
0.4 UTS for a zero mean stress test of unnotched sound material.
•ksi
70
The relationship of fatigue limit to ultimate tensile strength is
discussed in Chapter 18. An estimate of fatigue limit depends on the b 65
surface condition. The diagram illustrates that surface discontinui- < UNNOTCHED
ties lower the fatigue limit. This effect of some discontinuities is
similar to that of a machined notch of a standard R.R. Moore
w3 60
55
specimen. t-
_l
Surface condition has a significant effect on the fatigue life and a. •SO
fatigue limit. A highly polished smooth test specimen can exhibit :>
< 45
twice the fatigue strength of a rough machined sample. A good </>
</•>
design approach is to use the notched fatigue Umit as a design value. LU 4 0
For cast steels a 0.0015-in. (0.03 81-mm) root radius circumferential (T X
h- ^ V NOTCHED
notch in a rotating beam fatigue specimen reduces the fatigue limit C/> 3b LONGITUDINAL /
to about 0.7 of the unnotched value. This is sufficient to account for 30
AND TRANSVERSE
200
variations in surface finish and minor surface discontinuities. Figure NO FAILURE
6-11 shows that even severe surface discontinuities, not normally 25 I I lllllll I I I llllll ' ' i mill
permitted by workmanship standards, do not reduce the fatigue limit 10" 10^ 10° 10'
by much more than the 0.7 base. CYCLES TO FAILURE
The above emphasis on surface discontinuities infer the bending
stress fatigue conditions shown result from the fact that sub-surface Fig. 6-9 Fatigue characteristics (S-N curves) for cast and wrought
discontinuities which do not have a crack-like sharpness and which 4100 series steels, quenched and tempered to the same hardness,
do not significantly reduce the load-bearing area of a component, both notched and unnotched (4)
generally have little effect on bending fatigue performance.
As noted above, notches or stress concentration sites will reduce
the fatigue life and fatigue limit strength. One might suspect that the
fatigue limit of notched specimens, described in terms of the nomi-
nal stress, will be decreased by a factor equal to the theoretical stress
concentration factor, Kt. However, this often substantially overesti- UJ MAXIMUM STRESS
mates the effect of sharp notches on fatigue properties. For this MEAN STRESS
reason a notch sensitivity factor, q, is used. <
MINIMUM STRESS
q = (Kf-l)/(K,-l) (Eq6-10)
UJ
<r UTS
The term Kf in Eq 6-10 is the fatigue strength reduction factor, that •I--
is, the ratio of unnotched to notched fatigue strength based on V) MEAN STRESS, CT,
M
nominal stresses. For q = 0 there is no notch effect on the fatigue U
strength while for q = 1 the fatigue strength decreases by a factor _l
equal to Kt, or Kf = Kt. Unfortunately, q depends on geometry O
>-
factors such as notch flank angle and notch root radius as well as the o
type of material. Various empirical equations have been developed
to express this material and geometry dependence. Further treatment
of this subject may be found in references (7) to (9). As a design Fig. 6-10 Schematic of modified Goodman diagram
i.o Fig. 6-11 Goodman diagram for

CONTAINED WITHIN THE BAND ARE THE bending fatigue for normalized
FOLLOWING DISCONTINUITIES and tempered 8630 cast steel.
W E L D - I N C O M P L E T E PENETRATION (6). [Machined notch of R.R.
0.9 WELD -UNDERCUT Moore specimen: 60° included
WELD - S L A G angle, 0.0015 in. (0.0381 mm)
WELD - MACHINE - SOUND root radius]
0.8 AS WELDED - SOUND
SLAG INCLUSION
HOT TEARS
CAST SURFACE POROSITY
0.7
0.6
0.5 -
« 0.4
UJ
C£
CO 0 . 3
^ 0.2
UJ
H
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
V
-0.4
approach for castings, where good design emphasizes a gradual high temperature, on the order of 0.4 of the melting point, creep-fa-
smooth blending of sections, q may be taken as equal to one. This is tigue interactions must be considered.
experimentally observed for notch root radii greater than about 0.1
in. (2.5 mm). Hence, the applied stress in design is taken as the Sample Problem. As an example of a high cycle fatigue design
problem consider the linkage arm shown in Figure 6-12. The service
nominal stress times the appropriate stress concentration factor, Kt,
which should compare well with strain gage measurements. load is in the direction indicated and cycles between zero and 1000
lb (454 kg). The loading frequency is high and thus the desired
Before proceeding to a sample design problem, several additional
considerations are necessary. The chemical operating environment cyclic life is 10 or greater. Other design constraints require the
plane dimensions given in Figure 6-12 and a thickness of 1 in. (25.4
may significantly influence fatigue performance. The classic effect
of corrosion fatigue is a lowering of the S-N curve and more mm). The tentative design material is a cast steel with a yield
importantly, the fatigue limit is sometimes completely eliminated strength of 60 ksi (414 MPa) and an ultimate tensile strength of 90
ksi (621 MPa). The problem is to find the dimensions of the fillet
(10). Corrosive attack need not be severe to cause this problem. If a
corrosive environment is expected, design fatigue data should re- radius, r, outside corner radius, R, and the width, w.
flect this concern. In some cases a protective coating or a more The highest stresses will occur in the vicinity of the fillet radius r.
corrosion fatigue resistant material should be considered. The de-Stress concentration solutions for L sections are tabulated in Table
sign fatigue strength must also be based on the actual operating 6-2 of the later section "Stress Concentrations" of this chapter. From
temperature. In general, the fatigue strength decreases as the tem-
Table 6-2 we see that Kt factor levels off at 1.2 for r/w = 1, hence
perature increases, although strain aging in mild steels leads to a
this ratio is recommended for L sections if possible. The width of the
peak in fatigue strength above room temperature. At sufficiently linkage arm in the corner should not be less than w, R should
therefore be less than, or equal to, r + w. A uniform section width is

good for castability, but if the inner radius location is stressed in
tension, a small rather than large exterior corner radius R increases
the section modulus and thus improves the strength and fatigue
resistance. For small values of R the maximum stress will occur at
points A and B in Figure 6-12 rather than midway between them.
The tendency for external corner cracking during manufacture is
reduced by limiting R to 0.1 w to 0.2w.
Having picked r/w = 1 and R/w = 0.1 the stress at point A can be
found in terms of w. From the free body diagram of Figure 6-13 we
see that the nominal stress at point A is equal to the sum of the
bending and axial stresses. The nominal tensile stress at point A is
then
Gnom — ^bending + âxial (Eq6-U)
M , PAxial
(Eq6-12)
Z A
where Z is the section modulus and A is the cross-sectional area. Hence

the nominal stress in terms of w is
6 PI P Fig. 6-12 Linkage arm, arm thicknesst=1 in., conversion 1 in. = 25.4
0"nom — ~ ~2 +"
(Eq6-13)
(V2)tw (V2)tw mm
The length, 1, of the linkage arm is 4.5 in. (114.3 mm) and note that the
ratio of axial to bending stress is then equal to w/27. If w is on the order
of 1 in. (25.4 mm), the axial stress is only on the order of 4% of the
bending stress. For the sake of simplicity of calculations, the axial stress
contribution will be neglected.
The very high number of design operating cycles requires that the
linkage arm must be stressed lower than the fatigue limit of the
material. The design fatigue limit value is chosen to be equal to the
notched [root radius = 0.015 in. (0.381 mm)] fatigue value to
account for variations in surface roughness and minor surface dis-
continuities. If this value is not known, we may take 0.7 times the
unnotched fatigue limit. If the unnotched fatigue data are unavail-
able, this may be estimated as equal to 0.4 OUTS- The design fatigue
limit is now chosen as 0.7 x 0.4 xCTUTSor 25.2 ksi. This value is
appropriate for equal amounts of tension and compression, i.e. a
mean stress of zero. For the present problem the loading is from zero
to maximum tension which gives a mean stress of half of the
maximum stress. From the modified Goodman diagram shown in
Figure 6-10 it is obvious that the fatigue limit stress amplitude
decreases linearly as the mean stress, o m , increases. The fatigue
limit stress amplitude for an arbitrary mean stress is thus given by
V___y M = P •-£ v/2 -
Pm
0a = 0a (Eq6-14)
CT
Cm = 0 UTS
PA= P/T
In the present case the stress amplitude is one-half of the maxi-
mum stress, Omax, since the minimum stress, Omin, is zero. Similarly, Fig. 6-13 Free body diagram of linkage arm
the mean stress is equal to Omax/2. Rearranging Eq 5-14 in terms of
Omax leads to
:25.2 Q"max
(Eq 6-15) the statistical variation in material properties and a possible under-
2 ' 180 estimation of the actual service loads. With this factor the permitted
or design maximum stress, OD, is 19.7 ksi (136 MPa).
where the stress is given in terms of ksi and the fatigue limit and ultimate The actual applied stress for a load of 1000 lb (454 kg) is equal to
strength are 25.2 ksi (174 MPa) and 90.0 ksi (621 MPa), respectively. the stress concentration factor Kt times the nominal stress. As
Solving for Omax leads to a value of 39.4 ksi (272 MPa). discussed earlier, the fatigue notch sensitivity factor is on the order
At this point a factor of safety should be introduced. For fatigue of one for mild notches. Since we have chosen r = w, we can assume
loading a factor of safety of two is recommended. This accounts for a mild notch, and thus the fatigue strength reduction factor Kf will
A. TOTAL, PLASTIC AND ELASTIC B. CYCLIC HARDENING

STRAIN RANGES <X
\
CYCLIC STRESS
STRAIN CURVE
STABLE HYSTERESIS
LOOPS
C. CYCLIC SOFTENING D. STABLE HYSTERESIS LOOPS AND

CYCLIC STRESS STRAIN CURVE
Fig. 6-14 Cyclic stress-strain behavior
be about equal to Kt. From Table 6-2, Kt is 1.20. Setting the failure probabilities have been studied extensively but are beyond
calculated stress, Kt anom, equal to the design stress and neglecting the scope of this chapter. The Fatigue Design Handbook (5) publish-
the small axial load component the dimension w may be found. ed by SAE is an excellent starting reference for more sophisticated
fatigue design analyses.
1.2 PI
^D —
^ tfnom - :19.7 (Eq6-16)
(V2)tw2 Low Cycle Fatigue Design
Fatigue failure in less than about 10 cycles typically requires
From Eq 5-16, w is equal to 1.08 in. for P= 1000 lb (454 kg), 1 = significant cyclic plastic strains. This regime is termed low cycle
4.5 in. (114.3 mm) and t = 1.0 in. (25.4 mm). Our mild notch fatigue and here the fatigue life is usually correlated with the cyclic
assumption is justified. The inner corner radius is 1.08 in. (27.4 mm) plastic strain amplitude. Plots of stress versus strain for cyclic
and the exterior corner radius is 0.216 in. (5.48 mm). Neglecting the loading between set strain limits are shown in Figure 6-14. Results
axial load component resulted in a 4% underestimation of the for a single cycle are illustrated in Figure 6-14A. The material first
applied stress. We can either assume that this error is compensated yields in tension, then in compression and again in tension to
by the factor of safety of two or simply increase w by about 2%. complete the cycle and generate a hysteresis loop. The total strain
The design problem described above required a design stress range, Aet, is the sum of the plastic strain range, Ae p , and the elastic
based on the fatigue limit. If design for a finite life is required, the strain range, Aee. The cyclic plastic strain amplitude is Aep 12. As
same approach may be followed using the fatigue strength at the cycling continues the material may cyclically strain harden or cycli-
desired cyclic life. Again, appropriate safety factors must be utilized. cally strain soften as illustrated in Figure 6-14B and 6-14C, respec-
A common choice is a factor of two on the stress amplitude, or not tively. As a rule of thumb, high strength alloys cyclically strain
less than twenty on the cyclic life. Component or model testing is harden. Eventually a stable hysterisis loop is obtained. If stable
suggested. Test times for finite life rather than the endurance limit hysteresis loops are obtained at a number of strain ranges, the tips of
will generally be reasonable. these loops may be connected to form a cyclic stress strain curve.
Only the most basic aspects of high cycle fatigue design have been This curve describes the material flow behavior under cyclic plastic
discussed. Considerations such as varying stress amplitudes, ran- straining. Figure 6-15 compares the cyclic and monotonic stress
dom loading, creep fatigue interactions, thermal fatigue, and fatigue strain curve for a cast SAE 1030 steel. In this case cyclic plastic
CJ 10
T 1 1 T
v•-
WROUGHT SAE 1020
» 'f
<
60 - i 0.1
400 UJ
o CAST SAE 1030
:>
i-
50 - -i 001
o Q.
0- 2
300'2 < E
i
Z
r
CO < 0001 oo~J
CO CO CE
UJ H
u a: CO
I-
CO 30 CO 0.0001
200
10° 10 I0 2 I0 3 I0 4 I0 5 I06 I07
' WROUGHT SAE I020 REVERSALS TO FAILURE - 2 N f
CYCLIC
20
Fig. 6-16 Low cycle strain-control fatigue behavior of carbon steel
100 (11)
10
Similarly, the constant b in Eq 6-18 is of the order of -0.08 for mild

steels, and ef is estimated as equal to the true fracture stress in a tensile
0.00 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 test.
STRAIN -in./in. There are a number of techniques to compute the low cycle fatigue
life using Equations 6-17,-18, or -19. A straightforward approach is
Fig. 6-15 Monotonic tensile and cyclic stress-strain behavior of car- simply to compute the fatigue life from the expected cyclic plastic
bon steel (11) strain amplitude in service. Errors in computing or estimating AEp
produce a smaller change in the computed cyclic life than similar
errors in the elastic strain range. Note the large difference in slopes
"c" and "b" in Figure 6-16. Plastic strain ranges may be computed
straining eliminated the sharp yield point and increased the rate of using sophisticated finite element techniques, estimated from sim-
strain hardening. The cyclic stress strain curve should be used in ple approximations such as Neuber's rule, or experimentally meas-
computing or estimating cyclic plastic strains. ured in component or model tests.
The relationship between the fatigue life and strain amplitude is
The cyclic plastic strain range often can be estimated using
presented in Figure 6-16 for cast SAE 1030 steel. The fatigue life is
Neuber's rule (13). To a good approximation, the product of stress
expressed in terms of the number of load reversals with two load
times strain at a notch tip or stress concentration site does not depend
reversals per fatigue cycle. Counting load reversals rather than
on the form of the stress-strain curve, that is
cycles is a more general approach and is helpful when dealing with
random or variable load amplitude fatigue problems. The relation- (Eq6-21)
ship between reversals to failure, 2Nf, where Nf is the number of ae = constant
cycles to failure, and strain amplitude is given by
The constant is evaluated by choosing a convenient form for the
AE, stress-strain curve. A straight line is most convenient and enables one to
^ = ef(2Nf)c (Eq 6-17) use linear elastic stress calculations and stress concentration factors. The
actual stress and strain at the notch tip is then given by
OCE —ttemax Ee max (Eq6-22)

AEe
K2N f ) b (Eq6-18)
where o e max is the elastically computed maximum stress and ee max is
the corresponding maximum elastic strain. In terms of nominal stresses
and
CTe max — Kt (Tnom (Eq6-23)
Aet _ Aee Ae,W ( 2 N ) c + S 2N ) b
f f ( f (Eq6-19)
ee max — Kte n om — Kt C-nom/E (Eq6-24)
For many materials the log-log plot of Aep 12 versus Nf is a straight line resulting in
of slope c, according to the Coffin-Manson relationship of Eq6-17 (12).
The constant c has a value on the order of -0.5 and for most alloys lies oe = K?o Lm/E (Eq6-25)
in the range of-0.5 to -0.7. Many attempts have been made to relate the
constant Ef to other material properties. A convenient approximation is If an analytic expression is fitted to the actual stress-strain curve
to set ef equal to true fracture strain in a tensile test. In terms of percent of interest, Eq 6-25 may be solved to find the notch tip stress and
reduction in area, %RA, Ef is on the order of strain. A graphical solution to Eq 6-25 is illustrated in Figure 6-17.
A cyclic stress-strain curve is indicated since the results will be used
In 100/(100 - %RA) (Eq6-20) later to estimate the cyclic plastic strain range. The linear portion of
hyperbola. The actual notch tip stress and strain is given where the
hyperbola intersects the real stress-strain curve.
\ /^-EXTENSION OF Following the above procedure the maximum notch tip stress and
\ r ELASTIC CURVE strain is easily computed. The problem now is to find the minimum
notch tip stress and strain. Forfrillyreversed loading, equal amounts
CURVE FOR of tension and compression, the range is just twice the maximum
\ > ^ cr€ = CONSTANT value. The plastic strain range is the total strain range minus the
''"MAX
elastic strain range which is Acce.
If the loading is not fully reversed, the problem is slightly more
^NOM* € NOM
complicated. Figure 6-18 illustrates the estimation of the cyclic
K
t '°"NOM /E strain range for zero to maximum tension to zero loading. Two plots
are used, nominal stress versus actual notch tip strain and actual
notch tip stress versus strain. For simplicity no strain hardening is
assumed. For the initial loading curves Neuber's rule is used to
estimate the notch tip stress and strains in terms of the nominal stress
and the stress concentration factor. The unloading curves are ob-
tained by reversing and doubling the size of the loading curves. The
notch tip strain at the minimum load point is obtained from the
nominal stress plot. The notch tip stress-strain curve is then adjusted
STRAIN to return to this point. Again, the unloading curve and subsequent
reloading curve is double the size of the starting cyclic stress-strain
curve.
Fig. 6-17 Schematic stress-strain curves showing application of It is easily found by considering a variety of minimum strain
Neuber's rule points that it is difficult to obtain significant cyclic plastic strain
ranges with a high mean stress. This, together with the fact that mean
stresses relax as cycling proceeds, leads to a limited effect of mean
K t = 2.0 stresses in low cycle fatigue. They are typically neglected.
The procedure outlined above, or more refined calculations,
LOADING CURVE and/or experimental measurements provide a reasonable approach
to low cycle fatigue design. Component geometry, service loads,
' NOM and material selection or a combination, can be adjusted to yield the
0.5 - UNLOADING CURVE
( DOUBLE DIMENSIONS desired service Me. A typically used factor of safety is a computed
OF LOADING CURVE ) life twenty times larger than the design life. It should be noted that
I I test results for low cycle fatigue are based on the failure of relatively
small test samples. For larger structures and high stress concentra-
tion factors, a significant portion of the total life may be spent in
yp
propagating a crack much larger than the laboratory test sample.
Fracture Mechanics Approach to Fatigue

Design
Z E R O - MAXIMUM TENSION - Z E R O LOADING The fracture mechanics approach to fatigue design (14) assumes
the presence of crack-like discontinuities in a structure at the start of
life. The cyclic life is then equated with the number of fatigue cycles
required to grow the initial crack to a size which leads to failure. The
final or critical crack size may depend on either a loss of load-bear-
ing area leading to plastic collapse or on the fracture toughness of
•0.5 the material. This latter aspect is covered in the next section of this
yp chapter.
The basis of linear elastic fracture mechanics is a unique stress
field common to the near tip region of sharp cracks in linear elastic
bodies. In the vicinity of the crack tip, the distribution of stresses
does not depend on the overall shape of the cracked structure. As
shown in Figure 6-19 the value of any stress component is propor-
tional to , f(0) where "r" is the distance from the crack tip, and
f(6) is a function of the angle 0. The term f(6) is known for each
stress component. The magnitude of the stress is determined by the
Fig. 6-18 Schematic stress-strain curves showing computation of constant of proportionality, K. The stress intensity factor K does
plastic strain range depend on the applied loads and the geometry of the structure. Since
the stress distribution is the same for crack tips in any structure, K
is a one-parameter description of the elastic stresses in the vicinity
the stress-strain curve is extended beyond its valid range. The point
of the crack tip.
corresponding to the maximum elastic stress and strain is found
Elastic stress analyses indicate stresses approaching infinity as the
from the nominal stress and the stress concentration factor. At this crack tip is approached, that is, as r tends to zero. For metals, plastic
point the product Oe max x £e max is computed. It is equal to yielding will occur and a plastic zone surrounds the crack tip. If the
K? Onom/E. If any value of o is now chosen, Eq 6-25 enables the plastic zone is small compared to the crack size and overall dimen-
calculation of the corresponding e. A set of these points forms a sions of the cracked structure, its development will depend on the
Fig. 6-19 Stresses in the vicinity

of a sharp crack in a linear elastic
body
surrounding elastic stress field described by K. Fatigue or fracture A convenient and generally applicable value for m is 0.5. For m =
processes occurring in the plastic zone thus will correlate with the 1, Eq 6-28 reduces to the Paris law.
stress intensity factor, K. If a test specimen fractures at a certain In computing the cyclic life based on fatigue crack growth rates,
applied K, then the same applied K in a structure will cause fracture information is needed in five areas: fatigue crack growth rate prop-
because the crack tip mechanical environments will be identical. erties, the appropriate expression for AK as a function of crack size,
For repetitive loading the parameter of interest is the stress inten- loads and component geometry, the initial crack size, ai, and the final
sity range, A K, which is simply Kmax - Kmjn. As first shown by Paris crack size, af. With this information Eq 5-26 can be integrated to find
and Erdogan (15) the rate of fatigue crack growth, da/dN, change in the cyclic life, Nf.
crack length per cycle, is primarily a function of A K.
af
CoAK Nf = jr da (Eq6-29)
S= " (Eq6-26) ai CoAK"
Fatigue crack growth rate properties, Co and n, can be obtained

Equation 6-26 is sometimes referred to as the Paris law and
from laboratory tests (19). In the absence of these data typical
predicts a linear plot of log da/dN versus log AK with slope n. This
properties may be used. Fortunately, the fatigue crack growth rate
is observed for a wide variety of materials and is illustrated in Figure
properties of steels are remarkably similar (20). Data for a variety of
6-20 for an ASTM-A216, Grade WCC cast steel. Some materials
cast steels are presented in Chapters 18 and 20.
show a significant influence of the mean load or K level on fatigue
Determination of the stress intensity factor, K, as a function of the
crack growth rates. The ratio of Kmin to K max is used to express the
crack size and structural geometry requires some expertise in stress
mean load conditions.
analysis. However, a wide variety of cracked body problems have
been solved and several handbooks of stress intensity factors have
K-iii
R=- (Eq 6-27) been compiled (21-23). With some practice these solutions can be
readily adapted to cover most common engineering problems. It is
sufficient here to note that K expressions typically have the form
A wide variety of expressions have been developed to include the R
ratio effect on fatigue crack growth rates (17). One of the simplest and K = anom (Ja) g(a,geometry) (Eq6-30)
most effective (18) is given by
where Onom is the nominal stress in the uncracked structure, a is crack
^ = CoAKSff (Eq 6-28) size and g(a, geometry) is a function of crack size, type of loading and
structural geometry. The parameter is simply obtained by replacing
Onom by A Onom-
where The final crack size can be no larger than that size which leads to
plastic collapse of the structure. Considerably smaller critical crack
AKeft=Kmax(l-R)n' sizes will be applicable for low toughness materials. Critical crack
the axial load is small and is neglected for simplicity. The K expression
20 40 60 80 I00 200
1 i 1—i—i i i i |
for a rectangular edge cracked beam in bending (21) is
r 48 ksi ( 331 MPo ) 6
YS
TEST TEMP* 75°F ( 24 °C)
TEST FREQUENCY=600 cpm K = a„om VrcT(1.12 - 1.40 — + 7.33 — 13.08 I — > + 1 4 0 ± « >
4 v
W W
W0L TYPE SPECIMENS
UPPER SCATTER BAND UJ (Eq6-32)
10" — ( SLOPE n = 3 ) _J
UJ O
_l 2 >-
<J h 9 3 o where Onom is the outer fiber bending stress in the uncracked geometry,
>- S,= 2.3x.0-' AK •V
a is the crack depth, and w is the width of the linkage arm. The stress
o E
-6 ' concentration due to the mild radius at Point A is significant only for
c 10 small crack depths. Since most of the fatigue life is spent at small crack
R TJ
~v
depths, Onom is chosen as 19.7 ksi (136 MPa) which includes the stress
LOWER concentration factor Kt of 1.2. As a sidelight, the stress concentration
-z SCATTER 6 O
T3
factor Kt should not be confused with the stress intensity factor K. The
T3 BAND
V. 1
O
4
factor Kt refers to maximum stress at notches while K refers to the
T3 UJ
I 1- magnitude of the stress field in the vicinity of sharp cracks. For sharp
UJ <
f£ cracks the root radius is considered to be zero which would lead to a Kt
I-
< 10 of infinity.
rr ? X With the above information Eq 6-29 was solved numerically by
1-
5 computing the area under a plot of versus a from ai to af.
5 o CoAK
o , rr
rr 10 -I o The variation of the fatigue life, Nf, with the starting flaw size ai is
e>
8 XL shown in Figure 6-21. The fatigue life increases dramatically at very
*: o small ai values. The far curve shows that in the long life regime the
o 6 <
< or final crack size has only a small effect on Nf. This is because fatigue
rr
u o crack growth rates are very low at low AK values and hence the
- 4
greatest fraction of fatigue life is spent at the smaller crack sizes.
Since the controlling parameter is AK, low life for small crack sizes
10" J_ is possible at high cyclic stresses. The second set of curves shows
10 20 40 60 100 200
that doubling the cyclic stress range reduces the fatigue life by about
STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR RANGE, an order of magnitude. Also, if the starting AK value is high, the final
AK, ksi v/Tn- crack size has a larger effect on the cyclic life. Figure 6-21 shows
the importance of adjusting both the cyclic stress and starting flaw
Fig. 6-20 Fatigue crack growth rate as a function of AK for A216 size to optimize the fatigue life.
(grade WCC) cast steel (16) At very low AK levels, an effect analogous to the S-N curve
endurance limit is observed. That is, fatigue cracks will not propa-
gate at AK levels less than the AKTH threshold for growth (24). For
steels, AKTH is on the order of 3 to 6 ksWrnT (3.3 to 6.6 MNm"3/2)
(20). If flaws of any significant size are present in a structure,
sizes based on fracture toughness values are discussed in the next
indefinitely large fatigue lives will only be possible for cyclic
section.
stresses equal to small fractions of the smooth bar endurance limit.
The crack size at the start of life usually exhibits the greatest effect
on fatigue life. The initial flaw size is often taken as the largest flaw There is much less experience with factors of safety in fatigue
which may go undetected during nondestructive inspection. design using fracture mechanics techniques than with conventional
techniques. One complicating factor is the additional parameter of
S a m p l e P r o b l e m . To illustrate the above considerations, the starting and final flaw sizes. Using safety factors on fatigue crack
linkage arm high cycle fatigue problem will be reanalyzed using a growth rate properties, cyclic stresses and starting flaw sizes may be
fracture mechanics approach. We will consider a flaw to be present overly conservative. Reasonable choices for specific applications
at Point A of Figure 6-12 subject to the design load range of zero to can be made by examining a range of input parameters to determine
1000 lb (0 to 453 kg). The section size remains at the value of 1.0 which are most sensitive to variations. As a general consideration,
in. by 1.08 in. (25.4 by 27.4 mm) based on the fatigue. Using (Eq the factor of safety on fatigue life should not be less than 10. For well
)6-9 and a yield point stress of 60 ksi (414 MPa) a crack depth of controlled tests on a single heat of material, fatigue crack growth
0.63 in. (16 mm) is needed to cause plastic collapse at the previous rates spread by a factor of 2 or 3. An upper bound growth rate of 2
design stress of 19.7 ksi (136 MPa) the fatigue crack growth rate to 3 times the average is reasonable. The choice of a starting crack
properties are estimated from reference 20 for ferritic-pearlitic steels size is highly dependent on the choice of nondestructive inspection
giving procedures and the care with which they are carried out. Sensitivity
is not the whole story since finding very small defects but missing a
few large defects may be disastrous.
^ = 3.6xl(r 10 A K J (Eq6-31) The use of fracture mechanics techniques does allow the develop-
oN
ment of realistic nondestructive inspection criteria. It is particularly
attractive in designing for finite fatigue life. In this case substantial
where AK has units of ksiVuTT and da/dN is in inches/cycle. To estimate size discontinuities may be shown to have no significant effect on
the appropriate K expression the linkage arm is modeled as a straight design service performance with a consequent lessening of scrap
beam with an edge crack subjected to an applied moment. The effect of and rework costs.
Fig. 6-21 Fatigue life of linkage

arm (in Figure 6-12) as a function
of starting crack size
.300
.250
UJ
M
CO
200
o
< <
o .150
100 or
CO <
H
CO
.050 -
1000 10,000 100,000

CYCLES TO FAILURE, N f
TEMPERATURE - ° C
Design Against Brittle Fracture -50 0 50 100
140 1 1 i
Two approaches to design against brittle fracture are described in 1
this section, the ductile to brittle transition concept and the fracture 130 -
mechanics approach. The first approach relies on a classic feature of
120 - • -
the fracture of steels with body centered cubic structures, that is, a
transition from high energy ductile fracture to low energy brittle 110 - • yS -
fractures at lower temperatures. Thus, if laboratory tests are used to
100 _ _ 100
define the transition temperature from ductile to brittle behavior, the .o OS. 0 UJ
alloy and/or service temperature can be chosen to avoid operating in ~ 90 _ 90 CC
the brittle range. Correlation of laboratory tests with actual service *- 7 • ID
failure experience has led, in fact, to some estimate of the tempera- I 80 /e BRITTLE s * \ • - 80 O
V • 0 <
>- FRACTURE
tures, flaw sizes, and stresses leading to brittle fracture (25). The
£ 70 _
\ ° /Q-—-ENERGY _ 70 8:
ductile to brittle transition temperature approach has the advantage cr
UJ
\ p
UJ
of simplicity, both in fracture testing and in the design application Z 60 - 60 _)
UJ I-
of laboratory data. However, the estimates of stresses and flaw sizes / *\ o 50 H
leading to fracture are approximate. Obviously, this approach is not >50 - -- a:
o • °\ m
applicable for materials which do not exhibit a dramatic transition 40 - 40
~
in fracture properties as a function of temperature, such as very high
strength steels and austenitic alloys. The fracture mechanics ap- 30 - •/ /% - 30
proach permits a more rigorous assessment of the flaw tolerance of 20 - - 20
structures but the laboratory testing and design application of me-
chanical property data is more complicated and costly than the 10 - 10
ductile to brittle transition temperature method. 1 1 I i 1 \
-50 50 100 150 200
TEMPERATURE- °F
Transition Temperature Approach
The most common ductile to brittle transition test is the Charpy Fig. 6-22 Temperature dependence of the Charpy V-notch impact
test where a small, notched rectangular bar [0.394 in. x 0.394 in. (10 properties of A216, Grade WCC cast steel (26). Conversion: 1 ft lb =
x 10 mm) cross-section with a 0.079 in. (2 mm) deep by 0.010 in 1.36 J
(0.254 mm) radius V-notch] is fractured with a pendulum hammer.
The fracture energy and fracture appearance are recorded as a
function of temperature. A typical Charpy curve is shown in Figure
6-22. The fracture energy dramatically increases with temperature
while the fracture appearance changes from a shiny faceted surface service experience with a particular class of materials in a particular
to a dull fibrous one. A transition temperature may be defined in type of structure. For example, after much experience with ship
terms of the fracture appearance or a certain fracture energy. The structures in World War II successful service performance of ship
50% brittle fracture appearance transition temperature, FATT, is steels was correlated with a minimum of 15 ft • lb (20 J) of energy
commonly used as an index of fracture properties. absorption at the lowest expected service temperature (27). A differ-
The specification of a safe operating temperature or alloy based ent definition of the transition temperature often is necessary for
on a Charpy bar transition temperature must rest upon previous other classes of alloys and structures. Indeed, brittle fracture of some
FTP
ULTIMATE FAD
STRESS STRESS LEVEL
FOR FRACTURE INITIATION
FOR SPECTRUM OF
FLAW SIZES
I in. NOT
YIELD
STRESS —///////////\ ///////////,
INCREASING
FLAW SIZES
(LENGTH )
|YS
4
CO
_ / _
to SERVICE FAILURE
LU |
cr ^vs EXPERIENCE
CO
4YS
CAT
5 - 8 ksi (34-55.MPo)
STRESS LIMITATION J I l I I I I
NDT + 30 + 60 + 90 + I20 + I50
I j L _L J L J L
NDT + 20 +40 +60 + 80
At TEMPERATURE
Fig. 6-23 Fracture analysis diagram (FAD). Note that the stress level for plastic (over yield) fracture is not indexed because of the lack of analytical
procedures for its definition. Ultimate stress signifies only that maximum load and strain tolerance is attained at FTP (Fracture transition plastic) for
the specific flaw size cited. It obviously does not indicate the equivalent of the tensile test specimen maximum load or maximum strain limits (25).
Conversion: 1 in. = 25.4 mm
structures with small flaws near yield point stresses has been ob- °F (+17 °C). This provides fracture arrest protection if the nominal
served at temperatures where Charpy results indicated high tough- applied stresses are of the order of one half the yield strength which
ness (25). is a representative design stress. At NDTT +30 °F (+17 °C), small
The dropweight nil ductility test, described in ASTM test specifi- flaws must be subjected to significant plastic strains to lead to
cation E208 (28), has since proved to provide a ductile to brittle fracture, hence limited plastic strains at stress concentration sites can
transition temperature which permits a general correlation with be tolerated even if small flaws are located in these regions.
service performance. In this test a small plate specimen, typically As noted earlier the tendency to brittle fracture is increased by
5/8 in. (15.88 mm) in thickness, is loaded in bending by a falling high strain rates, stress concentration sites, and large section sizes.
weight to a maximum outer fiber strain on the order of 3%. A The first two factors are included in the NDTT test by virtue of
notched brittle weld bead on the tension side fractures at low loads impact loading and a brittle starter crack. The NDTT is not markedly
and presents the baseplate with a small running crack. Within a very affected by section size and thus fracture resistance in the presence
narrow temperature range the fracture mode shifts from essentially of small flaws is not section size dependent. Section size must be
complete brittle fracture with negligible deformation to no fracture considered for estimates of flaw tolerance above NDTT. The Frac-
and arrest of the brittle starter crack. The maximum temperature ture Analysis Diagram of Figure 6-23 is appropriate for thicknesses
where brittle fracture is observed is termed the nil ductility transition up to about 2 in. (51 mm). At larger thickness, the FAD curves
temperature (NDT temperature or NDTT). Just above the NDTT the decrease in slope but start at the same NDTT. For large thickness the
brittle fracture of steel structures having small flaws in regions near NDTT +30 °F (+17 °C) criterion should be increased to NDTT +60
yield point stresses is not expected. Hence one design approach is to °F (33 °C). The maximum adjustment for exceptional thicknesses is
limit the lowest service temperature to just above the NDTT. on the order of NDTT +90 °F (+50 °C).
The fracture resistance, and therefore the flaw tolerance, of low to The dynamic tear test (29) is similar to the Charpy impact test
intermediate strength steels rises rapidly as the temperature in- since it represents a transition temperature approach to the measure-
creases above the NDTT. This is reflected in the Fracture Analysis ment of resistance to brittle fracture in impact testing. Test speci-
Diagram shown in Figure 6-23. The indicated temperatures, flaw mens measuring 5/8 in. (15.8 mm) to 12 in. (304.8 mm) in thickness
sizes, and stresses leading to fracture are based upon years of service have been used (13). The standard 5/8 in. (15.8 mm) specimen is
failure experience with ferritic-pearlitic carbon and low alloy steels. 1.62 in. (41 mm) wide and 7 in. (180 mm) long with a nominally
The lower bound curve is the crack arrest temperature (CAT) which 0.375 in. (9.5 mm) deep notch or brittle crack starter weld at
indicates the temperature at which running cracks in wide plates will mid-length of the tension side of the specimen. In contrast to the
be arrested at the indicated applied stress. Adjusting minimum Charpy V-notch test, the fracture path is sufficiently long to evaluate
service temperatures to some level above the NDTT increases the the fracture resistance of materials which exceed plane strain tough-
flaw tolerance of the structure and the margin of safety with respect ness levels. This feature of the dynamic tear test is apparent in Figure
to fracture. A common minimum design temperature is NDTT +30 6-24, showing a sharper definition of the transition behavior of
quenched and tempered intermediate strength steels, when com- provides assurance that the toughness is at the plane strain plateau
pared to the Charpy V-notch impact energy data. when the thickness, B, meets the requirement (33).
Close correlation has been reported (31) for dynamic tear test
results with those obtained by the dropweight NDT test, and the B>2.5(^)2 (Eq6-33)
Robertson crack arrest test. Close agreement of dynamic tear test Oyp
results with component service behavior was also reported at tem-
peratures where actual components fractured in a brittle manner, in An ASTM test specification E399-78 details the procedure for Kic
contrast to Charpy V-notch impact test which indicated high tough- testing (32). Plane strain toughness values are emphasized because
ness levels at these temperatures. Kc values are dependent on the in plane test geometry whereas Kic
values are not. Substantial stable subcritical crack growth may
Fracture Mechanics Approach to Design precede Kc fractures. This subcritical crack growth can be treated
Against Brittle Fracture
A direct computation of the flaw tolerance of structures is possible
using linear elastic fracture mechanics. As discussed in the fatigue
section, the stress intensity factor, K, provides a one-parameter
characterization of the mechanical environment close to the tip of a
sharp crack in a linear elastic body. This approach is appropriate
when dealing with sharp, crack-like discontinuities and when the TEMPERATURE -°C
plastic zone at the crack tip is small compared to the limiting -120 -80 -40 0 40
dimensions of the structure. The basic failure criterion is that rapid 1
1
fracture of a cracked body will commence when the applied K 80
reaches a critical value, termed Kic, which is a measured material - >
CHARPY- V .
o
property (32). Hence, the basic design approach is to limit the design 60 or
UJ
2
loads and maximum defect size such that the applied K in the - 800 UJ
structure is always less than Kic. *• 40 - s^ - or
The critical K value, termed Kic, requires further consideration. It >- <
600 H
O
is considered a material property, such as yield strength, and is O
z 2
referred to as the plane strain fracture toughness. In general, the 400 <
UJ
critical K value at fracture depends on the thickness parallel to the 5 / 8 in. DYNAMIC TEAR
- >-
crack tip. This is schematically shown in Figure 6-25. If the plastic o o
zone is large relative to the thickness, the fracture toughness is high. 00
As the thickness increases, the fracture toughness drops. Finally, the , l , i i
toughness reaches a lower plateau. This value is the plane strain -200 -160 -120 -80 -40 40 80 120
fracture toughness, Kic. The small plastic zone relative to the thick- TEMPERATURE-°F
ness produces a stress parallel to the crack tip as the plastic zone
attempts to contract in this direction but is prevented from doing so
Fig. 6-24 Dynamic tear energy [5/8-in. (15.8-mm) specimen] and
by the large volume of surrounding elastic material. The resulting Charpy V-notch energy of cast HY-80 low alloy steel [specimens from
high degree of triaxial stresses leads to lower toughness and a 3-in. (76-mm) thick castings, quenched and tempered, UTS = 104 ksi
predominantly flat fracture. Results from a large number of tests (716 MPa)] (30). Conversion: 1 ft lb = 1.36 J
LARGE PLASTIC ZONE

Fig. 6-25 General form of the stress COMPARED TO THICKNESS
intensity factor—Kic—and material
thickness, B
SLANT FRACTURE
INTERMEDIATE CASE
S M A L L PLASTIC ZONE
COMPARED TO THICKNESS
FLAT
FRACTURE
THICKNESS - B

TEMPERATURE- °C NOMINAL STRESS - MPo

"150 "I00 "50 100 200 300 400 500 600
I I I I 1 1
- 16
0.6 —
-
\ - 14
E
0.5 -- \ e
- 12
\ \ \ * n A^Tir rrti i A^^r M
Id \ \ \ "•"> rLAol It "ML""_1_M""DC
M CO
CO 0 . 4 - 10
*
\ \ N^-70 ksi /Try ( 77 MPa /nTm ) <
< \ \ \ \ 8
or
<_>
O 0.3 — \\ \ -T.- 5 \0 k s i / /i n
—. ^ ( 55 MPa Vmm
1— )
-250 -I50 -50 50 \ \ X

\ <
TEMPERATURE-°F
<
E °- 2 l-
-
V \ \,-\
\
\ K
\
ic = 3 0
N
^
k s i
"*"• ( 33MPa
v™»>
6
i=
or
o
Fig. 6-26 Temperature dependence of yield strength and Kic fracture \^ X \
toughness for an A216, Grade WCC steel casting (16)
x
\ \
0.1 - v. X
- 2
using the concept of a crack growth resistance curve (34). Stable

crack growth beyond the Kic point is possible. Except for special 1 1 1 1
20 40 60 80 100
cases the Kic level should be considered as the onset of rapid
fracture. NOMINAL STRESS - ksi
The temperature dependence of the fracture properties of mild
steels is again evidenced by a substantial variation in Kic with Fig. 6-27 Critical crack sizes for linkage arm problem of Figure 6-12
temperature. This is illustrated for an A216, Grade WCC cast steel
in Figure 6-26. At very high strength levels this temperature depend-
ence decreases. Loading rate is another important concern. Very
high loading rates can shift the Kfc versus temperature curve to
higher temperatures by as much as 200 °F (110 °C). Correlations
between Kic values and Charpy properties do exist. These correla- difference between property testing and design application of test
tions generally apply to a narrow range of materials and should only data. The plane strain thickness criterion of Eq 6-33 seeks to ensure
be used for the alloys used to develop the data. that reported test data are always on the plane strain plateau and are
If the Kfc values are known or reliable estimates are available, the not erroneously high. Hence, the 2.5 parameter is conservative and
flaw tolerance of a given structure can be computed. As with the is applicable to a wide variety of materials. It does not imply that for
fatigue design problem, the variation of the applied K in the struc- fKic
thicknesses less than 2.5 ' the fracture toughness will always
ture with the crack size and loading conditions must be obtained. °yp
Again, the stress intensity handbooks (21-23) can be used for a wide be high. The designer is interested in the minimum thickness which
variety of engineering problems. will still fail at the Kfc level. For mild steels, in the cleavage regime
of fracture, the minimum thickness for failure at the Kfc level can be
S a m p l e P r o b l e m . The linkage arm problem of Figure 6-12 several times less than the 2.5 criterion.
provides a useful example of computing critical crack sizes. It is Fracture toughness data on steels show that Kfc rarely drops below
good practice to first compute crack sizes which lead to plastic about 25 ksWinT (27 MNm* ), even at very low temperatures and
collapse of the structure. This is the upper boundary of critical crack high rates of loading. The curve of Kfc equal to 30 ksWinT (33
sizes irrespective of the fracture toughness. Eq 6-9 was used to MNm" ) in Figure 6-27 comes close to worst case conditions. At
compute the critical crack sizes for the linkage arm as a function of the low design stresses dictated by a fatigue endurance limit require-
the outer fiber nominal stress. Using the stress intensity expression ment, the critical flaw sizes are reasonably large. At stresses high
of Eq 6-32, critical crack sizes were also computed as a function of compared to yielding, the critical flaw sizes become quite small, and
Com for Kfc levels of 30, 50, and 70 ksWuTT (32, 55, and 77 the situation worsens as the strength increases. Increasing yield
M N m ) . Results are plotted in Figure 6-27. strength to provide a large factor of safety with respect to plastic
It is evident that a Kfc level much in excess of 70 ksWinT (77 collapse does not provide any benefit if the toughness drops to low
3/2
MNm ) will not increase the critical crack sizes since plastic values.
collapse will be the limiting consideration. Naturally, critical crack For a limited number of tests the typical scatter in Kfc test data is
sizes increase at low loads and high toughness. At high loads the on the order of ±20% of the average value. With an admittedly small
extent of plasticity becomes too large for the small scale yielding data base, statistical analysis indicates that 99% of Kfc test values
assumptions of linear elastic fracture mechanics. Neglect of this will be greater than about one half of the average toughness. A
limitation will lead to substantial overestimates of the critical crack reasonable choice of the design base fracture toughness is on the
size. The inclusion of the 70 ksWinT (77 MNm"3/2)Kic value may order of 65% of the average toughness. The average toughness
seem unusual since for the linkage arm thickness of 1.0 in. (25.4 should correspond to the lowest service temperature and highest
mm), the criterion of Eq 5-33 limits the maximum Kic level to about expected loading rate. Fracture is expected when the applied K in
40 ksWinT (44 MNm" „-3/2,). This thickness criterion illustrates the service is greater than the materials Kfc value. The design base
Fig. 6-28 Schematic illustration of the MAXIMUM TOLERABLE CRITICAL CRACK SIZE
FLAW SIZE LIMITED BY FRACTURE
fracture mechanics approach to both fa-
TOUGHNESS OR PLASTIC
tigue and fracture
<C7
COLLAPSE
DISCONTINUITY CRACK GROWTH DUE TO

POPULATION CYCLIC LOADING
HAVING NO N f > DESIGN SERVICE LIFE
EFFECT ON
SUCCESSFUL
SERVICE -FLAWS GREATER THAN THIS SIZE
PERFORMANCE MUST BE DETECTED AND ELIMINATED
toughness is an estimated minimum expected value. The maximum

applied K depends on both the applied stress and crack size. A factor
of safety with respect to fracture requires a tradeoff between uncer-
tainties in service stresses and nondestructive inspection proce-
dures. As in the fatigue problem the maximum crack size which can
go undetected is the dominant consideration. The variation in the
applied K with changes in crack size and applied stress depends on
the specific geometry of interest. This should be examined before
choosing safety factors. With rare exceptions, the applied K is
direcdy proportional to the applied loads. Frequently the applied K
is proportional to the square root of the crack size. In this instance,
decreasing the applied stress by a factor of two increases the critical
crack size by a factor of four. Similarly, a factor of safety of two on
the applied stresses provides a factor of safety of four on the critical
crack size. A reasonable choice of safety factors must rest on a
realistic evaluation of nondestructive testing procedures and typical
defect populations in the structures of interest. Fig. 6-29 Elastic deflection of a built-in cantilever beam
Having discussed the toughness limited critical flaw tolerance of
materials, it is useful to combine the fracture mechanics approach to
both fatigue and fracture. Figure 6-28 provides a schematic illustra- 7T2EI
tion of the linear elastic fracture mechanics design approach. The CRITICAL 2
end-of-life critical crack size can be found from Kic fracture tough- 4L
ness values. For high toughness levels plastic collapse may be the
limiting factor. Using fatigue crack growth rate data, the start-of-life
crack size which provides the desired service life is then computed.
Nondestructive inspection procedures must then ensure that any
defects larger than the maximum tolerable start-of-life size will be
detected. Discontinuities smaller than the maximum tolerable size
will have no effect on successful service performance and can be
safely neglected.
Design Against Excessive

Deflection
For some structures excessive deflection may be a mode of fail-
ure. Dimensional tolerances may be lost, one component may de- Fig. 6-30 Critical buckling load for a uniform column
flect into the path of another, and some deflections may be un-
bounded as in the case of buckling.
Elastic Deflection Young's modulus, E. The casting process is well suited to provide
complex cross-sections of high moments of inertia as discussed in a
Even in the absence of significant yielding, large elastic deflec- later section of this chapter. Stiffener ribs can be easily incorporated
tions may be experienced. A strength of materials approach is often for high torsional and flexural rigidity. For a tabulation of elastic
sufficient to estimate elastic deflections. The controlling material deflection solutions see Reference (35).
property is Young's modulus, E. For ferrous alloys this property
does not change substantially as a function of alloy content. It does
decrease at elevated temperatures. The moment of inertia of the Buckling
cross-section of a component appears in many problems of elastic Buckling of a structure obviously must be avoided. For elastic
deflection, as for example, the cantilever beam of Figure 6-29. The buckling the controlling material property is again Young's modulus
deflection is inversely proportional to the moment of inertia, I, and E. The moment of inertia of the component cross-section also
appears in solutions to buckling problems. Figure 6-30 shows the

classic problem of elastic buckling of a column in compression. The
Design Against Creep and
critical load for buckling is proportional to the product EI. Cross- Stress Rupture
sections of high moments of inertia will provide resistance to buck-
ling. Detailed treatments of elastic and plastic buckling are included As service temperatures approach 0.4 to 0.5 of the absolute
in References (36) and (37). melting points of structural alloys, time-dependent deformation and
fracture must be considered. That is, at high temperatures and long
times, significant amounts of time-dependent deformation or even
fracture can occur at stresses well below those required for yielding
in short-time tensile tests.
INCREASING
STRESS OR Creep
TEMPERATURE
Time-dependent deformation is illustrated in Figure 6-31 by a
schematic plot of strain versus time for a constant applied stress. As
a load is applied elastic deflection first occurs, then time-dependent
< deformation proceeds. Transient behavior is noted in Stage I. The
or contribution of Stage I to the total deformation in high-temperature
CO creep of steel is generally inconsequential. The slope of the curve or
SLOPE = MIN. CREEP RATE strain rate, e continually decreases, until in Stage n, the material
creeps at a steady strain rate, which is denoted as the minimum creep
rate Emer • Upon a transition to Stage III the creep rate increases until
fracture occurs. Increasing the applied stress or temperature in-
creases the minimum creep rate and shortens the time to fracture.
—••TIME
The time to fracture under constant load is termed the stress rupture
Fig. 6-31 Schematic creep curve, strain versus time life.
For high-temperature applications, the designer is faced with two
problems. The working stress must be adjusted such that the amount
of creep deformation remains within acceptable limits. At the same
time, stress rupture, which can occur with small amounts of defor-
LEGEND mation, must also be avoided. Depending on the amount of accept-
- • STRESS FOR MINIMUM " 50 able deformation, either the creep strength or stress rupture strength
CREEP RATE OF may be the limiting design parameter.
n O.OOOOI % / h
The general solution of a creep problem requires a formidable
Q LOG-LOG EXTRAPOLATION- 4 0
OF STRESS FOR I % o effort and considerable expertise (38, 39). Two approaches to de-
- CREEP IN I0 3 h a. sign, the limiting stress for either 1 % total creep in 100,000 hours or
30
- a specified minimum creep rate, are in use where the amount of
H K - 4 0 - 2 ALLOY CO
CO ( 0.44 C ) CO creep deformation is the limiting factor (Figure 6-32). For cast heat
CO
3 ui resisting high alloy steels, tertiary creep may well be initiated before
£ HK-40-I ALLOY 20 or
HN ALLOY ~ I- the creep strain reaches 1 %. Significantly lower limiting stresses are
H ( 0.35 C ) co
CO 2 - obtained with this design approach for these alloys (40). None or
10
only minor differences in limiting stresses were reported for other
-
In In In J In l If] In
I600 BOO I900 2000 I400 I6CO I80O 2000 I800 I9O0 2000
alloys due to choosing either the 1% total creep or the minimum
creep rate approach (41). In terms of material characterization and
the choice of design stresses for some relatively simple engineering
(87I) (982) | (I093) | (870(982) | (982) | (I093)
(I038) (760) (I093) (I038)
problems, it is useful to define the creep strength of a material in
terms of the applied stress causing a Stage II minimum creep rate of
TEMPERATURE-°F (°C)
some specified value. Two typically used strength values are those
Fig. 6-32 Bar graph showing limiting creep stresses for the HK and for a creep rate of 10 %/h and 10" %/h. In a test specimen the
HN cast alloys (40) applied stress is simply the uniaxial tensile stress. In a multiaxial
20
Fig. 6-33 Stress versus minimum-
10 creep-rate curves for HK-35 alloy
8 at 1600 to 2000 °F (871 to 1093 °C)
6
(42)
CO 2
CO
OTO.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01
MINIMUM CREEP RATE-%/h

by the stress rupture properties rather than the creep strength. Figure
TEMPERATURE - ° C 6-35 shows the rupture life of a heat-resistant Type HK-40 cast high
200 400 600 8 00 1000 alloy steel as a function of the temperature and applied stress. The
I7.5
rupture life is highly sensitive to both the applied stress and tempera-
ture. Secondary curves indicate the rupture lives at 100% and 50%
of the creep strength based on an emCr of 10 %/h. Depending on the
I5.0 - amount of acceptable deformation, service temperature, and the
desired service life, either the stress rupture strength or the creep
strength may be the limiting design parameter.
In contrast to Emcr, the rupture life is predominantly dependent on
I2.5 - the maximum principal tensile stress. But again, design stresses
based on elastic analyses can only be suggested for simple geome-
tries with uniform stresses and essentially uniform temperatures.
I0.0 - One suggested criterion for boiler tubes is 80% of the minimum 10
CO
hour stress rupture strength where the stress rupture strength is
CO based on a large number of tests (45). Another reasonable estimate
cc is 50% of the average stress rupture strength for the desired service
7.5 -
H
CO
life. In any event, the factor of safety in terms of rupture life relative
to the design life should not be less than 10. Rapid temperature
variations and periodic loading require an increased factor of safety.
5.0 -
Parametric Life Predictions
One of the problems in choosing the design stress is that very
2.5 - long-time properties must often by extrapolated from shorter time
test results. A wide variety of extrapolation schemes have been
devised (46). One of the most popular correlation parameters for
stress rupture life, tr, and the minimum creep rate, Emcr, is the
400 800 1200 I600 2000 Larson-Miller parameter, P.
TEMPERATURE-°F
P = T(C + l0gtr) (Eq6-34)
Fig. 6-34 Temperature dependence of elevated-temperature

strength properties of cast heat-resistant high alloy grade HK-40 (43) P = T(C +log Emcr) (Eq6-35)
stress field the strain rate is actually dependent on the effective where T is the absolute temperature in °R, and C is a constant. Figure
stress, a, which was defined previously. 6-36 shows a plot of applied stress versus the Larson-Miller parameter
The variation of the Stage n minimum creep rate with the applied for stress rupture, and also for the minimum creep rate of the cast high
stress is schematically illustrated in Figure 6-33. At a given applied alloy steel CA-6NM. The combined effect of stress and temperature on
stress Emcr is extremely temperature sensitive. This means that the the rupture life and creep, respectively, is given by a single curve. In this
actual service temperature must be accurately assessed. Note also manner, relatively short time tests at high temperatures can be used to
that doubling the applied stress results in an increase of Emcr by an estimate long-term properties at lower temperatures.
order of magnitude or more. The temperature dependence of the
Care must be taken in the use of extrapolation parameters. A small
creep strength, defined in terms of a creep rate of 10" %/h, is shown
error in the curve fit can produce a significant error in the rupture
in Figure 6-34 for a Type HK-40 heat-resistant high alloy cast steel.
life or creep rate. Variation of metallurgical structure with long-time
For this alloy the creep and stress rupture properties are of more
exposure at elevated temperatures will change the mechanical prop-
concern above about 900 °F (482 °C) than the short-time tensile
erties and also produce extrapolation errors. Material heat treat-
properties.
ments should be chosen to produce stable high-temperature struc-
The choice of design stress allowables in situations where creep tures and good high-temperature properties. However, it should be
deformation is the limiting concern is difficult without a full creep realized that optimum high-temperature properties may be produced
analysis. Suggested design stresses based on elastic analyses are at the expense of low-temperature properties.
offered for very simple problems and only with significant reserva- A final consideration in design for high temperatures is environ-
tions. A frequently suggested design stress is 50% of the creep mental attack. In some applications resistance to oxidation and
strength based on a creep rate of 10" 4/h at the maximum operating scaling may dictate the material selection rather than the mechanical
temperature. This is appropriate for uniform axial loading and es- properties. Naturally, for load-bearing applications an allowance
sentially uniform temperature. For direct uniform axial stressing, must be made for material loss due to environmental attack.
redistribution of stresses due to creep deformation should not be a
problem. A lower design stress is suggested for nonuniformly
stressed components. Rapid temperature variations and periodic Corrosion Considerations in
loading also require the choice of a lower design stress since thermal
stresses and the accumulation of Stage I creep deformation must be
Design
considered. Obviously, in components where dimensional toler-
Excessive corrosive attack can vitiate the service performance of
ances are critical, the acceptable amount of creep deformation may
structural components. Significant load-bearing area may be lost or,
be quite small and greatly lower the design stress.
at the other extreme, critical dimensional tolerances can be de-
stroyed by the loss of a relatively small amount of material. The
Stress Rupture objective of this section is to briefly discuss several types of corro-
Some materials may fail suddenly under creep loading without sion behavior and emphasize the need to interact with corrosion
significant deformation. In this case the design stress will be limited specialists in the design process.
40.0 Fig. 6-35 Creep-rupture proper-

ties of Type HK-40 alloy. The scat-
20.0 - ter bands shown are set arbitrarily
at ±20% of the stress for the central
I400°F tendency line. Such a range usu-
(760°C) _ INDICATED LIFE AT STRESS FOR - 100 ally embraces test data for similar
0.0001 % / h MINIMUM CREEP RATE alloy compositions, but should not
80
10.0 - 1600 ° F
(871 ° C )
^ ~~>"^d
^s^ ~~""""------^ - 60
be considered statistically signifi-
cant confidence limits. Scatter of
8.0 values may be much wider, par-
ticularly at the longer times and
._ 6.0 - INDICATED LIFE AT 5 o l S -~
higher temperatures (44).
f/i
1800 ° F "~--~^^ OF STRESS FOR 0.0001 % / h -~ 40 •
(982°C)'\^^ -^^ MINIMUM CREEP

CO 4 . 0 CO
^"--^^^ RATE ^<s^ to
CO 1900 • F
UJ UJ
- ( 1038 °C) ~ ~ \ ^ ^
rr 3.0 \ ^^^--^ 20 tr
H
to 2000°F CO
UJ 2.0 _ ( I 0 9 3 ° C ) ^ " - - ^ ^
Ul
_J
to _J
^"""•^V^ ^ * ^ - ^ \
UJ 10 £
h-
1.0
0.8
0.6 -
- 4
0.4 -
i i i i 1 1 I 1 I 1I II
0.3 1 1 l I
1 2 4 8
YEARS
0.2 1 i I M i n i 1 I I
100 1000 10,000 100,000
RUPTURE LIFE
Corrosive attack may be broadly viewed as either general or restricted and a stagnant condition develops. Corrosive agents can
localized. General or uniform attack can be handled in a relatively become highly concentrated, especially in the presence of a heat
straightforward fashion. Corrosion rates depend on both the material flux. Crevice corrosion can be combated by correct material selec-
and the chemistry of the operating environment. Measured corro- tion, elimination of the environment from the crevice region, clean-
sion rates (48, 49) are available for a wide range of material-envi- ing, or by elimination of crevices and stagnant regions.
ronment systems (Chapters 20,21,22). Corrosion rates are typically Stress corrosion cracking is a form of localized corrosion requir-
expressed in terms of mils per year or inches per year. This may be ing a combination of stress, a specific environment, and a suscepti-
based on weight loss measurements but, in terms of load-bearing
ble material. The attack is localized to cracks which may be inter-
behavior, the actual depth of attack is of greater concern. Adherent
corrosion product films may mask weight loss results to some granular or transgranular. Accompanying uniform corrosion is
degree. If corrosion rates are available, the uniformity of attack generally quite low. Cracking times may be measured in minutes or
allows the designer to simply choose a larger section size at start of years.
life to provide a corrosion allowance over the intended service life. As a general rule, high strength alloys are more susceptible to
In selecting materials on the basis of their corrosion resistance the environmentally assisted cracking than low strength alloys. Low
principal corrosive agent, its concentration, and that of other impu- strength alloys, however, are not immune. For example, mild steels
rities must be considered. The steady state operating temperature as will suffer stress corrosion cracking in caustic and nitrate solutions
well as temperature transients are important factors. Flow velocities as well as other specific environments. A wide range of variables
and the possible presence of abrasive particles cannot be neglected. must be considered in selecting alloys which are resistant to stress
Any of these factors, if neglected, can at times lead to grossly corrosion cracking in the design service environment Again, the
underestimated corrosion rates. input of a corrosion specialist is needed.
Localized corrosion is more damaging than uniform attack. It is Problems of stress corrosion cracking can be solved by adjust-
more difficult to predict and its occurrence may be more sensitive to ments in either the operating stress, material, or operating environ-
material and environmental variables. Three of the principal forms ment. Residual stresses from manufacturing or field construction
of localized attack are pitting, crevice corrosion, and stress corrosion must also be considered. Experiments have indicated a threshold
cracking. Pitting is a form of localized attack that produces cavities stress for the initiation of stress corrosion cracks. However, this is
or holes in the material. The surface diameter is on the same order not a commonly used design parameter. When susceptibility to
of the depth. Pitting attack can be quite rapid. After an initiation stress corrosion cracking is marginal, the elimination of stress con-
period, penetration tends to occur at an accelerating rate. The overall centration sites or surface treatments to produce surface residual
metal loss may be low but local areas can be completely consumed. compressive stresses may be a remedy. The best general design
The remedy for pitting is correct material selection for immunity. approach is to select a material or material heat treatment which will
Rapid local attack frequently occurs in crevices where flow is resist stress corrosion cracking.
If cracking is observed in service, fracture mechanics techniques accelerated cracking can be treated in terms of a threshold stress
can be used to compute residual service life and thus establish intensity for crack growth, Kiscc- This approach assumes that a
efficient component replacement schedules (40). For some material- pre-existing crack-like discontinuity must be present to cause stress
environment systems, the crack growth rate may be sufficiently corrosion cracking. When the applied stress and crack size become
slow and the critical defect size large enough so that the design large enough such that the applied K is larger than Kiscc, cracking
service life will not be impaired. In some cases, environmentally will develop. Crack growth rate data as a function of the applied K
is then used to compute component life. Use of this approach may
be warranted for some material-environment systems, but a pre-ex-
isting crack-like discontinuity is most typically not a requirement
for the occurrence of stress corrosion cracking.
100
600 Wear Considerations in Design
80
Wear is commonly defined as the undesirable deterioration of a
- 400
60 component by the removal of material from its surface; it occurs by
RUPTURE displacement and detachment of particles from the surface. Depend-
ing on the intended service of a part, wear is therefore evaluated in
40 -
MEAN - 200
20 I
CO Table 6-1 Classification of Wear (50)
CO
- 100 W
(- I Abrasive Wear
CO —metal against non-metallic or abrasive
P = T ( 2 5 + log t> x I 0 " 3 a. sliding friction
600
—wet (conveyor screws for wet sand)
T= °F + 4 6 0
t= TIME IN HOURS —dry (plow shares)
k „ = SECONDARY CREEP RATE- 400 b. rolling friction
cr
IN PERCENT PER —wet (ball and rod mills)
HOUR
—dry (jaw crushers, crushing rolls)
c. impact of loose abrasive
MINIMUM
CREEP RATE —wet (impellers)
200
—dry (sand blast)
II Metallic Wear
—metal against metal
a. sliding friction
100 —lubricated (shaft in bearing)
—non-lubricated (brake sleeve against wheel)
b. Rolling friction
—lubricated (roller bearings)
P= T( 2 5 - log € —non-lubricated (wheels on track)
ID Erosive, corrosive wear
—metal against liquids or vapors
Fig. 6-36 Larson-Miller plots of stress rupture and minimum creep a. Wet steam (turbines)
rate test results of cast corrosion-resistant alloy CA-6NM at 900 and b. Combustion gases (gas turbines)
1000 °F (482 and 538 °C) (47)
'max "mm "net

"tiTo- Wt Fig. 6-37 Stress concentration factor, Km, for rein-
forced hole in a plate in tension, w/b = 4, B/t = 5 (7)
(|.,)+(,-|)t+«i|i>(ir
h/t

5.0
5.0
02
//W-H/ °°
/ h+Zt^000z
4.5 - j / l/~—0.004
/ / / / ^ ^ - - r / d = 0.005
4.0 -11
- / Xr/d = 0.007
in
3.5
11/// /* r/a =001
M
a-Nlif r-
J ) M
3.0 III Xr/d =0.015

<t // / / ^ r / d = 0.02
2.5
1/// /^^/d= ° 03
////^----^d]£aQ4_
:
2.0 j|///^-^^* 7^d = 0.05
|f/^-——^rToTnfi
1.5 l/>— V r /d=0.l5
]j£- "»r/d = 0.2
r ^r/d=0.3
1.0 1 i
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
D/d
0.25 0.30
Fig. 6-38 Stress concentration factor, Kt, for bending of a stepped
round bar with a shoulder fillet (7)
Fig. 6-39 Stress concentration factor, Kt, for bending of a stepped
round bar with a shoulderfillet(7)
2.0
1.9
terms of the degree of surface deterioration, weight loss, or life to a
specific degree of wear. A common classification of wear (50) is
1.8 presented in Table 6-1 recognizing three principal types:
1. Abrasive wear, is a result of a relative movement between metal

1.7
and non-metallics or abrasives.
2. Adhesive wear, due to the relative movement between metals.
1.6
3. Erosive, corrosive wear, is a relative movement between metal
and liquids or vapors.
'ts
1.5 Other classifications of wear have been presented based upon the
way in which metal is displaced (51-55) or the degree of wear (56).
Other types of wear have been formulated (57) such as:
1.4 - Fatigue wear, the removal of particles by fatigue, arising from
cyclic stresses. This type of wear is considered to predominate in
most practical machine components.
Cavitation erosion, the loss of material due to high impact pres-
sures or temperatures when vapor bubbles in the flowing liquid
collapse.
1.2
Fretting wear, a wear process between two surfaces in oscillatory
relative motion of small amplitude. Chemical reactions predominate
I.I - in the formation of oxides from particles removed in wear.
Weight loss characteristics combined with the ability to absorb
high stress and shock loads are primary considerations in selecting
cast steels for service in mining, crushing machinery, and excavat-
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 020 0.25 0 30
ing. These characteristics are discussed in greater detail in Chapter
r/d
19. Surface appearance and the degree of surface degradation are
Fig. 6-40 Stress concentration factor, Kts, for torsion of a shaft with a important considerations in many other applications. This surface
shoulder fillet (7) deterioration has been characterized (57) as follows:
3.0
2.5 v
ts
)JT N<
2.0
K. ,HOLLOW SHAFT
ts c „ a ^
K. .SOLID SHAFT
tso ' K
ts
l> J
„ „ m = l 6 T d / 7 r ( d 4 - dI, 4 )
0 "nom
I.5
1.0
I.O
0.5 I.O 1.5
Fig. 6-41 Effect of axial hole on stress concentration factor of a tor- r/c
sion shaft (7)
Fig. 6-42 Stress concentration factor, Kts, for angle and box sections
in torsion (7)
translation of wear data into a form suitable for predicting service

performance.
1. Based upon material removal in one dimension, the direction of With some exceptions, hardness has been proven to be the most
the relative movement: Scratching, scoring, scuffing, and gall- significant factor in controlling wear of steel. Small amounts of
ing. These represent increasing severities, beginning with fine retained austenite, decarburization, and variations in microconsti-
scratches, to severe scratches (scoring and scuffing) and gross tuents, however, may have a marked influence on wear resistance.
surface damage where the actual wear process has been masked Toughness is also important in wear involving high stress and shock
by material displacement (galling). loads while corrosion resistance has to be considered where liquids
2. The material removal associated with one dimension, either or vapors are involved. The wear characteristics of cast steels and
along or across the direction of relative movement: plowing, their applications are further discussed in Chapter 19.
ridging, and rippling. The latter two take place in the direction
normal to that of the relative movement and result in the forma-
tion of ridges and valleys. Stress Concentration Factors
3. Material removal in basically three dimensions: pitting, scab-
bing, spalling, and shelling. These terms relate to increasing The stress distributions in structures are significantly modified by
severities with scabbing resulting in the formation of bulges section changes, grooves, holes, and so on, so that high stresses may
while spalling refers to the separation of particles in the form of occur locally. The stress concentration factor, Kt, for these stress
flakes. Shelling describes an advanced phase of spalling and is a raisers is obtained mathematically or experimentally, typically by
term used in railway engineering. means of photoelastic or strain gage studies. Extensive stress con-
centration data have been published in the open literature (7). The
following section, therefore, will cite some of these stress concen-
Design Against Wear tration data and illustrate the unique advantages which designers
may gain by designing components as castings to achieve low stress
Wear problems are minimized or solved by proper selection of concentrations economically.
materials and choice of lubricants where applicable. Materials are
most commonly selected on the basis of trial and tests to determine
wear rate (SO). If superior performance is proved in such limited
Reinforced Holes
service, the part may be incorporated in an operating mechanism Reinforcement of holes to reduce their stress concentrations is
and observed for wear rate under more widely varying conditions. readily achieved when components are designed as castings. Figure
Design against wear is thus complicated by a critical need for the 6-37 illustrates the effect of the reinforcement thickness and width,

as well as the fillet radius on the stress concentration factor of a

circular hole in a flat plate in tension.
tf>
Fillets
Important reductions of stresses are obtained by generous fillets U 90 °
in areas where sections join. These fillets are cast readily, and also
improve structural integrity of the casting.
Examples of stress concentration factors, for round bars and shafts
in bending and torsion are illustrated in Figures 6-38 to 6-41 as a
function of fillet radius and the thickness. Similar data are presented
in Figure 6-42 for angle and box sections in torsion. ^
Fillets and Corners of L Junctions "T

90°
Stress concentration factors in bending for various corner designs
(Figure 6-43) are shown in Table 6-2. Actual tests of cast steel
junctions (Figure 6-44) for static loads to failure as well as the
fatigue life in bending indicate comparable performance in fatigue Fig. 6-43 Corner type designs for cast steel L specimens t = 5/8 in.
for designs 1,2, and 3 (Figure 6-45). The corner design 2 performed (15.9 mm) (58). Conversion: 1 in. = 25.4 mm
best in terms of static strength and fatigue. Design 3, however, is
superior from the foundry production point of view, yielding good
fatigue properties in bending and 80% of the strength in static
loading compared to design 1 with a larger corner cross-section.
Section Modulus, Moment of

Inertia
Designing with castings offers significant advantages relative to
obtaining rigidity of components and minimum fiber stresses be-
cause the cross-section of a component can be chosen in accordance
with service loads. Design with rolled components, in contrast, is
limited by the available standard sizes. Forged components offer
greater design flexibility than wrought products. Compared to cast-
ing, the design flexibility of forged parts is limited, however, due to
the manufacturing considerations (die design) and the high cost of
design changes for forgings.
The section modulus, S, is important in consideration of maxi-
mum fiber stress. Given the service load and the allowable stresses
in the chosen grade of steel, the designer can compute the required
section modulus and then choose a cross-section that satisfies the
section requirement. Eq 6-36 illustrates this for a cantilever beam in
one-point loading at the free end:
S=Ll/aa (Eq 6-36)
The term L represents the load acting on the beam of length, 1.

The term o a represents the allowable stress for the grade of steel
chosen.
Fig. 6-44 Dimensions of cast steel L specimens tested. Section depth
The moment of inertia, I, is considered in deflection, i.e., rigidity = 1 in. = 25.4 mm
of a component. Eq 6-37 illustrates its use for the deflection, d, of
the cantilever beam discussed above:
(Eq 6-37)
'3EI
Table 6-2 Stress Concentration Factors of Steel
Casting L Designs Illustrated in Figure 4-7 (58)
where the term E represents the modulus of elasticity.
Values of section modulus, moment of inertia and radius of gyra- Stress concentration
tion are listed in Table 6-3 for box-, C-, Omega-, and U-sections of Outside factor-Kt
Corner Fillet corner Photo- Strain
different sizes. These data are presented for the convenience of the
design r/w Rlw elasticity measurement
designer. Additional values can be calculated for any design by
applying the usual equations from mechanics. The use of data, and 1L 1 0.2 1.21 1.17
the advantages of selecting suitable cross-sections for production by 2L 1 1.0 1.23 1.22
the casting process are illustrated for lever arms by the following 3L 1 2.0 1.36 1.33
comparison of oval and I-beam sections with cast C-, box-, and 4L 0.4 1.4 1.58 1.60
U-sections (Figure 6-46). 5L 0 1.0 1.73

100,000 PSI M A X I M U M FIBER STRESS

< LOAD
o -9 •
_)
UJ A
tr OVAL
0-
SECTION
100 — 10,000,000
21,000 LB
in
75
, 3 4 , 0 0 0 PSI MAXIMUM FIBER STRESS
- 1,000,000 /4
LOAD
UJ O
1^- B
50 I-BEAM
UJ SECTION
UJ
> 100,000
5 25 1
_l u
UJ
3 9 , 0 0 0 PSI MAXIMUM FIBER STRESS
a:
in 10,000
1 2 3 4
UJ
_i
o
>
Vk\% C
CAST
C-SECTION
A. B.
21,000 LB
Fig. 6-45 Property comparison of L design castings, UTS = 70-75 ksi
(483-517 MPa). A. Relative bending strength of casting designs. B. , 3 7 , 0 0 0 PSI MAXIMUM FIBER STRESS
Limited life fatigue tests in bending of steel castings at a constant pre- -2-3/4 LOAD
load of 1170 lb (531 kg)(58)
D
CAST
BOX-SECTION
The oval cross-section results in the highest maximum fiber

''b,]& 2 1 , 0 0 0 LB
stresses and is not a recommended casting design. The maximum
.4-4,000 PSI MAXIMUM FIBER STRESS
fiber stresses are substantially reduced by the alternate cross-sec-
—i 2-1/8 r * , LOAD
tions (Table 6-4). The I-beam section is a very efficient design. The
C-, box-, and U-section designs are readily cast and support signifi- E
cant side thrust or torsion loads. CAST
Box and tubular sections are cast readily but cost somewhat more U-SECTION
than open sections (C, U, and Omega) due to core production, core
removal, and more complex inspection and repair of internal sur-
faces.
Fig. 6-46 Comparison of designs affecting the stresses and load-car-
rying ability of lever arms (59). Conversion: 1 in. = 25.4 mm, 1000 psi
General Considerations of = 6.89 MPa
Safety Factors
The need for safety factors arises from uncertainties in the design
input parameters and sometimes necessarily approximate design
techniques. The principal areas of uncertainty are: number of tensile tests will show scatter in the measured values of
Oyp.
Adequacy of Postulated Service Loads If enough tests are conducted, a plot showing the probability of
Adequacy of Postulated Service Environment obtaining a given yield strength from a randomly selected tensile
Adequacy of Analytic Techniques specimen can be constructed. Figure 6-47 schematically illustrates
Scatter in Material Property Data the probability of occurrence versus yield strength value. The area
Scatter in the Discontinuity Population under the curve is unity since the yield strength for any test must lie
somewhere under the curve. If the applied stress is known to be a
A full treatment of the uncertainties in the design process requires certain value, o, the probability that this stress will lead to yielding
an analysis of the probability of successful service performance. The of a randomly selected bar is given by the shaded area of Figure
answer is simply not yes or no. A rigorous probability analysis 6-47a. There is a small but finite probability that the selected bar will
requires more information than is typically available for common have a strength less than the applied stress. A safety factor may be
design problems, therefore, the safety factor approach is adopted. considered as the ratio of the average yield strength, o y p to the
Part of the significance of the safety factor approach can be applied stress, o. As the safety factor increases, the vertical line
explained through a simple probability analysis. Probability consid- moves to the left, the area under the tail of the probability curve
erations are particularly important in assessing fatigue strength. If decreases and thus the probability of yielding decreases.
we consider the yielding of a tensile bar, the deterministic approach In a real design problem the applied load is not known with
predicts that yielding will occur when we exceed the yield strength absolute certainty. There is some chance service loads will be higher
of the material, Gyp. The difficulty with this concept is that a large or lower than expected. Hence, service stresses can be expressed in
Table 6-3a Properties of Tubular Sections (60)
/= Moment of inertia, S == Section modulus,R= Radius of gyration

Dimensions Xaxis yaxis Weight
D H t r n /4 s3 R I 5 R Area per lineal
in. in. in. in. in. in. in in. in.4 in.3 in. in.2 inch
1 1 3/16 3/16 3/8 0.6 0.12 0.35 0.06 0.12 0.35 0.48 0.13
2 2 3/16 3/16 3/8 0.63 0.63 0.71 0.63 0.63 0.71 1.3 0.35
3 3 1/4 1/4 1/2 3.3 2.2 1.1 3.3 2.2 1.1 2.5 0.71
4 4 1/4 1/4 1/2 9.0 4.5 1.6 9.0 4.5 1.6 3.5 0.98
4 6 1/4 1/4 1/2 23.5 7.8 2.3 12.0 6.0 1.6 4.6 1.3
4 8 1/4 1/4 1/2 46.1 11.8 2.9 15.2 7.6 1.6 5.6 1.6
6 6 1/4 1/4 1/2 30.6 10.2 2.3 30.6 10.2 2.3 5.6 1.6
4 5 3/8 3/8 3/4 18.2 7.3 1.8 13.0 6.5 1.5 5.8 1.6
5 6 3/8 3/8 3/4 35.5 10.8 2.2 27.8 11.1 1.9 7.4 2.1
6 8 3/8 3/8 3/4 90.0 22.5 3.0 60.0 20.0 2.5 9.8 2.7
4 4 1/2 1/2 1 12.2 6.0 1.4 12.1 6.0 1.4 6.4 1.8
4 6 1/2 1/2 1 35.3 11.8 2.0 18.0 9.0 1.4 8.6 2.4
4 8 1/2 1/2 1 74.8 18.7 2.7 24.3 19.2 1.5 10.4 2.9
6 6 1/2 1/2 1 49.2 16.4 2.2 49.2 16.4 2.2 10.8 3.0
3
Conversion: 1 in.= 25.4 mm, 1in.2 = 645 mm2, lin. 3 = lMl&mm ,! in.4 = 4.16 lO'mm4
Table 6-3a
Table 6-3b
Table 6-3b Properties of C-Sections (60)
/= Moment of inertia, S = Section modulus, R= Radius of gyration

Dimensions Xaxis yaxis Weight
D H t t\ r n /4 S R I S R a Area per lineal
m. in. in. in. m. in. in. in.3 in. in.4 in.3 in. m. in.2 inch
1 1/2 3/16 9/32 3/16 3/8 0.02 0.05 0.23 0.02 0.07 0.23 0.23 0.37 0.10
2 1 3/16 9/32 3/16 3/8 0.37 0.37 0.65 0.06 0.09 0.26 0.39 0.87 0.24
3 2 1/4 3/8 1/4 1/2 2.9 1.9 1.2 0.62 0.52 0.55 0.80 2.05 0.57
4 2 1/4 3/8 1/4 1/2 5.3 2.7 1.5 0.66 0.51 0.53 0.70 2.32 0.65
4 4 1/4 3/8 1/4 1/2 10.3 5.2 1.7 5.3 2.2 1.2 1.61 3.79 1.1
4 6 1/4 3/8 1/4 1/2 27.0 9.0 2.5 5.7 2.3 1.1 1.48 4.47 1.25
6 6 1/4 3/8 1/4 1/2 38.0 12.7 2.6 18.2 5.0 1.8 2.35 5.80 1.60
5 6 3/8 9/16 3/8 3/4 34.0 13.6 2.1 28.5 9.1 1.9 2.85 7.80 2.2
4 4 1/2 3/4 1/2 1 15.2 7.6 1.5 7.8 3.5 1.1 1.77 7.2 2.0
4 6 1/2 3/4 1/2 1 43.0 14.3 2.3 9.2 3.8 1.1 1.6 8.5 2.5
4 8 1/2 3/4 1/2 1 85.6 21.4 3.1 8.6 3.3 0.9 1.43 9.2 2.6
6 6 1/2 3/4 1/2 1 63.1 21.0 2.4 33.1 9.4 1.7 2.5 11.2 3.1
6 9 1/2 3/4 1/2 1 92.0 30.6 2.5 82.5 15.7 2.4 3.78 14.8 4.1

Table 6-3c Properties of Omega Sections (60)
/= Moment of inertia, S= Section modulus, R= Radius of gyration

Dimensions Xaxis Kaxis Weight
D H D, t h r n /4 S R a /4 S R Area per lineal
in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.3 in. in. in. in.3 in. in.2 inch
1 1 1-1/2 3/16 1/4 3/16 3/8 0.06 0.12 0.35 0.50 0.09 0.12 0.42 0.50 0.14
2 2 3 3/16 1/4 3/16 3/8 0.59 0.59 0.67 1.0 1.0 0.67 0.87 1.3 0.37
4 4 6 1/4 1/2 1/4 1/2 7.8 3.8 1.5 1.8 12.5 4.2 1.8 3.7 1.0
4 6 6 1/4 1/2 1/4 1/2 13.5 5.4 1.8 2.9 14.8 4.9 1.9 4.7 1.3
4 8 6 1/4 1/2 1/4 1/2 45.5 11.4 2.9 4.0 20.5 6.8 1.9 5.6 1.6
6 6 9 1/4 1/2 1/4 1/2 80.2 10.1 2.3 3.1 47.1 10.5 2.8 5.8 1.6
3 5 4-1/2 3/8 3/4 3/8 3/4 14.2 5.7 1.7 2.5 8.9 3.9 1.3 5.1 1.4
4 4 6 3/8 3/4 3/8 3/4 10.0 5.0 1.4 1.9 17.3 5.8 1.8 5.1 1.4
4 4 6 1/2 1 1/2 1 11.5 5.8 1.3 1.9 23.6 7.9 1.8 6.9 1.9
4 6 6 1/2 1 1/2 1 34.5 11.5 2.0 3.0 30.4 10.1 1.8 9.0 2.5
4 8 6 1/2 1 1/2 1 75.8 19.0 2.6 4.1 36.3 12.1 1.8 10.9 3.1
5 5 7-1/2 1/2 1 1/2 1 24.5 9.8 1.7 2.5 46.0 12.3 2.3 8.5 2.4
6 6 9 1/2 1 1/2 1 46.9 15.7 2.1 3.0 83.4 18.5 2.8 10.3 2.9
Table 6-3c
Table 6-3d
Table 6-3d Properties of U Sections (60)
/= Moment of inertia, S = Section modulus, R-= Radius of gyration

D intensions Xaxis Kaxis Weight
D H D, t fi h h r n /4 S R a /4 S R Area per lineal
in. in. in. in. in. in. m. in. in. in. in.3 in. in. in. in.3 m. in.2 inch
1 1 1-3/16 3/16 3/16 9/32 3/8 3/16 3/8 0.06 0.12 0.35 0.50 0.09 0.12 0.35 0.50 0.14
2 3 2-1/2 1/4 1/4 1/2 1/2 1/4 1/2 2.1 1.4 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.85 2.1 0.59
3 4 3-1/2 1/4 1/4 1/2 3/4 1/4 1/2 5.1 2.6 1.3 1.8 5.0 2.9 1.3 3.1 0.87
5 8 5-1/2 1/4 3/8 1/2 1 1/4 1/2 42.0 10.5 2.6 3.7 26.3 9.6 2.1 6.2 1.7
6 10 6-1/2 1/4 3/8 1/2 1 1/4 1/2 87.0 17.4 3.4 4.5 52.2 16.1 2.6 7.7 2.2
4 6 4-3/4 3/8 9/16 3/4 1 3/8 3/4 24.7 8.2 1.9 3.0 19.5 8.2 1.7 6.8 1.9
4 4 5 1/2 1/2 1 1 1/2 1 10.3 5.2 1.3 2.0 18.3 7.3 1.7 6.4 1.8
4 6 5 1/2 1/2 1 1 1/2 1 32.0 10.7 1.9 3.0 24.7 9.9 1.7 8.6 2.4
4 8 5 1/2 1/2 1 1 1/2 1 68.1 17.1 2.6 4.0 30.7 12.3 1.7 10.4 2.9
6 6 7 1/2 5/8 1 1-1/2 1/2 1 40.7 13.6 2.0 2.7 70.0 20.0 2.6 10.4 2.9

AVERAGE AVERAGE
AVERAGE YIELD STRENGTH a\,
APPLIED YIELD STRENGTH APPLIED STRESS CT
STRESS
cr a
yp
li_
o u.
UJ
> 0
1- z 0
^v
t-A
_ U)
-J 0
<D,T!
>-2
I-UJ
_iir <y
00 >•
«5
ODH
0
<E u.
a 0
0J3
<o
QDO
0
or
8 OO
— or
A. APPLIED STRESS, cr, OR B. APPLIED STRESS, a , OR
YIELD STRENGTH , <rv YIELD STRENGTH
yp
SAFETY FACTOR yp
SAFETY FACTOR
Fig. 6-47 Schematic diagrams of probability of occurrence of applied stress and material yield strength
terms of the probability of occurrence. The probability of failure as Table 6-4 Design Data for Different Lever Shapes
shown in Figure 6-47b now is related to the area of overlap of the in Figure 4-46 (59)
distributions of applied stress and material strength. The relationship
of factors of safety to probability of failure depends closely on the
shape of the applied stress and material strength probability curves. Section
Figure 6-47b refers to applied stress and material yield strength. We Moment of modulus Mas fiber stress for
could equally well consider applied cyclic stress and the fatigue inertia (in.4) (fa •3) 21,000 lb load
Design Sy ksi (MPa)
limit stress, applied K and Kic fracture toughness and other failure
parameters. For a more refined treatment the reader is referred to A. Oval 2.9 1.2 1.9 1.2 100 689
references 5 and 61. B. I-beam 12.1 1.9 5.5 1.4 34 234
The variations in material property data and expected service C. C-section 10.5 1.3 4.8 0.7 39 269
environment are not the only sources of uncertainty. Safety factors D. Box section 11.2 4.6 5.1 3.4 37 255
are also used to account for the fact that approximate design tech- E. U-section 9.1 6.2 4.2 5.0 44 303
niques may be in error. For example, in some applications a sophis-
ticated creep analysis may not be economically feasible. A simple
approximation may be used instead and a safety factor included to
offset errors associated with the approximate approach. Indeed, for
very complex loading situations even the most sophisticated failure
criteria are clearly deficient and factors of safety must be used. 9. T.H. Topper, R.M. Wetzel, and Morrow, Jr., Journal of Materials,
The commonly used safety factors cited in the previous sections Vol 4,1959, p 200
reflect both the probabilistic approach to failure and successful 10. G.E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, 1976
service experience. They are offered as guidelines rather than hard 11. R.I. Stephens, G. Mauritzon, P.H. Benner, and D.R. Galliart, 'Ta-
and fast rules. tigue and Fracture Toughness of SAE 0030 Cast Steel and Com-
parison with SAE 1020 Wrought Steel," Journal of Steel Castings
Research, No. 83, Steel Founders' Society of America, Rocky
REFERENCES River, OH, July 1968, p i
12. S.S. Manson, Thermal Stress and Low Cycle Fatigue, McGraw-
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2. J.O. Smith and O. Sidebottom, Inelastic Behavior of Load-Carry- 13. H. Neuber, Theory of Notch Stresses, J.W. Edwards, Inc., Ann
ing Members, John Wiley & Sons, 1965 Arbor, MI, 1946
3. A. Mendelson, Plasticity Theory and Application, MacMillan, 14. WG. Clark, Jr., "Fracture Mechanics in Fatigue," Experimental
1968 Mechanics, J. SESA, Vol 1, No. 8,1971
4. E.B. Evans, L.J. Ebert, and C.W. Briggs, Proc, American Society 15. PC. Paris and F.J. Erdogan, J. Basic Eng. Trans. ASME Series D,
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Vol 56,1956, p 1 Vol 85, No. 4,1963, p 528
5. Fatigue Design Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 16. H.D. Greenberg and W.G. Clark, Jr., "A Fracture Mechanics Ap-
New York, NY, 1968 proach to the Development of Realistic Acceptance Standards for
6. C. Vishnevsky, N.F. Bertolino, and J.F Wallace, "The Effects of Heavy Walled Steel Castings," Metals Engineering Quarterly, Aug
Surface Discontinuities on the Fatigue Properties of Cast Steel 1969, p 30
Sections," Steel Foundry Research Foundation, Rocky River, OH, 17. D.W Hoeppnerand W.E. Krepp, "Prediction ofComponent Life by
1966 Application of Fatigue Crack Growth Knowledge," Metals Engi-
7. R.E. Peterson, Stress Concentration Factors, John Wiley & Sons, neering Quarterly, Aug 1969, p 30
1974 18. E.K. Walker, AFFDL-TR-70,1970
8. R.E. Peterson, Notch Sensitivity, in Metal Fatigue, edited by G. 19. ASTM Test Specification E647-78T, Tentative Test Method for
Sines and J.L. Naisman, McGraw-Hill, 1959 Constant-Load-Amplitude Fatigue Crack Growth Rates Above
10" 8 m/cycle, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 10,1979, Wiley & Sons, 1961
p703 40. J. A. Van Echo, D.B. Roach, and A.M. Hall, "High Temperature
20. S.T. Rolfe and J.M. Barsom, Fracture and Fatigue Control in Creep of Heat Resistant Cast Alloys," ASM Publication No.
Structures, Applications of Fracture Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, P9-101, Creep Rate vs. Total Creep as a Basis for Design, 1969,
1977 pl09
21. H. Tada, PC. Paris, and G. Irwin, The Stress Analysis of Cracks 41. G.V. Smith, "Creep Rate vs. Total Creep Deformation: A Perspec-
Handbook, Del Research Corp., Hellertown, PA, 1973 tive Summary of the Symposium," ASM Publication No. P9-101,
22. D.P. Rooke and DJ. Cartwright, Compendium of Stress Intensity Creep Rate vs. Total Creep as a Basis for Design, 1969, p 169
Factors, Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London, 1974 42. Unpublished research of Alloy Casting Institute Division, Steel
23. G.C. Sin, Handbook ofStress Intensity Factorsfor Researchers and Founders' Society of America, Rocky River, Ohio
Engineers, Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics, Lehigh Univ., 43. E.A. Schoefer, "High Temperature Alloy Design Data," 8 Plus, Fall
Bethlehem, PA, 1973 1969, p 8
24. R.J. Bucci, et al., "Fatigue Threshold Crack Propagation in Air and 44. E. A. Schoefer, "High Alloy Data Sheets—HK-40," Steel Founders'
Dry Argon for a Ti-6A1-4V Alloy," ASTM STP 513, Part 1,1973, p Society of America, Rocky River, OH, 1973
125 45. ASME Handbook Creep
25. W.S. Pellini, "Evaluation of Engineering Principles for Fracture- 46. R.W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engi-
Safe Design of Steel Structures," NRL Report 6957 neering Materials, John Wiley & Sons, 1976
26. E.T. Wessel and W.T. Clark, Jr., "Fracture Prevention Procedure for 47. G.V. Smith, "The Elevated Temperature Properties of Alloy CA-
Heavy Section Components," Westinghouse scientific paper 70- 6NM," MPC-11, Cast Metalsfor Structural and Pressure Contain-
1E7-FMPWR-P2, Jan 14,1970 ment Applications, ASME, New York, NY, 1979, p 303
27. E.R. Parker, Brittle Behavior ofEngineering Structures, John Wiley 48. Corrosion Data Survey, Shell Development Co., Emeryville, CA,
& Sons, 1957
1960
28. ASTM Test Specification E208-69, Standard Method for Conduct-
49. E. Rabald, Corrosion Guide, Elsevier, 1968
ing Drop Weight Test to Determine Nil-Ductility Transition Tem-
50. ASM Metals Handbook, Vol 1, 8th ed, 1961, p 244
perature of Ferritic Steels, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part
51. I.V Kragelskii, Friction and Wear, Butterworths, Washington, DC,
10,1979, p 369
1965
29. ASTM Test Specification E604-77, Standard Test Method for Dy-
52. J.F. Archard, "A Review of Wear Studies," Proceedings, Interdisci-
namic Tear Energy of Metallic Materials, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Part 10,1979, p 645 plinary Approach to Friction and Wear, National Aeronautics and
30. Unpublished research, Steel Founders' Society of America, Des Space Administration, Washington, DC
Plaines, IL 53. M.B. Peterson, "Mechanisms of Wear," Boundary Lubrication, An
31. E.A. Lange and F.J. Loss, "Dynamic Tear Energy—A Practical Appraisal of World Literature, F.F. Ling, E.E. Klaus, and R.S. Fein,
Performance Criterion for Fracture Resistance," NRL Report 6975, Ed., American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1969
Nov 17,1969 54. Abrasive Wear—1965, Information Report Handbook Supplement,
32. ASTM Test Specification E399-78a, Standard Test Method for SAE, 1966
Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials, Annual 55. Source Book on Wear Technology, ASM, 1978
Book ofASTM Standards, Part 10,1979, p 540 56. J.F. Archard and W. Hirst, Proceedings of the Royal Society of
33. J.R. Srawley and W.F. Brown, Plane Strain Crack Toughness London, Vol A236,1956, p 397
Testing of High Strength Materials, ASTM STP410,1966 57. K.R. Mecklenburg and R.T. Benzig, 'Testing for Adhesive Wear,"
34. Fracture Toughness Evaluation by R Curve Methods, ASTM STP ASTM STP615, Selection and Use of Wear Tests for Metals, 1976
527,1973 58. H.R. Nara, D.K. Wright, and C.W Briggs, "Studies of the Design
35. R.J. Roark and C. Young, Formulas for Stress and Strain, 5th ed., of Steel Castings and Steel Weldments as Related to Their Methods
McGraw-Hill, 1975 of Manufacture," ASME Trans., Vol 83, Journal of Industrial
36. F. Bleich and L.B. Ramsey, Buckling Strength of Metal Structures, Engineering, Feb 1961
McGraw-Hill, 1952 59. J.B. Caine, "What Foundrymen Should Know About Casting De-
37. G. Gerard, Introduction to Structural Stability Theory, McGraw- sign," Foundry, Jan 1959, p 74-79
Hill, 1962 60. J.B. Caine, "Design Properties of Four Streamlined Cast Sections,"
38. F. Ferinie and W.R. Heller, Creep of Engineering Materials, Foundry, July 1959, p 91-97
McGraw-Hill, 1959 61. CA. Rau, Jr. and P.M. Besuner, "Probabilistic Fracture Mechan-
39. J.D. Lubahn and R.P. Felgar, Plasticity and Creep of Metals, John ics," Product Engineering, Oct 1979, p 41

4\
«*-t*&'

CHAPTER 7
Manufacturing Design Considerations

Page
Introduction 2
Internal Shrinkage - Directional Solidification 2

Tapers 3
Padding 3
Chills 3
Joined Sections 4
Ribs 5
"T," "Y," and "X" Junctions 6
Bosses, Lugs, and Pads 6
Heavy Sections 7
Designing to Minimize Pouring Weight 7
Designing to Minimize the Number of Risers and to Avoid Under Riser Segregation 8
Other Design Considerations for Heavy Section Steel Castings 8
High Strength 9
Corner Design 9
Cored Openings 9
Surface Integrity 10
Joined Sections and Ribs 11
"T," "Y," and "X" Sections 11
External Corners 11
Wave Design 11
Design for Molding 11

Draft 11
Undercuts and Loose Pieces 11
Parting Lines 11
Cores 12
Number of Cores 12
Core Support and Core Strength 12
Design for Cleaning 13

Accessibility 13
Tubular Shaped Castings 14
Design for Machining 14

Layout 15
Design for Function 16

Valves and Fittings 16
Summary 17

Introduction
Close cooperation is required between the foundry engineer and
the design engineer to ensure optimum value and serviceability. If
foundry considerations are ignored during the design stages, it will
be difficult for the foundry to meet the purchase specifications, and
unnecessary costs can be incurred. This is especially true when strict
non-destructive examination is required.
It is evident that the best design from the engineering and foundry INCORRECT CORRECT INCORRECT CORRECT
viewpoint is normally the most economical. It is also true that the
design that is best from the foundry standpoint is usually one that
has low stresses associated with it.
This chapter explains various aspects of the foundry process that
the design engineer should understand and try to take account of in
designing steel castings.
Internal Shrinkage -
Directional Solidification INCORRECT CORRECT
Steel castings begin to solidify at the mold wall, as heat is dissi-
pated through the mold metal interface. This solid metal envelope Fig. 7-1 Schematic examples of design sections showing correct ar-
rangements to improve casting soundness (1)
thickens with time, until the entire section has solidified. In steel a
volumetric contraction occurs when solidification takes place. Extra
feed metal must be available during the final stages of solidification
to compensate for this contraction and to ensure soundness. This
feed metal may come from a heavier adjacent section that solidifies
later; or, it may come from reservoirs, or risers, that are added
purposely to supply extra metal.
The lack of sufficient feed metal to compensate for volumetric
contraction at the time of solidification is the cause of shrinkage
cavities. These cavities form when extra feed metal is not provided
and are found in sections of the casting that solidify late in the
solidification process.
Gross shrinkage results from the failure to locate an adequate riser
on hot spots or the last part of the casting to solidify. Microshrinkage
results when the feeding distance of a riser is exceeded. The place-
ment of risers for internal soundness is the responsibility of the
foundry engineer. The design of the part that allows for the proper
sequence of solidification of the casting is the responsibility of the
design engineer. Therefore, communication between the foundry
and the designer is critical. The degree of soundness required should
be specified before the casting design is finalized. When soundness
requirements are changed to be more strict, the design should be
reviewed, as design changes may ,be required to meet the new
soundness levels. This sometimes requires the modification of pat-
tern equipment and foundry technique. These changes should al- Fig. 7-2 Formation of shrinkage cavities
ways be discussed with the foundry engineer.
The purpose of this cooperation is to obtain directional solidifica- distance is exceeded, the design must be altered or special foundry
tion in the casting. Directional solidification is the progressive techniques employed to promote soundness. For example, the cast-
freezing of the casting in an orderly fashion from a thin or chilled ing shown in view A of Figure 7-2 would have shrinkage in the last
area of the casting, back through progressively heavier sections. The portion of the casting to solidify. The manner in which the casting
riser should be the last portion of the system to solidify, thus solidifies is represented by the isotherms in the casting and riser.
ensuring soundness of the casting. Directional solidification occurs Solidification would start in the thinner part, in the corners where
only when a deliberate temperature gradient has been established to the surface area to volume ratio is greatest, and the heat extraction
ensure soundness. The temperature gradient is created both by the rate is highest. The heavy section will solidify last, and as no extra
design of the part and by foundry practice. feed metal has been added, shrinkage cavities will occur here. When
Sometimes the design will produce an inherently sound casting. a riser is added to the heavy section (as shown in view B) extra feed
Generally though, the design will need to be altered to promote metal is available and the casting will be sound. The casting will
directional solidification (Figure 7-1). Shrinkage will usually be solidify directionally from the thin section to the heavier section and
present at isolated hot spots, or areas where progressive freezing finally in the riser itself. The shrinkage has moved from the casting
does not occur. For example, if a heavy section is isolated from the to the riser.
riser by a thin section, shrinkage will normally appear in the heavy If a boss is added as shown in view C, it would contain shrinkage,
section, as the temperature gradient is disrupted. as the directional solidification has been disrupted by the boss. The
Risers are effective within certain limits. In general heavier sec- riser will not feed the heavier (boss) section through the lighter
tions feed greater distances as they take longer to freeze. When this section.
Manufacturing Design Considerations 7-3
Riser effect
End effect
region
region
Region of uniform taper
Taper in./in.
Taper of a plate with top riser
c
S
To
Q.
Fig. 7-4 Cross section of pressure vessel design showing added

padding to feed an isolated heavy section (2)
J I I I I I I L taken as 2T. The taper should be considered in the initial concept of the
.02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12 .14 .16 .18 .20
casting design, especially if radiographic soundness is required. An
Taper (in./in.) >~ example of the way taper is used to achieve soundness is shown in
Taper, horizontal plates. Figure 7-3.
Fig 7-3 Examples of tapes determined from computer calculations Padding

Designs sometimes have bosses or other features that create "hot
spots" that disrupt directional solidification. The foundry engineer
may then have to add padding that connects one heavy section to
Directional solidification, beginning at the thinnest section and another so that directional solidification may proceed through the
progressing through increasingly heavier sections to the riser(s) thinner joining member.
ensures soundness. Special feeding aids, such as tapers, padding, In all cases, the padding should be left intact on the casting.
ribs, and chills may be used by the foundryman to promote direc- Removing this padding increases costs due to arc washing and extra
tional solidification. These aids are discussed in the following para- grinding. Surface appearances are affected as well. Provisions for
graphs. padding should be considered in the original design and padding
Recent developments in engineering technology have led to com- should be incorporated as part of the final shape of the casting.
puter software with the capability of predicting solidification se- Figure 7-4 shows padding that was added to connect an external
quences. A detailed explanation is given in Chapter 8, "Interactive boss to a flange that is then fed by a circular riser above the flange.
Design." Other examples of padding used to aid feeding and promote sound-
ness are shown in Figure 7-5.
Tapers
Chills
Tapering a section provides a temperature gradient and promotes
directional solidification. All members of the casting increase pro- Chills are used by the foundry engineer to induce soundness by
gressively in section size towards one or more areas where risers can creating thermal gradients. They are made of refractory sand or
be placed. metal; but, in either case their purpose is the same. Chills increase
Recommended tapers, in./in. or cm/cm, of casting section are the rate of heat extraction and increase the distance that risers will
computed according to the following equation: feed.
In silica sand molds, chromite and zircon sands are commonly
Taper = -0.0164W + 0.0648T used as sand chills. Sand chills are placed on specific areas of the
pattern and rammed into place. Metal chills can be specially shaped
to conform to the surface of the casting. Metal chills can be incor-
where W represents the width of the section (in. or cm) and T its porated into the mold or into a core by ramming sand around the
thickness (in. or cm). In the case of plates, the value for W should be chill during molding or coremaking.
Fig. 7-6 Chill on isolated boss accelerates heat contraction. The

boss acts as if it is thermally neutral.
SHRINKAGE-
Sound Sand
1.25Tto2T
(1.25Tto2T) + T
BAD
ROLL CASTING
GOOD
5 Chill
Increased edge
contribution
due to chill
Max. distance
6VT+T
T
I€ Chill
Max. distance
12VT+2T
6VT+ T 6VT+ T
Chill
iI T
Fig. 7-7 Combination of chills and risers for maximum feeding dis-
tance in bars (after Flinn)
feeding distance allowing the feeding of castings that would not

otherwise be possible to feed.
This feeding aid is considered a normal part of steel foundry
practice, and is sometimes the only method possible to ensure
soundness in a given design.
GOOD ARRANGEMENT
GEAR WHEEL Joined Sections
Fig. 7-5 Examples of padding for enhancement of riser feeding char- One of the many advantages of designing a component as a steel
acteristics in roll casting and gear wheel (2) casting is the ability to place metal exactly where required by the
function. However, when these shapes or sections are combined, the
junction may have increased mass compared to the sections being
Chills are often placed on bosses, ribs, or junctions where their joined. The joined section is a concern to the foundry engineer, as
increased mass disrupts directional solidification (Figure 7-6). In these locations with more mass disrupt the progressive freezing and
effect, the chill neutralizes the hot spot and the casting solidifies as directional solidification. These areas are termed "hot spots" and can
if the boss or junction does not exist thermally. contain areas of shrinkage if not risered. It is recommended that
Chills placed on wall or plate sections will increase the distance these mass effects be reduced and eliminated where possible.
that a riser will feed. This use of a chill is shown in Figure 7-7. In The design engineer should attempt to minimize heat concentra-
many cases the number of risers required is reduced and the yield tions in joining sections and ribs through the use of the inscribed
increases when chills are used. At other times the chill increases the circle method.
717* \
XY J
r = 3/4 in.
1-1/2 in. 1-1/2 in.
D •2.4, D 2.7
2.56 t^L) = ( ± i l ) = 3.24
<T> = (ff) v
d ' v
1.5 '
INCREASE OF MASS-156 % INCREASE OF M A S S - 2 2 4 % INCREASE OF M A S S - 3 0 0 %
Fig. 7-8 Increase of mass resulting from joining sections
Fig. 7-9 Rib thickness for several —Hh-T,

T-junctions which are thermally
neutral
in. h
\JLL N hi
a
3
WHEN T| = 1/4 T 2 WHENT,= ' / 2 T 2 WHEN T, = 3 /4T 2
THERMALLY NEUTRAL THERMALLY NEUTRAL THERMALLY NEUTRAL
UNTIL h = 4 T 2 UNTIL h=l.5T 2 UNTIL h = 0.5T 2
Ti-HK »i 7 • T, m i n
f L _ ill Jl tJl Jl
T2
L_r X
The relative amount of increased mass at a joint can be estimated

by the inscribed circle method as shown in Figure 7-8. A general rule
is that the increase in mass at the joint is proportional to the square lin.
of the ratio of diameters, (D/d) , and that the ratio must be as small (25 mm)
as possible.
Ribs
Ribs, gussets, and webs are generally used to reinforce sections
for rigidity. If designed improperly, the increased mass at the junc-
tion can cause a hot spot and shrinkage. Properly designed, a rib can
act as a cooling fin or chill (high surface area to volume ratio) and
increase the feeding distance of a section. Alternately, the rib may - I in.
be designed to be thermally neutral, so that solidification is not (25 mm)
altered by the addition of the rib. Figure 7-9 shows the proper
proportioning of the ribs and the sections to which they are attached.
The relative thickness and height of a rib will determine whether it
will act as a hot spot, a cooling fin, or will be thermally neutral.
Ribs should also be staggered as shown in the lower portion of
Figure 7-9 to avoid an "X" junction, and its hot spot. An "X"
junction of this type is very hard to feed soundly. Ribs should be
designed to draw naturally from the mold, so that cores and loose
pieces are not required to produce the ribs. Fig. 7-10 Rib to increase rigidity and decrease weight
SLOPE 15"
T
CORED CONSTRUCTION A B
r = T|, BUT NEVER LESS THAN 1/2 in.(13 mm) OR GREATER THAN
RIB OR BRACKET I in. ( 25 mm ) IF T 2 IS < 1.5 T, , THEN r = T, AS SHOWN IN SKETCH A
IF T 2 IS > 1.5 T 2 , THEN r = T, AS ABOVE WITH A 15° SLOPE
TO FIT THE RADIUS AS SHOWN IN SKETCH B
T 2 - T | = MINIMUM LENGTH OF SLOPE
T 2 / T , > 3/2 T2/T, i 3/2
T 2 / T | =3 T2/T, = 2
Fig. 7-11 Use of core to eliminate hot spot in rib design 2T2 2T2
+ 2r + 2r
r=l K r=l r=l

A common use of brackets or gussets is shown in Figure 7-10. The
heavy section flange at A would be hard to feed in certain designs
and pouring orientations, so it is replaced with a thinner section
SLOPE
15
A 2T, |2Tg
.SLOPE
15° 2T,
3
flange and a rib or gusset, as shown in view B. The mass at the
junction and the hot spot are reduced which aids the feeding. The rib -T,= l — -T, = l.5 ^T, = 2
can be lightened as shown in Figure 7-11, to reduce the hot spot even
further. T 2 MUST ALWAYS BE ? T,
"T," "Y," and "X" Junctions Fig. 7-12 Basic design rules for T-junctions
Further rules for reducing hot spots in "T," "Y," and "X" junctions
are illustrated in Figures 7-12 to 7-14. Using the inscribed circle
method, the value of (D/d*) is minimized at all junctions to avoid
increases in mass.
Design rules for "T" junctions are shown in Figure 7-12. This
outlines the proper proportions between the thicknesses of the
joined members, the fillet radii at the junction, and the taper re-
quired. Following these rules will reduce foundry problems such as
shrinkage and also will reduce the tendency for hot tears.
"Y" junctions are similar to "T" junctions, but present problems
for the foundryman. Heat is not extracted rapidly in the small radius
between the legs of the "Y". The resulting hot spot is very hard to
feed sound. "Y" junctions should be replaced with "T" junctions
wherever possible as shown in Figure 7-13, view B. If a "Y" junction
cannot be replaced by a "T" junction, design it as shown in Figure
7-13, view A.
"X" junctions are common in many designs, but are difficult to r = l . 5 T BUT NOT < 1.5 in.(38mm)
cast sound. To make an "X" section sound requires that a riser be R=r+T
placed directly over each "X" junction. This may be impractical and
often impossible. Without a riser, shrinkage will often appear at the r = l in. (25mm)
surface. "X" junctions have high stress concentration which can lead
to failure. If "X" junctions must be used, thefilletsshould have a Fig. 7-13 /-junction and T-junction arrangements
radius of 1 in. (25.4 mm). The increased mass caused by the "X"
junction can be reduced in one of the following ways.
One method of improving the troublesome design of the "X"
junction is to reduce its mass by using a core in the middle of the 1.5 in.(38mm)min
junction as shown in Figures 7-14 and 7-15.
CORED YA
Another way to reduce the mass in the junction is to redesign by OPENING
moving one of the legs of the "X" to produce a series of 'X'
junctions. This practice is shown in Figure 7-16. The legs of the "T"
junctions will be staggered and the design rules for "T" junctions in
Figure 7-12 should be followed.
CORED
Bosses, Lugs, and Pads OPENING / \
Bosses and pads increase metal sections locally which cause hot
spots and shrinkage if not risered or chilled. It is usually impractical Fig. 7-14 Cored opening to improve X-junction
if not impossible to riser them; they should be designed so that they When bosses and pads are required, their thickness should be less
are thermally neutral or eliminated when possible. Design rules for than the thickness of the casting sections they adjoin. Pattern num-
bosses are shown in Figure 7-17. Designing the bosses so that they bers and identification bosses can also cause shrinkage and should
are thermally neutral will avoid shrinkage. be designed to be thermally neutral wherever possible especially
when castings are to be made with radiographic requirements. The
best solution is to put raised letters in a recessed pad.
When there are several lugs or bosses on one surface, they should
be joined if possible to facilitate machining (Figure 7-18). A panel
of uniform thickness instead of many pads of varying heights
simplifies machining. A continuous rib, instead of a series of bosses,
also permits shifting hole location. An alternate design to heavy
bosses is shown in Figure 7-19.
Heavy Sections
The necessity for cooperation between the design engineer and
the foundry engineer at the design stage of a casting is even more
pressing when massive, heavy sections are involved. Due to the high
cost, long lead times, and short production runs, these types of
castings need to be manufactured correctly the first time. In addition
to the general rules and considerations outlined in the chapter
regarding manufacturing of a casting, there are several concerns that
apply specifically to the design of heavy section steel castings.
Designing to Minimize Pouring Weight, it is always

good foundry practice to pour castings with the least amount of
metal in order to minimize mold erosion and metal penetration
defects. Paradoxically though, reduction in pouring weight is ac-
complished by adding weight to the casting design. This point is
Fig. 7-15 Heat treatment trays showing cored intersections illustrated in Figure 7-20.
I in. MAX.
Vi
T
T
JL
BAD DESIGN POOR DESIGN BEST DESIGN

L >3T
Fig. 7-16 Eliminate X-section where possible
J,L
Xh 3T MIN-"
t
n? i
'-l/2\r~tr3TMiNi~r~^ l r^/2D h°~j-3TMIN-l
13
WHEN D = L O T WHEN D = I.3T ^ WHEN D = 2.0T
THERMALLY NEUTRAL THERMALLY NEUTRAL THERMALLY NEUTRAL
UNTIL h = I.5T UNTIL h = LOT UNTIL h = . 2 5 T
D i*-3T
V- J_J_ J L , h
r = I/2D-. MIN -, ._ ' = I'2I>0
£
D
hTMIN*1 ,
ED C
i- *~ h-3T MIN-H
u.
rnB
WHEN D = I.O T WHEN D = 1.3 T WHEN D = 2 . 0 T
THERMALLY NEUTRAL THERMALLY NEUTRAL T H E R M A L L Y NEUTRAL
UNTIL h = . 5 T UNTIL h = . 3 3 T UNTIL h ' . I O T
Fig. 7-17 Boss design

Designing to Minimize the Number of Risers and

to Avoid Under Riser Segregation. As explained earlier
in this chapter, the function of risers is to control solidification in a
way that both integrity and soundness are ensured. However, risers
present several inherent problems in large castings. In the first place,
their sheer size makes them difficult to remove. Strict controls in the
preheat stage and the amount of heat input are required to avoid
cracking during theflamecutting operation. In addition, the flame
cutting surfaces need to be dressed using costly thermal and grind-
ing operations.
Perhaps the most worrisome problem associated with large risers
^ £L is that of under riser segregation. During slow solidification certain
alloying elements tend to migrate towards the liquid zone in the
casting. This will lead to greater concentrations of hardening ele-
ments such as carbon, manganese, and chromium in the zones to
INCORRECT solidify the slowest. This effect is most dramatic at the center of
riser-casting contact areas. Riser segregation often causes major
cracking during riser removal, air cooling, or heat treatment.
Although there are tools that foundrymen use to overcome segre-
gation problems, they involve costly and elaborate designs and
procedures that have to be applied to each large riser individually.
Therefore, designing castings with the goal of minimizing the num-
ber of risers is the first and foremost step in reducing the potentially
catastrophic effects associated with under riser segregation. See
Figure 7-20 which illustrates design modifications which reduce
both total pouring weight and number of risers and produce an
increase in clean casting weight.
Other Design Considerations for Heavy Section
Steel Castings. Sound steel castings are manufactured cor-
rectly when the foundry's engineer is in consultation with the cus-
tomer's design engineer. As an example; to determine the radius at
a junction fillet where the average plate thickness is T, the formula
R = 0.5*T, is a safe approach following general design rules. But as
seen in Figure 7-21, applying the foundry engineer's experience
shows that a smaller radius may be desirable in this particular case
in order to limit increases in mass and solidification time.
Streamlined, simple designs that avoid extensive ribbing, cored
out pockets, and cored out holes with a diameter of less than 1/3 the
surrounding metal thickness, are desirable because they produce
POOR IMPROVED cleaner castings with less defects and will also reduce molding and
finishing costs. On the other hand, changes to simplify the design
Fig. 7-19 Redesign of boss to cored opening may involve increases in total weight, machining, and other costs
Alter. 1: Two top risers and Alter. 2: Two top risers and Alter. 3: Exothermic hot top
two side risers 3 "stock on 62"diam. bore riser, 3"stock on 62"diam.
bore and small bore cast solid
42.00 diam. 46.00 diam. 50.00 |

i 1 1 i 1 1
30.00
V 10.00 88.00
diam. diam.
. 84.00 62.00 diam.

diam.
$19.67
Clean casting weight: 105,400 lbs. Clean casting weight: 110,740 lbs. Clean casting weight: 114,100 lbs.
Total casting weight: 187,450 lbs. Total casting weight: 157,800 lbs. Total casting weight: 139,150 lbs.
Fig. 7-20 Reduction of total pouring weight and number of risers by design modifications that increase clean casting weight
whose impact may be detrimental to the production of a sound This technique can eliminate the need for a riser in some cases. In
casting. heavy sections the core may be used to reduce the grain size or to
enhance heat treatment effects by increasing the surface area. An
High Strength illustration of this approach is seen in Figure 7-19.
Corner Design. Many steel castings are designed with tube or
box cross sections. The corners of the box or tube sections are the
junctions of plate sections.
These corner junctions cause a special problem as there is a
localized increase in mass at the juncture (as seen by using the
inscribed circle method). This increased mass, or hot spot is often
isolated from risers. Heat is concentrated at the inside radius during
solidification, causing the thermal center line to move towards the
inside radius. This condition can cause surface shrinkage. To avoid
this situation the corner or "L" section is designed so there is little
if any increase in mass at the corner as shown in Figure 7-22. In
general, the inside radius of the corner should not be less than the A. POOR DESIGN
thickness of the joining section or r = T. The outside or external
radius should be equal to the inside radius plus the section thickness,
or R = 2T. In this way, the localized increase in section size at the
corner is eliminated, and the inside radius is large enough to elimi-
nate surface shrinkage.
Cored Openings. Isolated heavy masses can often be redes-
igned to avoid the occurrence of center line shrinkage by removing
the center of a heavy mass by the use of a core.
B. NOT RECOMMENDED
r = I in. ( 2 5 m m )
18.00
C. FAIR DESIGN OR GREATER
D. FAIR DESIGN
Fig. 7-21 The solidification time with the 9 in. R. fillet is 15 to 20%
greater than with a 4 in. R. fillet.
E. GOOD DESIGN - RECOMMENDED
F. GOOD DESIGN - RECOMMENDED
Fig. 7-22 V section Fig. 7-23 Changing section thickness

"I V/^ 72 ' 3

T 1 1 I 1 i V r r =•l/2in.(25i
I/2 in.(25mm)
J2 T > 2/3 T ) S Vf (MIN)
2
1 ' | ( j I 2 frl > ^3 T2 {
IF T 2 > l . 5 i n . ( 2 5 m m ) AND IF T 2 < I 5 in. ( 25 mm ) AND
T|>2/3 T2 THEN r » T2/3 T | > 2 / 3 T 2 THEN r = 1/2 in.
(13 mm)
r = T9/3
,15 DEGREE SLOPE
• BLEND IN T,
IF T 2 > l . 5 i n . ( 3 8 m m ) AND T, < 2 T 2 / 3 , T H E N r =T2/3WITHA 15

DEGREE SLOPE BETWEEN THE TWO PARTS. FOR E X A M P L E : RIGID DESIGN
T| = 1/2 in. ( 1 3 m m ) , T 2 = 2 i n . ( 2 5 m m ) , r = T 2 / 3 = 2 / 3 = 7 i n . ( 18mm)
POOR
IN NO CASE MUST r < 1.0 in. ( 25 mm )
T2-T| IS THE MINIMUM LENGTH OF SLOPE
Fig. 7-24 Design rule for section thickness change
Surface Integrity
The design of castings to reduce the occurrence of internal shrink-
age has been addressed. Basically, the designer avoids localized
areas with increased mass that cause hot spots that are difficult to
feed. Many of these same considerations are also applied to avoid
surface discontinuities. ELASTIC DESIGN
The trend in specifications is toward tighter surface inspection GOOD
criteria. It cannot be repeated often enough that it is critical to have
close cooperation between the designer and the foundry engineer to
avoid surface imperfections and associated costs. Repair of a surface
discontinuity usually involves removal, inspection, welding, weld
dressing, final inspection, and a stress relief heat treatment.
Hot tears or cracks tend to occur at changes in section size or
junctions where metal will solidify last. These hot spots are suscep-
tible to hot tearing as the last metal to solidify is the weakest. Hot » ' [ RIGID DESIGN
tears are caused by stresses that occur during and soon after solidi-
fication. POOR
A change in section size causes stress due to the different cooling
and contraction rates. It is sometimes desirable that all sections
would be uniform in thickness. This is often impractical and abrupt
changes in section size cannot be avoided. Sharp corners and small ELASTIC DESIGN
radii at these changes must be avoided, as they will increase the GOOD
stresses that can cause tearing. Minimizing either the hot spot or the
stress will reduce the tendency for hot tearing. Fig. 7-25 Wave construction-elastic design
The designer's use of the rules described in these paragraphs will
help the foundryman to produce castings of high surface integrity,
without incurring costs due to avoidable repairs.
Changes in section thickness should be gradual. Figure 7-23
shows several designs for making changes in thickness of casting
sections, according to the following rules.
RULE A.
Sharp re-entrant angles and small fillets are not recommended
(Figures 7-23A and B).
RULEB.
A fair design results if both sections have a common center line,
provided they are joined by a 15° taper or by a radius of 1 in. or more K ^S\\\\SS^£
(Figure 7-23C and D).
WITHOUT DRAFT, AMPLE DRAFT
RULEC. MOLD PATCHING PERMITS EASY AND
The best design is one in which the change in section takes place WILL BE NECESSARY SAFE STRIPPING
entirely on one side of the thinner section (Figure 7-23E and F) and
the junction of the two sections is made according to Figure 7-24. Fig. 7-26 Necessity for adequate draft (1)

Joined Sections and Ribs

The design rules for joined sections and ribs presented previously
in this chapter also apply to reducing hot tears and cracks. • ^
"T," "Y," and "X" Sections

The design rules on "T," "Y," and "X" sections already presented
on internal soundness apply equally in efforts to maximize surface
u
err:
integrity and reduce hot tears and cracks.
INCORRECT CORRECT
External Corners A B
High stress gradients develop when sharp external corners cool
rapidly from high temperatures, particularly in the case of har- Fig. 7-27 Eliminate undercuts (1)
denable steels. External corners should be radiused to prevent corner
cracking.
An external corner radius of between 0.1 to 0.2T is necessary to
avoid the high thermal gradients and stresses.
Wave Design
The wave design can be used sometimes to reduce solidification
and cooling stresses. This approach uses members which are curved
or waved so that they will deflect slightly during the time when hot INCORRECT, CORRECT,
tears are formed. OUTSIDE CORES NO CORES
A good example of this design is shown in Figure 7-25. In the A B
rigid or poor design, the rim section is hindered as it tries to cool and
contract the spokes, which usually solidify first and are in tension. Fig. 7-28 Eliminate cores (1)
The resulting stresses concentrate at the junction of the rim and
spoke and a hot tear can occur there. The stress is reduced by
designing the spokes so that they will deflect during solidification
and cooling. This reduces stress and hence the tendency for hot IRREGULAR PARTING LINE
tearing.
Design for Molding

Another factor in designing steel castings which the design engi- ORIGINAL DESIGN
neer must consider is whether or not the part can be molded eco- A.
nomically.
-STRAIGHT PARTING LINE
The effect of proper design on molding and coremaking costs is
significant. The items discussed in this section all have an effect on
cost, quality, and delivery.
Draft
Draft is the angle applied to the vertical surfaces of patterns or IMPROVED DESIGN
coreboxes, that allows the pattern or core to be removed or drawn. B.
If the draft is not adequate, the pattern will cause the sand to break
away from the mold as it is withdrawn. Draft is used on the sides of Fig. 7-29 Redesign for straight line parting (1)
patterns, projections, and pockets. Unless specified otherwise, draft
angles are added to the casting dimension. An example of an appli-
cation of draft is shown in Figure 7-26.
The specific amount of draft to be used depends on several casting to add strength and maintain a lightweight part as is shown
factors, including the type of pattern equipment, the molding proc- in Figure 7-28 A. If ribs of this nature can be modified as shown in
ess involved, and the length of the production run. The selection of Figure 7-28B, substantial cost savings can be achieved.
the amount of draft should be made by the foundry that will produce The same practice should apply to bosses as well. They should be
the casting. designed so they will draw without the use of cores or loose pieces.
Undercuts and Loose Pieces Parting Lines

Good casting design eliminates the need for the use of loose The parting line is the plane or planes along which a pattern is split
pieces by designing out areas that will not draw naturally. To make or parted. Parting in one plane facilitates the production of the
an undercut or back drafted surface requires a loose piece or a core, pattern, as well as the making of the mold.
as shown in Figure 1-21 A. Loose pieces and extra cores add cost to Patterns with straight parting lines, that is, with the parting line in
the casting, and normally increase the tolerances of the part. Loose one plane, can be produced at lower cost than those with irregular
pieces should be considered only for very low-quantity runs. By or offset parting lines.
eliminating the undercut area as shown in Figure 7-27B, a much Casting designs that are symmetrical about a center line or plane
simpler and more reproducible part is made. readily suggest the position of the parting line. Patterns should be
Unnecessary ribs, lugs, and bosses that require cores increase made as "split patterns" which will result in less labor and hand-
costs. Engineers often place circular ribs around the outside of a work in the mold.
Except in the case of machine molding, offset parting lines require small, it loses its ability to dissipate heat. This can cause the collapse
costly pattern equipment and skilled molding techniques. of the core producing expensive cleaning operations.
Figure 7-29 shows a part that originally had an offset or irregular Long cores in heavy sections experience high buoyancy forces
parting line. By changing the parting line as shown in view B, acting on them. These forces can cause a core to bend, warp, or
substantial savings in production costs were achieved. break. If the diameter of the core is sufficient to allow an adequate
number of rods, these can be added to resist bending forces. The
Cores minimum diameter core for a given section size becomes a very
important factor for the designer and foundry engineer.
Number Of Cores. A core is an insert made of refractory sand Figure 7-33 indicates the recommended minimum core diameter
that is used to make openings and cavities that cannot be made by to be used in cylindrical and plate sections, as a function of the metal
the pattern. The designer should try to reduce or eliminate the use of thickness and the core length. Minimum diameter cores determined
cores where practical as they increase costs and the tolerances of the from these curves can be decreased by 25% if the core is situated
parts. vertically in the mold, as the bending force is eliminated.
A base plate where the original design was complicated, and
involved the use of cores is shown in Figure 7-30A. The design was
modified as shown in view B which eliminated the core and reduced
molding and coremaking costs.
Figure 7-31 shows how the design of a flange was changed to
reduce the number of cores from 2 to 1.
A further example of eliminating a core by redesign is shown in
Figure 7-32. Application of an Omega section design to the bracket
casting decreased the stress concentration and at the same time
eliminated a core. INCORRECT CORRECT
A. B.
Core Support and Core Strength. The minimum diame-
ter of a core which can be used successfully in steel castings is Fig. 7-30 Simplification of a base plate design to eliminate a core
dependent on three factors: 1) the thickness of the metal section (D
surrounding the core, 2) the length of the core, and 3) the special
precautions used by the foundry. The adverse thermal conditions to
which the core is subjected increase in severity as the metal thick-
Section thickness surrounding core-mm
ness increases and the core diameter decreases. When the core is too
50 100 150 200 250 300
200
f ^ srw; ^ ^ VTs
150
CO
Ss ^ - 100 S
CD
o
o
CORE NO I ^N
CORE
NO 2
2 4 6 8 10
POOR DESIGN GOOD DESIGN Section thickness surrounding core-in.
TWO CORES ONE CORE
Plate thickness-mm
Fig. 7-31 Design illustrating reduction in number of cores 50 100 150 200 250 300
1200
150
/ ("\
O f
CO
o I
•O '
I
-1100 =5
o
ii i' O
i o; o - 50
v sJ
-i—r
i i 4 6 8 10 12
_! L- b) Plate thickness -in.
CORE
ID an Fig. 7-33 (a) Recommended minimum diameter for horizontal

gores supported at ends only, in cylindrical or boss sections of steel
castings. For vertical cores the minimum diameters can be reduced
Fig. 7-32 Omega section design is applied in redesign of bracket by 25%. (b) Recommended minimum core diameter for plate
to eliminate core and decrease stress problems sections in steel castings
These curves apply to normal foundry practice. Special tech-

niques can be used in some cases to further reduce the minimum Design for Cleaning
core diameter. These techniques are normally associated with higher
Design considerations for cleaning and finishing operations are
costs. Applications that require smaller cores than recommended
very important, as these functions are labor intensive. The various
here should be discussed with the foundry engineer.
cleaning and finishing operations are discussed in detail in Chapter
A more general rule for heavy sections is that a core diameter
14, "Finishing, Heat Treatment and Inspection."
should not be less than 1/3 T.
Efforts to reduce the time necessary to remove gates and risers, to
simplify core removal, and reduce grinding and fin removal will
result in lower costs.
The cost of removing a core from a casting cavity may become
I- prohibitive when the areas to be cleaned are not accessible. Casting
N
designs should provide for openings large enough to permit access
& for the removal of the sand core. Figure 7-34(A) shows a casting
which was uneconomical to produce because the internal coring was
OUTSIDE CORE A. INCORRECT OUTSIDE CORE
difficult. The design was further complicated by the need for exter-
.••_.k^\\\^S nal cores. The redesigned casting in Figure 7-34(B) is of uniform
rJ
thickness, weighs less, and was stronger. Savings of 30% in pattern-
J
i I
making and production costs resulted. The cleaning costs were
reduced by the elimination of the external ring core and the inside
B. CORRECT core.
Fig. 7-34 Redesign to obtain uniform sections and eliminate core Accessibility
An example of a common design for a steam ring is shown in
Figure 7-35. The core for this part is reinforced with metal rods to
provide strength. In the original design it was virtually impossible
to remove the core rods and core sand, as access to the internal
cavity was limited. The redesign shown incorporates the Omega
section design and achieved a cost saving of 25%, as the core rods
can now be removed and the internal cavity can be inspected and
cleaned easily. A simple plate is cut and welded into place to produce
the final steam ring design.
The original design of another example shown in Figure 7-36A
had six small holes at the top and one opening on the side for core
removal which caused extremely high cleaning costs. The redes-
PLATE r WELDED igned part in Figure .7-36B has substantially larger areas for core
removal through the bottom as shown in the section A-B view of
Fig. 7-35 Cast-weld design replaces a costly cored design that is Figure 7-36B. A plate was then added to close off the cylindrical
difficult to clean chamber.
Fig. 7-36 Jacketed design for eas-

ier cleaning (3)
SECTION A-B
B

The steam chest housing with an outer chamber shown in Figure better properties, which can also be used to eliminate cores and aid
7-37 represents a complicated design from the core removal stand- the cleaning of castings. The proportions of the Omega section are
point. This part is best made as a three piece cast-weldment. Each of discussed in Chapter 7.
the three castings is easy to produce and clean, compared to a one
piece casting.
Design for Machining
Tubular Shaped Castings Some castings are used in the unmachined condition, while others
The box or tubular cross section design is efficient for complex require a single machining operation. The majority of steel castings
loading conditions as discussed in Chapter 7. However, from the will require a range of machining set-ups and operations with a wide
foundry standpoint, these designs are sometimes objectionable be- variation in machining costs. These costs may be a fraction of the
casting price, or many times the original casting price.
The foundry engineer is responsible for giving the designer a cast
1. A core is required, adding cost product that is capable of being transformed by machining to meet
2. Internal surfaces can be hard to inspect the specific requirements intended for the function of the part. To
3. Cleaning costs are substantial for internal surfaces accomplish this goal a close relationship must be maintained be-
tween the customer's engineering and purchasing staff and the
These difficulties increase as the length of the tubular or box casting producer.
casting increases. These objections can be overcome by using the It is the designer's responsibility to convey all information needed
U-section of Figure 7-38, views C and D. Open sided sections do so the foundryman can take the necessary steps to ensure the ma-
not give the properties about both axes that are obtainable in the box chining. The information is best relayed by the blueprint.
section, but the values are equivalent to the I-beam section in one Here are some of the areas that should be addressed to ensure the
direction. In the other direction, the U-section is superior to the casting will machine properly:
I-beam. The U-section can be designed with the radius equal to 1
inch, or with the radius equal to the wall section. The Omega section 1. The foundry processes to be used, and the process capability of
shown in Figure 7-39 is a variation of the U-section, with somewhat these techniques
WELDED JOINTS
Fig. 7-37 Complicated cored design, best produced as a cast weld unit (3)
n
B
Fig. 7-38 Comparison of I-beam, box, and U-section designs

a \j ei
2. Suitability and condition of the pattern equipment to be used

3. Machine stock allowance to ensure clean up. The effect of the
part's geometry and anticipated tolerances on machine stock
4. Cast locator positions in relation to riser and gating contacts,
drafted surfaces, parting lines, etc. Types, number, and sizes of
locators
5. Selection of the material specification and heat treatment
6. Quantity of parts to be produced
It is helpful to have a meeting between the customer's engineer

and the foundry engineer to consider these points before construct-
ing the pattern equipment.
Layout
To ensure that all machining requirements detailed on the draw-
ings can be achieved, it is imperative that for each casting design a
complete layout of the sample casting should be made.
For simple configurations a rule might be used to check dimen-
sions and machine stock. For more complex parts, it may be neces-
sary for the casting to be checked more completely; calling for target Fig. 7-39 Omega section design
Fig. 7-40 Layout using datum planes and target points

II in. (279 mm) 2 in.( 51 mm ) T2

r r = I in. OR r = - y
BUT NOT < I in.(25mm)
I-I/2 in.(38 mm)
ORIGINAL DESIGN REDESIGN

*M
I-I/2 in. (38 mm )
15 % TAPER-1
Fig. 7-41 Use of taper and radii to improve internal integrity of elbows ROUND EXTERNAL ROUND EXTERNAL
CORNERS TO CORNERS TO
r = . l T, r = . I T,
Fig. 7-42 Use of taper and radii to improve internal and surface
integrity of fittings
ADDED FOR
MACHINING
STOCK
ORIGINAL
Fig. 7-44 Application of padding and tapers for improved casting

production and internal integrity
points and locators to be used to establish planes from which

dimensions are measured and checked. The illustration in Figure
SECTION B-B
7-40 shows one approach that may be used to check a complicated
casting with reference to three planes, A, B, and C. In this case the
bosses are target points that are adjusted by grinding so that machine
stock is equalized on all machined surfaces.
fZz&zh
Design for Function
SECTION A-A Valves and Fittings
REDESIGNED Pressure vessels such as valves, fittings, and casings for turbines
SECTION C-C and pumps must be designed with special attention to wall thickness
and section soundness.
Fig. 7-43 Corrugated section substituted for intersecting ribs in The cast elbow in Figure 7-41 is used for high pressure and high-
valve casting. Section A-A with corrugated bonnet port walls temperature service. The original design with a uniform wall had a

16% rejection rate. Tapering the wall section promoted directional redesign view. The section modulus is increased and the 'X' junc-
solidification and high internal integrity. The rejection rate was tions are eliminated.
reduced, and the castings met the required radiographic standards. Padding and tapers properly placed by the foundryman may be
Figure 7-42 shows a fitting design that is frequently an integral necessary for casting production to improve internal integrity. If
component of valves and more complicated pressure vessels. The weight is not a consideration, the padding could be permitted to
use of taper and rounded corners (internal and external) improved remain. An illustration of the use of properly placed padding is
the soundness and overall quality. This design is recommended for shown in Figure 7-44. The walls are tapered in two areas to en-
pressure castings of this nature, especially when radiographic and chance the internal integrity of the casting. This example is included
magnetic particle inspection are required. The enlarged core print to indicate how certain steel casting designers, working with foun-
puts the resulting core fin in a position that is easy to remove in dry engineers, can design castings with sections that taper toward
cleaning. It also make a radius on the inside diameter of the flange riser positions to permit higher degrees of solidity not always possi-
face that reduces casting stresses and makes a consistent surface for ble in uniform sections.
machine finishing.
The indiscriminate use of stiffening ribs on pressure vessels can
cause considerable trouble with internal shrinkage and leakage Summary
unless the ribbed sections can be arranged so they can be fed with a
riser or chilled. All of these illustrations are meant to show some of the practical
A pressure vessel with external ribs is shown in Figure 7-43. The techniques utilized in casting designs that result in high quality and
original design had isolated hot spots at the "X" and "T" junctions value. These design considerations require close cooperation be-
caused by the ribs. The "X" junctions can be eliminated by using tween the casting designer and the foundry engineer. The decisions
staggered "T" junctions. However, both the "T" and "X" junctions concerning design are best made prior to the manufacture of the
can be replaced by using a corrugated section, as shown in the pattern equipment.

i
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CHAPTER 8
Concurrent Engineering
Page
Introduction 8-2
Concurrent Engineering and the Casting Process 8-2
Computer Aided Design 8-2
Solid Modeling 8-2
Solidification Simulation Programs 8-3
Fluid Flow Simulation 8-4
Mechanical Design and Stress Analysis 8-5
Rapid Prototyping 8-5
Computer Aided Pattern Making 8-6
Casting Machining 8-6
References 8-6

scaled, hard models of castings in just hours, which opens a wide

Introduction array of possibilities in terms of optimizing manufacturing methods.
Cooperation between design and casting engineers at the product
development stage is a necessary approach that often results in
improved casting quality and cost. By following this practice a
Computer Aided Design
number of costly pitfalls can be avoided and delays that invariably Two-dimensional computer drafting programs are widely used by
appear when foundry engineering considerations are ignored can be both designers and foundrymen today (2). They permit the genera-
eliminated. The contribution of the foundry engineer to traditional tion of high quality engineering drawings in considerably less time
product design and development takes place along the lines de- than manual drafting methods allow. Their greatest advantage rests
scribed in Chapters 3,5, and 6 of this Handbook. in the ease with which drawing modifications can be implemented
In recent years, several emerging computer aided technologies which allows for greater flexibility in the design process. A foundry
have greatly advanced the product development process. With them, engineer can use drawings transferred via electronic media and
the design, design verification, and manufacturing planning phases easily incorporate design improvements and suggestions, provided
have the potential of becoming simultaneous to a great degree, that he has access to compatible CAD software.
thereby drastically reducing the design to manufacturing time cycle. Several CAD programs have capabilities for drafting parts three-
Within this new environment, the casting process fits ideally, with dimensionally. In effect, they generate an array of contour lines
its freedom from design constraints and its requirement for actual called a "wireframe" which can give different visual perspectives of
models (patterns). This chapter will give an overview of how steel the final part. This capability should not be confused with Solid
castings may be effectively adapted to modern concurrent engineer- Modeling which will be discussed next.
ing processes.
Solid Modeling
Concurrent Engineering and
Solid modelers are highly sophisticated computer tools that allow
the Casting Process the "creation" on a screen, of mathematically defined solids and
surfaces. Although these programs have the capability of producing
The flow diagrams in Figures 8-1 and 8-2a and 8-2b highlight the two-dimensional engineering drawings from the solid model, this is
basic differences between Conventional and Computer Aided Con- not their main purpose, since that task can be better accomplished
current Engineering. The number of steps from the generation of the with inexpensive and simple to use PC drafting programs.
initial casting design to the approval of sample castings can be The main advantage of solid models is that they can be manipu-
reduced from ten in the Conventional process, to five with the lated as if they were actual solids. Parts can be sectioned, features
Computer Aided Process. The reason for this reduction in steps is added or removed, and mass properties can be instantly computed.
based on the electronic transfer of three-dimensional CAD models These programs can come with machining, assembly, mold making,
from Design Engineering to the foundry, pattern, and manufacturing and other manufacturing packages that facilitate the development of
engineering groups, which in turn are able to transfer the output tooling and methods for those operations. Their potential for appli-
among themselves as required. In this way, their activities become cations on castings is based on the transfer of the solid model into
to a large extent simultaneous. various simulation programs as well as use with rapid prototyping
Conventional engineering processes are commonly being referred devices and pattern machining programs.
to as Serial Engineering Processes. This expression derives from the
concept that the beginning of the activities of a particular group
depends on the completion of the activities by the previous group.
In the case of castings, for instance, a preliminary concept design is Concurrent vs. Traditional Engineering
given to a drafting group which must generate preliminary hard
drawings; these in turn are transferred to the Foundry group which Concurrent engineering
will submit improvements in the way of layouts, marked drawings,
and cost estimates. After an agreement is reached the production of
final drawings is done by the detail drafting group and so on. / \ / \ , Traditional engineering
Serial engineering is still the best approach in many instances for
the following reasons: a) Simple casting designs can be rapidly and S. I J \ \ Cost impact of
thoroughly evaluated by foundry and manufacturing professionals "- I / \ \ engineering changes
without the use of expensive and elaborate CAD/CAM technolo-
gies, b) The generation of solid models can be a lengthy and 1? / / \ \ I \ Traditional
involved process that requires well-trained specialists: in many a. \ I V ^ ^ V y Jw-"" P roduction
cases a two-dimensional conventional blueprint is faster, more eco- W j / ' ^ ^ ^ !_^-—-^\. begins
nomical, and just as effective, c) The cost of Computer Aided / ^Concurrent I \ ^ V , ^
I S engineering | , ^***^
Technologies such as Solid Modeling, Solidification Simulation and l / production I i
Rapid Prototyping may be high for certain applications. V begins ' ' _
1 s
Computer Aided Concurrent Engineering Processes (1) have the ]_ _| Development
potential to significantly shorten the product development cycle as Earlier manufacturing
has been mentioned. The technologies involved also permit a far release, identification of
more thorough engineering function. For instance, Solidification critical parts and processes
Simulation packages can accurately predict the presence of design-
related defects such as shrinkage so that modifications to the model Fig. 8-1 Spending profiles. Unlike traditional engineering projects,
concurrent engineering programs ramp up quickly and move to pro-
can be made until a sound casting design is arrived at, even before
duction sooner. Generally, companies save money because concur-
a hard drawing has been made. Other examples are Rapid Prototyp- rent engineering cuts redesign efforts and reduces engineering sup-
ing Processes which offer the capability of producing accurate, port.

Concurrent Engineering 8-3
Solidification Simulation Concurrent Engineering

Programs
Conceptual ~\
The accurate prediction of the location of solidification-related design
defects is a primary concern of the foundry engineer. This difficult
task has traditionally been carried out by analyzing a varied number i
,
of geometrical relationships within the casting, and applying differ- ''
ent experimentally derived formulae. One main difficulty is that of Detailed
being able to visualize and accurately measure volumes and surfaces design
in complex casting configurations, while working with two-dimen-
sional views and sections. Another problem is that of applying
experimental data obtained from simple casting shapes, such as \ "
plates and bars, to curved configurations, variable thickness sec- Analysis
tions, complex junctions, and cored areas with restricted heat flow.
In view of all this, programs that simulate the solidification of a
casting are becoming one of the most effective CAD/CAM tools
, —*• Prototyping Mfg.
'
available to the steel casting producer (3,4,5,6). The several types
of solidification simulation programs cover a wide array of output, Mfg.
output quality, user friendliness, execution time, and cost. preparation
The most basic programs are Two-Dimensional PC driven. They
are capable of performing routine measurements and calculations \ '
with considerable improvements in speed and accuracy. Programs
such as AFS ORDER are based on Chovorinov's rule relating Purchasing
solidification times to section modulus (Volume/Section Area) and
give an estimation of the solidification sequence (freezing order)
within a casting section. Other such programs calculate riser dimen-
sions and the number of risers required with different options de-
1 L
Suppliers
signed to optimize yields and manufacturing costs. Input for these
programs is done via a digitizing tablet using scale drawings or J
layouts.
While these foundry engineering programs are a very useful tool, Fig. 8-2b Product development 1990s style. With a concurrent
approach to engineering, teams attack all aspects of product
they are not solidification simulators, whose objective is to predict development simultaneously in contrast to the traditional serial
three-dimensional freezing patterns and potential shrinkage porosity manner (below). Most changes come in the early stages when they
zones. are easily and inexpensively made. Fewer prototypes are needed,
Three-dimensional solidification simulation is perhaps the most and the ones that are built often require only fine-tuning. The end
important breakthrough in CAD/CAM application to the steel cast- result: a product that takes less time to develop, has higher quality,
ing process. Various powerful programs presently available attempt and costs less since expensive changes and prototypes are
to give a close representation of what actually takes place inside the virtually eliminated. Computer-aided engineering tools and the
communications afforded by computers play key roles in the
casting from the moment the casting is poured until it has solidified. workflow of concurrent engineering. For instance, detailed design
This gives steel foundries the ability to prove the casting prior to the becomes more of a documentation step rather than a design stage.
production of patterns, thus saving significant amounts of time and Transforming a serial-based company to a concurrent one,
money associated with conventional methods. however, usually requires massive changes in a company's
The various programs available offer different advantages, disad- culture, affecting all employees as well as relations with customers,
vantages, and options and each one of them is best suited for a clients, partners, and suppliers.
Serial Engineering
Fig. 8-2a The old fashioned way. Traditional product development follows a linear path, with each step beginning only after the last is completed.
Engineers and others work in isolated departments; designs are thrown over the proverbial wall to manufacturing. Changes often require going
back to conceptual design and become more costly as time goes on. And no matter how efficient the serial approach becomes, it's still slower and
more error-prone than the parallel approach of concurrent engineering.

Laser
Fig. 8-3 Schematic of LOM ma-
chine
X-Y positioning
device
Layer periphery
and Crosshatch
Computer
Part block
Material ribbon
Rewinding roll
Unwinding roll
particular operation. For instance, programs which provide an out- future, and that the meshing of complex casting-mold assemblies
put of solidification contours, based on a volume to surface area will soon be a practical reality.
ratio formula, can perform the simulation of a complex part in just Solidification analysis from solid models is, nevertheless, a reality
a few minutes. The speed and user friendliness of these programs with the use of software packages that accept STL (Stereolithogra-
makes them better suited to jobbing foundries where many different phy) files from solid models. Unlike the generation of FEM feshes,
parts need to be processed and computation time is an issue. generation of STL output is not a problem with complex models.
On the other hand, sophisticated FEM (Finite Element Method) These solidification programs may lack the scientific and mathe-
and FDM (Finite Difference Method) programs are based upon the matical sophistication of the more advanced FEM/FDM programs,
simultaneous performance of complex heat transfer computations yet they do an excellent job in predicting shrinkage in castings, and
on each element or block of a fine three-dimensional grid. This their output closely concurs with radiographic inspection results.
demands strong computational power and lengthy processing time, Their quick response and user friendliness are important factors in
while providing greater accuracy and a close representation of what regards to Concurrent Engineering.
actually happens in the mold, even taking into account the thermal
effects that occur during the filling of the mold. Currently such
programs would be better suited for highly engineered, critical Fluid Flow Simulation
components and for large scale product development projects.
It should be reiterated, that in the context of Concurrent Engineer- Another major consideration to the foundry engineer is that of
ing, one fundamental requirement of solidification simulation pro- designing mold filling methods that will minimize a large array of
grams is their ability to accept geometry from another CAD System. casting quality problems associated with that process. Problems
Although most of the solidification programs come with their own such as gas entrapment, mold erosion and spalling defects, slag and
CAD package, requiring the foundry engineer to develop his own dross inclusions, misruns and undesirable thermal gradients within
model from blueprints, nullifies the design-to-manufacturing time the casting, have been traditionally attacked by designing gating
cycle advantages expounded at the beginning of this chapter. At the systems that provide smooth, low energy flow, proper pouring time,
time this chapter was written, bridging the gap between Solid Mod- slag entrapment devices, and reduction of air aspiration. Experimen-
eling and FEA/FDA casting simulation programs is one of the main tal data, design formulae based on hydraulic principles, rules of
challenges for the effective use of these programs in a Concurrent thumb, and proprietary foundry experience are some of the ap-
Engineering environment. Most of the FEA/FDA programs require proaches used to address these very complex and difficult problems.
as input the transfer of Finite Element Mesh of the casting and the This variety of methods is required due to the fact that no two alloys
surrounding mold. Although this is easily done on simple shape are the same in terms of fluidity, density, surface tension, or ten-
castings, the meshing of complex castings is difficult and requires dency towards viscous oxide formation.
the handling of voluminous files, and lengthy processing times. Computer programs have been developed that give information
Sometimes the Finite Element Meshes required can be so complex about fluid flow conditions during the filling of a mold with molten
and large that they may be beyond the computing power of most metal (7). As they become more and more utilized by foundry
commercial FEA software and hardware, a fact that highlights the engineers, such programs will take out much of the guess work
complexity of form and freedom of design associated with the involved in the design of mold filling systems, thus improving
casting process when compared with other metal product forms. It quality and consistency. The role of such programs in Concurrent
is expected that these present difficulties will be resolved in the near Engineering is obvious, since the requirement for gating and pour-

Concurrent Engineering 8-5
ing method changes during the prototype sampling stage will be

significantly reduced.
It must be emphasized that the difficulty in generating FEM
meshes for liquid flow simulations is generally greater than for
solidification analysis as they require a minimum number of ele-
ments across wall section thicknesses. This is particularly cumber-
some for thin-walled castings where the number of mesh nodes can
increase to unmanageable numbers.
Mechanical Design and Stress

Analysis
Another important application of Concurrent Engineering is the
optimization of cast component performance through the prediction
of mechanical and thermal stresses and failure analysis. In many
cases this will be done by a back and forth transfer of the CAD Fig. 8-4 LOM part—suspension arm
model from the foundry engineer, who introduces casting improve-
ment modifications to the design engineer, who evaluates those
modifications from the point of view of mechanical and thermal
loads, stress concentrations, assembly constraints, etc. In some
cases foundries may perform mechanical engineering evaluations in Beam shaping
conjunction with casting quality improvements. Such capability will optics
further improve the Concurrent Engineering process. Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) with CAD/CAM Programs are able to give a de- XY scanner
tailed representation of stress concentrations in a casting under
Support
different mechanical or thermal loadings. With qualified profes-
platform
sional evaluation, such programs can be of tremendous value in
narrowing the communication gap between designers and foundry-
men in aiding the design of reliable, better performing components.
Rapid Prototyping
Rapid prototyping refers to a variety of technologies that are
capable of automatically generating physical models using solid
modeling data (8, 9, 10,11). These processes take place virtually
unattended and complex configurations can be produced in a matter
of hours, while conventional, manual fabrication methods can take
weeks and even months to produce a complete model. The availabil-
ity of hard models at the initial stages of product development, leads
to the production of better designs and manufacturing methods since
all the engineering functions are greatly facilitated by the visualiza- Fig. 8-5 An ultraviolet laser builds a part layer-by-layer by drawing
tion and manipulation of hard models. This is especially useful to each layer onto a vat of photopolymer, which hardens when
the foundry engineer who is very concerned with mass and surface sufficiently exposed to the radiation.
distributions, junction development, and other geometric considera-
tions which are, at times, difficult to visualize and measure from
two-dimensional drawings. In addition, rapid prototyping methods
have opened exciting possibilities in the pattern and permanent
mold making areas, which will be addressed later.
Some of the Rapid Prototyping Processes that have found appli-
cation in the metal casting field are Laminated Object Manufactur-
ing (LOM) (Figures 8-3 and 8-4), Fused Deposition Modeling
(FDM), Stereolithography (SLA) (Figure 8-5) and Selective Laser
Sintering Process (SLS) (Figures 8-6 and 8-7). These processes
enable the building of complex, three-dimensional models by suc-
cessively laying cross-sectional layers of different materials, using
data from a surface or solid modeling CAD system. CAD data is first
converted into a Rapid Prototype machine readable format, nor-
mally the output is an STL file. The STL files are processed with
software that creates cross sections (or "slices") of the part. This
information is transferred to another computer that drives the rapid
prototyping unit. The final output is a hard model that matches the
design with great accuracy.
In addition to greatly facilitating the design function, rapid proto-
typing technologies offer great potential in other casting areas.
Some processes can produce models of sand foundry pattern quality. Fig. 8-6 SLS machine

The direct production of some patterns is thus possible. Size limita-

tions are determined by machine size. This will be less of a factor as
larger machines are introduced. Partial pattern equipment and pat-
tern masters can be rapidly produced. If the master does not meet
design requirements, another one can be made after having changed
the solid model, without incurring a significant loss of time and
money.
Rapid prototyping has great potential in the investment casting
process. Many systems can produce models out of materials that can
be directly invested to make prototype castings, allowing the verifi-
cation of foundry characteristics before the design is finalized and
without incurring high tooling costs. Investment wax molds can be
quickly made from simple RP models using the cold metal spray
process.
Two RP processes are specific to the production of investment
castings. The Selective Laser Sintering Process (SLS) is a method to
directly produce wax patterns from solid models. The Direct Shell
Production Casting (DSPC) produces ceramic shell molds from Fig. 8-7 Rapid prototype parts
solid model data which can be immediately fired and poured.
All these new technologies will continue improving and widening
their field of application. Some of the problems being overcome are
dimensional deviations due to model distortion and surface rough- programs at an early design stage. This is commonly done by
ness as a result of the layered texture that these systems create. "merging" a rough casting model with all the machining stock, solid
In conclusion, rapid prototyping systems are fast and relatively cast drilled areas, etc. with a "fully machined" finish part model
inexpensive methods through which design improvements can be using a CAD/CAM machining program. Stock to be removed is
made before production. Iterations, which would not normally be highlighted, and the machining programmer is guided through the
possible due to time and cost restraints normally associated with definition of various operations, tool-path design, tooling selection,
conventional methods, are possible with rapid prototyping. In addi- etc. The CAD/CAM output is then processed through software that
tion rapid prototyping offers exciting possibilities in the foundry generates the machining programs required. Fixtures can also be
pattern and tooling areas. designed using the solid model (14).
Computer Aided Pattern REFERENCES

Making 1. R. Mills, B. Beckert, and L. Carrabine, The Future of Product
Development, Computer-Aided Engineering, Oct 1991
Another application of solid and surface casting modeling is the 2. R.M. Kotschi, Casting Design, Metals Handbook, Vol 15,9th ed.
ability to use the model to generate CNC or NC machining programs 3. T. Bex, Solidification Modeling Reduces Casting Defects, Modern
that will produce complete or partial pattern tooling from solid wood Casting, March 1991
or metal in automatic machining centers (12). Wherever this can be 4. P. Hewitt, Computer aided design of steel castings
applied, the accuracy and turn around time can be significantly 5. J.T. Berry and R.D. Pehlke, Modeling of Solidification Heat Trans-
improved when compared with the traditional construction method fer, Metals Handbook, Vol 15,9th ed.
by skilled patternmakers using two-dimensional engineering draw- 6. R.L. Lewis, Liou Shuhyuan, and Shin Ye-Don, Literature Review
ings. of Solidification Simulations in the Design of Sand Castings, Steel
It must be said that there will be many cases in which manual Founder's Research Journal, Issue No. 17
construction is the fastest and most economical method due to 7. W.S. Hwang and R.A. Stoehr, Modeling of Fluid Flow, Metals
lengthy programming time and special tooling requirements. Nev- Handbook,\o\ 15,9thed.
ertheless, outstanding applications exist in the areas of investment 8. M. A. Gwyn, Rapid Prototyping using Swift and Stereolithography,
wax tooling, pattern masters for hydraulic or airfoil contour shapes, Steel Founder's Society of America, 1991
and applications requiring high accuracy (13). 9. D. Stovicek, Rapid Prototyping, Automation, Sept 1991
Computerized patternmaking is being greatly facilitated by the 10. S. Crump, Rapid Prototyping using FDM, Modern Casting, April
introduction of dedicated mold and pattern manufacturing software 1992
packages. These programs work with solid models and rapidly 11. T. Bex, Rapid Prototyping, Modern Casting, Nov 1991
create parting lines, introduce shrinkage allowances, add drafts, 12. G.R. Whitcombe, From Conventional to CNC Pattern Build
generate mold and core shapes and various other pattern engineering CAD/CAM Start Up, American Foundrymen's Society, Pre-Print
features. 90-173
13. C.L. Atwood, G.G. McCarthy, and B.T. Pardo, Integration of Rapid
Prototyping into Investment Casting, Sandia National Laboratories,
Casting Machining Paper No. 23
14. CD. Orogo, H.D. Callihan, G.K. Sigworth, and H.A. Kuhn, A
One major concurrent engineering advantage while using CAD Vision of Computer-Aided Casting in the Year 2000, Modem
models is that of being able to generate machining methods and Casting, Oct 1993

CHAPTER 9
Engineering Drawings for Casting Production

Page
Machining and Casting Drawings . 9-2
Machining and Tooling References . 9-3
Tolerances
Concept Sketches 9-3
Material and Special Requirements 9-3
Casting Identification and Lettering 9-4
References 9-4

envelope (wide tolerances) on noncritical surfaces to allow foun-

Machining and Casting dries to utilize the most efficient methods of casting production.
Drawings Part shapes are often designed in computers as either "wire frame"
models, or as "solid" models in "3-D," having length, width, and
A finished part drawing typically relates machined areas to the thickness. The shape can be developed into various views on "2-D"
remainder of the part. The designer indicates tolerances, surface drawings, or can be sent electronically to a pattern or model shop,
conditions, material and quality specifications, as well as any other where the computer information is used to drive tool paths for a
engineering considerations required to define the finished part. machine tool. It may not be necessary to produce a drawing unless
A rough part drawing defines the shape of a casting before it is it is required at another stage of manufacture, such as quality
machined. It shows shape, material, and specification information assurance.
required by the foundry and the quality assurance department. Tool- Another benefit of using computers for design work is that it can
ing engineers need the rough part drawing, as well as the finished be easier to make engineering changes. The resultant new print may
part drawing, when designing fixtures to hold the part during ma- not be "full scale" , but it should be "proportionally correct,"
chining. The foundry also needs both types of drawings, as shapes including the revised area. Engineering change notices should be
can often be cast in various orientations. This allows for the best listed and dated on the print. A part in the process of being designed
match of quality, shape, and low final part cost. A finished part print may not show a listing of revisions until it is officially "released." If
with finish stock indicated, as well as cast shape details, can be the a "pre-release print" is used, care must be taken to ensure it is
best combination drawing for use by the foundry engineer and the "current," and early versions destroyed or clearly marked "obsolete."
tooling engineer. Most drawings today are produced by highly When only one drawing is provided, most foundries prefer to
trained technical persons using computers. To fully utilize comput- receive the machining drawing with the amount of finished stock
ers in this work; "ANSI Y14.5M-1982, Dimensioning and Toleranc- specified. Supplying only a casting drawing has disadvantages and
ing" (1) was developed to standardize the process. The American ultimately may give rise to misunderstandings, production delays,
National Standards Institute (ANSI) worked closely with the Inter- extra cost due to repairs, extra machining — all of which can be
national Standards Organization (ISO) to develop this standard. In minimized, or eliminated, by observing the recommended approach
most respects, the symbols and methods are identical. discussed earlier.
These documents contain a great amount of information which Regardless of whether a combined drawing, or separate casting
allows for detailed and specific part representation. The common and machining drawings are provided, the following points should
name for this system is "Geometric Tolerances." ANSI Y14.5M- be observed:
1982 consists of 150 pages explaining its applications (2). The
geometric tolerancing system may be thought of as an envelope of 1. The drawing should be specific on size, shape, and material.
tolerance with it's outer surface being the maximum allowable part 2. Draft and dimensions on radii and fillets should be optional for
size and the inner surface being the minimum allowable part size. the foundry unless precluded by specific requirements such as
All part surfaces must fall within this envelope. The amount of interference between mating parts.
tolerance, or thickness of the envelope, can vary according to the 3. Drawings should be current, legible, and complete.
requirements of each feature of the part. Foundry needs, such as
draft, are typically included in the thickness of the envelope. By Drawings should always be made to scale with the scale clearly
having a suitably thin envelope thickness on a machined surface, the noted. Drawings that are not to scale can result in incorrect assump-
designer need not show finish marks. If the supplier can cast such a tions of the casting shape and should be avoided.
surface within the tolerance requirements, machining can be elimi- Inaccurate impressions can also arise when a single drawing is
nated. On the other hand, a foundry must understand geometric used to represent several similar parts, by changing of dimensions,
tolerances well enough to recognize those areas which cannot be such as bore size, length, or wall thickness. This practice should be
cast to size. Adding finish stock and a machining operation normally avoided even though supplying individual drawings increases draft-
increases the finished part cost. The designer should allow a thick ing time.
DATUM PLANE B
DATUM PLANE B DATUM PLANE C
DATUM PLANE C
DATUM PLANE A DATUM PLANE A
-jr- A
:>*.
-"
VIEW A-A VIEW B-B
DATUM PLANE C — ^-DATUM PLANE A DATUM PLANE B
Fig. 9-1 Schematic illustration of perpendicular relations among the three datum planes (1)

Engineering Drawings for Casting Production 9-3
DATUM TARGETS ON PLANE A
DATUM TARGETS ON PLANE B
DATUM TARGETS ON PLANE C
Fig. 9.2 Illustration of establishing datum planes for a casting, using a datum target system (1)
Machining and Tooling Concept Sketches

References Concept sketches can combine input from both supplier and
Good drafting practice employs the use of datum planes and target customer to rough out the shape. While the customer checks out
points (also called tooling points). Figure 9-1 illustrates the basic stress levels, the foundry can model directional solidification and
concept of datum planes. The three points Ai, A2, and A3 fix the run preliminary costs. A clear understanding of the target price goal
location of plane A. Two points, Bi and B2 define plane B, perpen- per part and the obligations applying to each party is essential.
dicular to plane A. One point, C, defines plane C perpendicular to
planes A and B. A practical illustration of this concept is given in
Figure 9-2 (3). Material and Special
The use of tooling or datum points serves as the basis of casting Requirements
layout for the foundryman, inspector, and machinist. The size and
location of these target points should be marked clearly on the Material requirements should employ the use of widely accepted
drawing, and should be the same for the foundryman and the specifications such as those of the American Society for Testing and
machinist. The importance of common points for layout both in the Materials (ASTM). Such specifications cover most types of carbon,
foundry and customer inspection cannot be overstressed. Layouts low alloy and high alloy steels, their strength levels, and special
started at different origins may result in differing layout results. processing requirements.
If a hardness check is required on a casting, a pad should be
specified and located so as to be convenient to both the producer and
Tolerances customer. This pad will ensure that testing is done in a consistent
manner.
Tolerances on the drawing should conform to the latest Steel If ASTM specifications are referenced, any special testing re-
Founders' Society of America tolerance guidelines on ISO 8062 (see quirements that may be needed can be noted by using the supple-
Chapter 16 and SFSA Handbook Supplement 3). These tolerances mentary requirements of the specification. Refer to Chapter 17,
take into account the size, shape, and weight of the casting as well "Quality Assurance and NDT," for further information on special
as the type of pattern equipment to be used. requirements. It is recommended that special nondestructive exami-

nation requirements be marked explicitly on the order. If these shape, and other pertinent information should be indicated. If raised
special requirements apply to all the castings, the requirements and letters cause interference, consider using raised letters in a recessed
the casting locations to which they pertain should be noted on the pad area. Usually, the foundry will cast its logo in the same area as
drawing as well as the order. Each inspection requirement must be the pattern number. If it is necessary to metal stamp heat numbers,
accompanied by an acceptance criteria. dates, or serial numbers, the size, shape, and location should be
The foundryman should be made aware of special areas on the mutually agreed upon and recorded on the drawing. If special
casting which are dimensionally critical, highly stressed, machined stamps such as "low-stress" types are required, this should also be
or to be hardened by the customer. This information will help the stated. Whenever possible, it is generally preferable to use a raised
producer in the design of the pattern equipment and rigging. Notes cast identification, instead of stamped information.
that are qualitative rather than quantitative should not be on the Drawings produced to these guidelines will help to ensure good
drawing. Such notes as "the casting should be free from fins, cracks, relations between the buyer and seller. They will aid in avoiding the
sand, etc." are vague. Visual examination can be specified by the use pitfalls of misinformation, misinterpretation or assumed practices.
of ASTM standard A802. Simply expressed, make the drawings simple, clear, and concise.
Finally, special finish requirements such as painting, galvanizing,
etc. should be noted on both the drawing and the order. Any specifics
such as pertinent specifications regarding these finishes should be
clearly noted. REFERENCES
1. Drafting Manual Y-14, American National Standards Institute

(ANSI), New York, NY 10018
Casting Identification and 2. Lowell W. Foster, Geo-metrics II, The Application of Geometric
Lettering Tolerancing Techniques, revised 1986 edition, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company
The desired location of numbers and letters to be cast onto the 3. Standards for Aluminum Sand and Permanent Mold Castings,
surface should be marked on the engineering drawing. The size, 7th ed., Vol 18, The Aluminum Association, July, 1977

CHAPTER 10
Redesign As Steel Castings

Page
Introduction 10-2
Testing of Comparable Cast and Fabricated Structures 10-2

Stress Concentration Factors 10-3
Yielding Under Static Loading 10-4
Fatigue 10-4
Redesign From Fabrication 10-4

Design Recommendations 10-4
Case History of Redesign 10-5
Redesign from Forgings 10-7
Redesign from Cast Iron 10-8
Examples of Redesign Benefits 10-10

Redesign for Improved Integrity 10-10
Redesign for Reduced Cost 10-10
Redesign for Reduced Cost and Improved Integrity 10-12
Redesign for Greater Strength 10-12
Redesign for Improved Production Rate and Service Life 10-13
Redesign for Improved Service Life 10-13
Redesign for Improved Stiffness 10-13
Redesign to Eliminate Fabricating Operations and Labor 10-13
Redesign for Reduced Stress Concentration 10-14
References 10-14

Introduction
Parts of machines and equipment that have previously been de-
signed as wrought or fabricated parts, or as cast parts of metals other
than steel, are often reconsidered as steel castings. This is done for
economic reasons, as well as for load-carrying ability, and for
reliability inherent in steel castings.
Once redesign as a steel casting is considered, the final execution
depends upon the total cost which includes machining, availability,
and delivery schedules. An important part in this decision is often
played by the familiarity and knowledge that design and material
engineers have concerning the construction of steel castings and the
quality that may be expected from various cast steel structures.
The very best results are obtained from the redesigning effort
when the designers are able to completely "re-think" the application
of the part under consideration, and free themselves from the re-
straints that various manufacturing methods have. For instance,
when redesigning a weld fabrication into a casting, it is most impor-
tant to analyze the forces, i.e., stresses that are expected to act on the
part during service so that the flexibility of casting design can be
fully utilized. Once the location, the direction, and the magnitude of
stresses are known, the design flexibility offered by casting manu-
facture readily allows section changes where stresses are highest.
Generous radii can also be specified to reduce stress concentrations.
The original design, whether weldment, forging, or other cast metal,
LOAD
should only be used as a guide relative to general shape and strength
that may be required.
Redesign of a part as a steel casting requires full utilization of the
information which was presented in the preceding chapters.
There is a need for good information comparing properties of
structures produced by different manufacturing methods. However,
such comparisons are not easily obtained because the testing of
complete and integral structures is difficult. Large, high capacity
testing machines are necessary to apply loads of sufficient magni-
tude to provide reliable data, and all variables must be properly
reconciled. This information is vital for a realistic appreciation of
cast steel as a material of construction, and for the development of
conservative and sound safety factors. Correct safety factors avoid
overdesign and the hazards of underdesign, which may result in
failure.
Testing of Comparable Cast

and Fabricated Structures
All engineering structures contain joining sections which are
characteristic of the manufacturing method. The L section and the Fig. 10-1 Schematic L and box sections often found in engineering
box section of Figure 10-1 are found in numerous engineering structures. Arrows indicate the direction of test loads. Dimensions in
structures. These sections can be cast or fabrication welded. The inches. Conversion: 1 in. = 25.4 mm (1)
design and the quality of the weld or the casting could have consid-
erable bearing on the load-carrying abilities of these members when
incorporated into a unit structure. In the following paragraphs, commonly available grades as castings and rolled plate, respec-
bending test data (1) are therefore presented for several junction tively. The weld designs were checked with welding fabricators, and
designs of these L and box sections relative to: modifications which they made in the design were adopted prior to
fabrication. Also, the two major weldment designs tested are ap-
• Stress Concentration Factors proved by the American Welding Society as corner designs for
• Yielding Under Static Loading fatigue service.
• Fatigue Limit The section thickness of the L and box sections in Figure 10-1 was
• Fatigue Strength 5/8 in. (15.9 mm). For the welded L and box sections, three corner
• Location of Crack Initiation designs (1 W, 2 W, and 5 W) were selected (Figure 10-2). These were
compared to the four corner designs (1 C through 4 C) of castings
The L and box sections used in the testing program were produced (Figure 10-3). The weld designs 1 W and 2 W are preferred by
as commercial steel castings and commercial weldments. One-inch fabricators for both static and dynamic loading. The single fillet
(25.4 mm) slices were cut from these sections for test specimens. weld joint, design 5 W, is used in product design where fabricators
The grades of steel used for weldments and castings were similar but can weld the structure only from the outside. This design is com-
not identical because the materials selected were representative of monly observed and represents low cost construction.
Redesign as Steel Castings 10-3
Fig. 10-3 Corner designs utilized for casting L and box sections of
Figure 10-1. Conversion: 1 in. = 25.4 mm (1)
The steel castings were produced to ASTM A27 class 70-36,

which is a normal grade of commercial structural cast steel. All
castings were heat treated by normalizing. The properties of the
commercial cast steel and steel plate as used for commercial weld-
ments are shown in Table 10-1.
Fig. 10-2 Corner designs utilized for welding L and box sections in Stress Concentration Factors
Figure 10-1. Conversion: 1 in. = 25.4 mm (1)
The results of photoelasticity studies and actual strain gage meas-
urements upon loading the components in bending (Figure 10-1) are
listed in Table 10-2 in terms of the stress concentration factor Kt. The
photoelasticity studies were conducted with models that duplicated
the drawing exactly; they therefore represented idealized conditions
The cast box sections were produced with all corners alike. This relative to the actual component.
was not possible in the case of welded box designs, which were The two stress concentration factors in Table 10-2 agree remark-
made by producing type 1 or type 2 corners and then welding the ably well for the steel castings, but the photoelastic method greatly
two L plates together with type 5 design. underestimates the actual stress concentration of weldments as de-
The weldments were produced from ASTM A285 grade C rolled termined by strain measurement. The major reason for this deviation
steel plate, which is a typical grade for commercial weldments. They is the inevitable departure of the actual fillet geometry from that
were prepared by both hand and machine welding using an AWS shown in the drawings. The drawings of Figure 10-2 show fillets of
E-7018 rod for hand welding and an L-30 rod for machine welding. weld metal to a geometrical radius, and smooth blending to the legs
Some weldments were stress relieved at 1100 °F (593 °C), while of the joining sections. However, the actual welds, produced com-
others were tested in the as-welded condition. The sequence of mercially, had flat surfaces (Figure 10-5), and the fillets were un-
welding is shown in Figure 10-4. symmetrical as is usual for this type of construction. Such departure
Table 10-1 Properties of Commercial Cast Steel and Plate Steel (1)
ASTM A27 Class 70-36 ASTM A285 Grade C
Cast steel Steel Plate
normalized Stress relieved
1650 °F (899 °C) As received 1100 °F (593 °C)
Tensile str. ksi (MPa) 70-75(483-517) 62-64(427-434) 60-63(414-434)

Yield str.ksi(MPa) 36-44(248-303) 33-35 (227-241) 32-38(221-262)
Elongation, % 29-33 34-36 38-39
Reduction of area, % 49-54 55-60 55-60

from the drawing not only adds to the stress concentration, but
increases its variability. Since the flat fillet is normal in welding, its
effect must be carefully considered unless the designer wishes to
specify the rather expensive step of contouring the weld by grinding.
Steel castings, however, are easily contoured and streamlined
HAND
closely to any shape desired without additional operations.
WELDED
Yielding Under Static Loading
The L and box sections of both castings and weldments were
tested statically to failure (Table 10-3). The steel castings yielded at
a significantly higher load (33%) than the corresponding weld-
ments. However, the commercial cast steel had a 30% higher yield
strength than the steel plate normally used for commercial weld-
ments. Table 10-3 merely reflects the relative yield strength of the
two materials.
There was no clear distinction between hand and machine weld-
ing as far as yield load was concerned, and no effect was attributed
to the employment of stress relief heat treatment. Hence, all yield
load values were averaged and reported in Table 10-3 independent
of the welding process.
Fatigue
Fatigue is one of the more significant concerns for the design
engineer. Further information on the performance of cast materials
can be obtained by referring to Chapter 18, Structural Carbon and
Fig. 10-4 Pass sequences for hand and machine welding
Low Alloy Steels. Figure 10-6 shows a comparison of cast and
wrought materials in the notched and unnotched conditions. It is
clear from the notched tests which present a more realistic situation
that cast materials compare favorably to wrought product forms.
Table 10-2 Stress Concentration Factors Kt for
the Junction Designs of L and Box Sections in
Figure 10-1(1) Redesign from Fabrication
K, Factors determined by:
Corner Photo- Strain
Design Recommendations
design Section Process elasticity measurement(a) The results of the preceding section on testing materials and
comparable cast and fabricated structures indicate that steel castings
1-LC L Casting 1.21 1.17 generally have comparable fatigue properties to wrought materials
2-LC L Casting 1.23 1.22
and weldments. Construction of parts as castings is therefore
strongly recommended. Contoured and filleted portions of the com-
1-LW L Weldment 1.21 1.64 ponent can be executed as a casting and welds can be placed in low
2-LW L Weldment 1.23 1.92 stress areas. Double V-welds, away from section junctions, are
5-LW L Weldment 1.52 2.44 preferred. Welding engineers, when confronted with the problem of
1-BC Box Casting 1.21 1.37 stress concentration at welded corners, advise designers to form
2-BC Box Casting 1.23 corners by bending in presses so that welds are made in a straight
3-BC Box Casting 1.36 1.40 section where stresses are low. Stress concentrations at the weld are
4-BC Box Casting 1.58 of little consequence under these conditions. This method of dealing
1-BW Box Weldment 1.21 2.13 with the problem is correct, but it should be pointed out that welded
2-BW Box Weldment 1.23 2.10 fabrications with formed corners are considerably more expensive
5-BW Box Weldment 1.52 than structures with the welds at the corners. Massive forming
(a) Average of from 4 to 10 test measurement
equipment must be available which, under normal circumstances of
corner welding, is not required.
The design engineer who employs steel castings instead of steel
weldments is allowed much more freedom in the following design
areas:
Table 10-3 Yield Load of Equivalent Casting and
Weldment Designs (1) 1. Tapered wall sections, compound curve construction, internal curve
construction, cored holes and passages are readily possible when
Yield loads steel castings are employed.
2. The section thickness can be varied easily, such as, for example, the
Casting Weldment addition of bosses. Weldments are limited by the thickness of the
Design lb (kg) lb (kg) rolled plate employed.
L Comer 1 2,100 (953) 1,690 (767) 3. The use of complicated sections in a design is uneconomical for
L Comer 2 2,100 (953) 1,610 (730) weldments, especially when large amounts of welding are required.
Box Comer 1 10,900 (4,944) 7,480 (3,393) Complicated sections are produced easily as steel castings.
Box Comer 2 (approx) 10,000 (4,536) 7,410 (3,361) 4. The streamlining of a part for fluid flow is more easily accom-
plished with steel castings.
TENSILE YIELD
STRENGTH STRENGTH ELONG HARDNESS
ksi (MPo) ksi (MPo) % BHN
CAST
8630 138 (952) 126 (869) 15 286
WROUGHT
8640 138 (952) 124(855 27 286
85
_ 550
80 -»^_WR0UGHT N
o
75 Q.
NO 500 s
> NOTCH i
70 CO
co \ ^ C A S T 450 LJ
CO 65 - a:
UJ
ac
(- 60 - 400 ^
CO
Z 55 _ z
Z 350 X
X 50 - Z
<
Z
45 300
V ^CAST
Fig. 10-5 Weld fillet geometry for corner designs 1 and 5 in the
box section (1) 40 — WROUGHT—
~ * ^ N0TCHED_
250
35 i I l
10"* io- 10' 10°

w
CYCLES TO FAILURE
5. Steel casting design results in reduced localized stress concentration
because of the smoother, curved construction, well-radiused fillets, Fig. 10-6 Fatigue characteristics (S-N curves) for cast and
and section junctions. Welded junctions produce flat surfaces and wrought 8600 series steels, quenched and tempered to the same
sharp corners. It is usually not economical to contour the welded hardness, both notched and unnotched (19). R.R. Moore rotating
junction by grinding or machining. beam tests, Kt = 2.2
6. Greater structural rigidity is an inherent attribute of steel castings
because of the design freedom to increase the section thickness
when necessary. tapered from the center toward the ends. The upper tips of the beam
7. Fewer internal stresses usually exist in steel castings than in fabri- ends, being practically stress-free, were tapered and rounded to save
cation weldments. Steel castings are stress relieved by heat metal. The center of the web, along line B-C of Figure 10-8, is the
treatment, whereas commercial weldments are seldom stress re- neutral axis with only minor shear stresses; its thickness was there-
lieved. fore tapered from the periphery of the web to line B-C as can be seen
8. Less distortion is encountered in steel castings than in weldments in section A-A. This saves weight and also improves directional
because of the effect of the localized heat during welding. solidification to minimize shrinkage.
9. Appearance appeal in steel castings is readily obtained by curves, Three risers were felt to be sufficient to feed the casting during
curved edges, streamlining, and cast lettering. solidification, one at the location marked D on each end, and one on
10. If steel castings are specified, the selection of high-strength (al- the end of the center box. Thicker tapered sections marked F were
loyed) steel permits the engineer more latitude in the design of included to help directional solidification of the metal toward the
thin-wall, high-strength components. risers. Consideration was given to locating the riser contact area at
mid-length, below the center bore, but this idea was discarded
because the area in question is subject to the greatest stresses. It is
Case History of Redesign generally better not to locate riser contacts in areas of greatest stress
A typical redesign of a fabrication to a steel casting is shown in because metal removal in the contact area, e.g., grinding marks, may
Figures 10-7 and 10-8. The part is a beam that supports the front remain and introduce stress raisers.
body of a crawler tractor between the treads. The fabrication (Figure The center portion of the beam, containing a hole in the finished
10-7) was made from rolled bars that were bent to shape to form the condition, was cast solid to improve riser efficiency. The upper and
upper and lower beam portions, with side plates added by welding. lower flange thicknesses were tapered for the same reason. All
The hole for the shaft was drilled through round steel bar stock corners were rounded and generous fillets were added to minimize
which was then welded into the side plates and reinforced with stress concentrations.
additional plates. Finally, two bumper stop blocks were added to the Plain carbon steel was used for both the fabrication and the
top of the beam. Beams were manufactured in several sizes, and casting. Increased capacity and weight of the crawler tractor due to
since the size of the rolled bar stock was fixed, over-design resulted future engineering evolution may require a stronger beam which
for the smaller beam sizes. then can be obtained readily by changing the specification from
The first consideration during redesign was to locate points of carbon steel to low-alloy steel.
loading to determine the overall geometry. The triangular design The advantages of this beam casting over the fabrication are:
was best since it is consistent with the stress distribution along the
length of the beam. Since loading was all in one plane, with no 1. Lower cost
tendency to twist, an I section (Figure 10-8) was chosen to replace 2. Prompt delivery of the castings because the availability of rolled
the fabricated box section (Figure 10-7), eliminating the need for bar sections was erratic, causing long delays for the fabrication
cores during production as a casting. Because the bending moment 3. Lower stresses
is greater at the center of the beam, the width of the beam was 4. Longer fatigue life

• '• ' • I !-r-
r
-W 9I.Oin(23llmm.)
14.1 in.(358mm.)
REF.
SECTION A - A
(FABRICATION)
FABRICATION
Fig. 10-7 Fabricated beam to support front body of crawler tractor
PARTING LINE
SECTION A.— A.
LOAD (CASTING)
^ ^
Fig. 10-8 Cast beam, redesigned from welded part in Figure 10-14
CASTING MPo
PROPERTIES
J
LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSE
90 TENSILE
* 600 - -I20
TENSILE STRENGTH TENSILE STRENGTH
80
ksi ksi
500 - -I00
70 .^"CHARPY-
/ * V NOTCH
*'• = /
/ IMPACT
FT. LBS.
60 /REDUCTION OF 400 - - 80
YIELD
/ V"AREA,% YIELD STRENGTH
50 ksi
A y IkYIELD ^ v xCHARPY 3 0 0 - - 60
40 REDUCTION
/ STRENGTH " IN AREA ' Y V NOTCH "
Fig. 10-9 Steel casting tamper tip [3.75 x 2.25 in. (95 x 64 mm)] / ksi * \IMPACT
30 * \FT'LB
replacing a forging CHARPY REDUCTION\ 2 0 0 - - 40
ELONGATION OF A R E A ^ S * * ^
20
""ÊLONGATION.V *
ELONGATION, % \
I 0 0 - - 20
10
I I I I
I I
0 4 8 12 0 4 8 12
REDUCTION RATIO
BY FORGING
Fig. 10-10 The influence of forging reduction on anisotropy for a

0.35% carbon wrought steel (1). Properties for a 0.35% carbon cast
steel are shown in the graph by a star (*) for purposes of comparison.
Fig. 10-12 A 4 lb (2 kg) winch clutch part converted from malleable

iron to a low-alloy cast steel to prevent failure
Fig. 10-11 Four in. (102 mm) cutter head converted from a
malleable iron casting to a 0.65% carbon steel casting
be specified where simplicity of design and the large quantity of

parts to be manufactured justify the high cost of forging dies.
5. Better appearance Numerous conversions from forgings to steel castings take place,
6. Ready availability of higher alloy steel grades for greater particularly where delivery or alloy selection are involved. The
strength when necessary in the future delivery times for castings are shorter because the time required to
construct a pattern is less than that required for fabricating a metal
forging die. Alloy selection is also more flexible because many
forgings are produced from ingots of standard grades which are
Redesign from Forgings produced by large steel mills. In addition, there are cast grades,
especially some high-alloy heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant
Forging technology is based on design guidelines entirely sepa- grades, which are difficult, or impossible, to produce as forgings due
rate and distinctly different from those pertaining to steel castings. to unfavorable hot working characteristics. Reduced part cost often
Because of these differences in processes, there are usually few results from conversion to steel castings where complex forging
areas in which the application of castings and forgings overlap, dies, or die wear, are involved. Figure 10-9, for instance, illustrates
provided the cost of the two manufacturing methods and the corre- tamper tips which are replaceable components on a large wheel
sponding design have been thoroughly evaluated. Forgings tend to earth compactor. The tamper tip produced from cast steel was a more

economical part with equal service life as the deep draw in forging
caused constant die maintenance.
Forged products exhibit two characteristics which should be care-
fully considered. First, they exhibit "directionality." This is easily
seen when the mechanical properties are examined. The mechanical
properties in the longitudinal and transverse directions vary widely
while in castings the properties tend to be the same in all directions
(Figure 10-10).
Secondly, the draft angle in forgings are 5 to 10 times greater than
castings. The effect of this can be increased weight and machine
stock.
Fig. 10-13 Oil well drilling casting converted from nodular cast iron to Redesign from Cast Iron
a Cr-Mo steel casting because of field failure
There are several types of cast iron, including gray, malleable, and
nodular iron, each with its own physical and mechanical property
characteristics, distinctly different from cast steel. Machinability
X and damping characteristics may be factors for selecting one of the
several cast iron types. Strength, toughness, and weldability are
some of the principal reasons for which steel castings are specified.
Thus, there are few areas of overlap for components whose part cost
and design have been well thought out. Conversions do take place
regularly, however, with steel castings replacing cast iron parts,
particularly when higher stresses are being imposed on components
which were originally made of cast iron. Higher stresses occur
frequently due to design evolution of machines to larger capacities,
imposing higher stresses on the parts.
Redesign of cast iron parts as steel castings does not simply mean
that a pattern for an iron casting is shipped to a steel foundry for
production in cast steel. There are important differences in the
mechanical property characteristics, solidification characteristics,
and castability, which make it absolutely necessary that changes be
Fig. 10-14 Crane cable drum redesigned to cast carbon steel from considered in the design of the part and that patterns be modified, or
gray iron as a lighter weight part and for cast-weld construction rebuilt entirely, in order to obtain a quality steel casting.
Fig. 10-15 Cylinder head

casting. Original design, left, and
redesign for quality improvement
Fig. 10-16 Hinge butt casting.

Original design, left, and casting
after redesigning with a cost saving
of 15.9%

Some of the differences in mechanical properties have been cov- where no change in shape was required to convert the part to cast
ered earlier in Chapter 1. Among the advantages of cast steel are steel. Reduced breakage, less down time, and longer service life
weldability, modulus of rigidity, strength, impact properties, and resulted from the conversion. The function of this cutter head is to
fatigue properties (fatigue strength and endurance limit). Manufac- remove sand from a pipe flask, cutting sand from between the flask
turing design considerations are treated in greater detail in Chapter and the cast iron pipe. The cutter head is mounted on a steel tube and
7. rotates as it enters the pipe flask.
Figure 10-11 illustrates a 4-in. (102 mm) cutter head, photo- Another example of a redesign without major pattern changes is
graphed during its service life, which was converted from malleable illustrated in Figure 10-12, showing a clutch part for truck winches.
iron to a 0.65% carbon steel casting. This example represents a case The casting was originally produced from malleable iron which
Fig. 10-17 A redesigned valve body
Fig. 10-18 Conveyor belt pulley casting. Original steel casting,

top, and redesigned cast-weld construction
Fig. 10-20 Rockers and stop brackets for an end dump hopper.
Fig. 10-19 Mowing machine wheel arm support. Original design as a Original design as a steel weldment, top, and conversion to a steel
steel weldment, top, and conversion to a steel casting casting
lacked the necessary strength and required frequent replacement due

to breakage. Cast low-alloy steel replaced the malleable iron and Examples of Redesign Benefits
provided the necessary service and performance.
Insufficient strength and toughness of an oil well drilling casting Redesign for Improved Integrity
were the reasons for converting from 80-60-03 nodular cast iron to
quenched and tempered Cr-Mo steel (cast 4140) with a hardness The cylinder head shown in Figure 10-15 operates under 1,000-
range of 285-310 BHN. The 14-lb (6.4 kg) oil well drilling casting psi (6.89 MPa) hydrostatic pressure. The original design resulted in
is shown in Figure 10-13. a casting that leaked at the base of the lugs on test and in use. In the
Strength-to-weight ratio, reduced cost, and faster operation in original design, the lug section was not in proper proportion to the
service were the reasons for the conversion from a gray iron casting outer rim section where risers were located. These risers are not
to cast carbon steel for a crane cable drum and gear. The component shown in Figure 10-15 because they were removed prior to ship-
was executed as a cast-weld design, as shown in Figure 10-14. ment. Metal solidifying at the thin section first and impairing the
Another advantage of the conversion was the ability to reclaim the feeding action from the outer rim caused uncontrolled shrinkage in
steel drums by applying a weld overlay. the lug.
The redesigned casting, also shown in Figure 10-15, resulted in an
increased metal section toward the outer rim for proper directional
solidification and a reduction of the heavy lug section with cored
holes to reduce machining costs was made without loss of strength.
The quality of the casting was improved because conditions permit-
ting leakage were eliminated. The reduced casting and machining
losses yielded a cost reduction of 9.4%.
Redesign for Reduced Cost

Figure 10-16 shows a cast steel hinge butt which was too expen-
sive to produce as originally designed. The number of cores required
by having the bosses on the outside added greatly to the cost of
production. The load on the casting was so directed that internal and
external ribs were placed in bending strain rather than in direct
Fig. 10-21 Original design, left, of dipper tooth point. Redesigned Fig. 10-22 Original design of a cutter blade holder casting, left, and
point increased the service life of the casting. the redesign
Fig. 10-23 Steering arm as a weldment, left, and as a steel casting

Fig. 10-24 Cast high-alloy

heat-resistant reducer
8" x 6" Concentric reducer

.50" min wall
5.75" ID inlet stub
6.00" .50" min wall
8" Sleeve
.50" min wall
2.00"
Z7
Fig. 10-25 Fabricated reducer
tension or compression because the cored pin-holes were not in line two cores were eliminated and other cores were combined. The
and parallel to the triangularly shaped base. foundry-engineered design reduced the casting weight from 12.2 to
The redesigned casting, also shown in Figure 10-16, had the 9.8 lb (5.55 to 4.45 kg) and the part was improved in quality because
bosses placed on the inside, thereby eliminating two cores. Also, the the ribs no longer were a serious problem as stress raisers. Further-
cores for the pin-holes and main base were made integrally. This more, the total cost of the part was reduced 15.9%.
ensured that the holes were parallel with the base and in perfect A second example is a valve body weighing 52 lb, Figure 10-17.
alignment with one another. The ribs were placed in such a position Prior to redesign the endflangeswere machined on both front and
that they formed a single component which was constantly under back faces and 8 holes were drilled per end. Pattern tooling was
direct compressive stress. Production costs were lowered because redesigned with four cavities in a 30.5 x 42 6/5.5 no bake mold.
Fig. 10-26 Clevis weldment
Fig. 10-27 Cast clevis
Flange cores are assembled to the body core and core assemblies are
set in the mold for each cavity. Radial and longitudinal locks are
designed in the cores to maintain pin core locations and the cast
tolerance relationships of flanges to the body of the casting and the
body cored openings. Fig. 10-29 Cast pinion shaft, note cast protection which is removed
Figure 10-17 illustrates the "as cast" quality immediately after after shotblast
shakeout and shot blast with no evidence of metal fins from core
mislocation.
Sample lot sizes of 50 castings at layout inspection established The foundry re-engineered the casting to a cast-weld design. The
that all cast dimensions could be held within ±0.05. pulley was cast in two halves and welded together, forming a single
New casting weight was reduced to 45 lb and customer machining unit. The improved foundry procedure required less expensive pat-
costs were less due to elimination of flange turning, facing and tern equipment and resulted in a 13.6% saving over the original
drilling operations. Also, material handling in the machine shop was method. Figure 10-18 has a cutaway portion to show the section
lowered due to shorter routing of castings received. thickness and the core area. The half casting eliminated the large
center core and, at the same time, afforded better gating and solidi-
Redesign for Reduced Cost and Improved fication possibilities.
Integrity
Redesign for Greater Strength
The 380-lb (173 kg) conveyor belt pulley in Figure 10-18 was
originally designed as a one-piece casting, making it difficult and An example of the redesign of a weldment for greater strength as
expensive to produce. As a one-piece casting, the component could a steel casting is the mowing machine wheel arm support (Figure
not be risered to solidify to a satisfactory soundness level. Further- 10-19). The employment of the tubular form in the casting design
more, the large center cores were costly and could not be properly resulted in greater load-carrying ability for the part, plus the added
anchored to ensure dimensional stability. strength were needed. The casting design has far greater sales
Fig. 10-30 Original double

bracket design, top, and improved
design
(a)
l t - 2 t RADII (MIN)
LARGER IF POSSIBLE
ALTERNATE SECTION
B-B
SECTION C-C SAME
(b) AS A - A OR B-B
appeal, and cost savings of 33% were also realized by this conver- in longer service life and greater digging efficiency. It reduced the
sion. This redesign also permitted the spindle and ears to be welded cost of operation for the customer. The redesigned tooth point
to the casting, a further advantage considering that the spindle and weighed the same as the original.
ears were welded on one side of the right wheel support, and the
other side of another identical part of the left wheel support. Redesign for Improved Stiffness
The original design of cutter blade holders in Figure 10-22 re-
Redesign for Improved Production Rate and sulted in considerable bending in service at the four radii areas on
Service Life the two ribs where they angle down to the hub. The redesigned
Another example of redesign is illustrated by the weldment rock- casting blended out the four sharp radii into a long smooth curve,
ers for an end dump hopper shown in Figure 10-20. The rockers which increased the strength of the arms of the part by 100% in the
were originally designed as a fabrication from 13 pieces of steel plane in which the casting was buckling and failing. Only 7% more
plate. Fabrication was time consuming and yielded a part with weight was added and the redesign was made on the original pattern
unsatisfactory service life. The weldment design required right- and equipment with little expense. Service life has been materially
left-hand parts, adding materially to the cost of the finished product. increased since there have been no failures with the redesigned
Weight, an important factor in materials handling equipment, totaled casting.
117 lb (53 kg) for the rockers and stop brackets.
The foundry engineered design is a one-piece steel casting, shown Redesign to Eliminate Fabricating
in Figure 10-20, which readily can be welded in place in the final Operations and Labor
assembly. The cast steel rockers and stop brackets are completely (1) The drawing of a steering arm assembly shown in Figure
interchangeable. They have given greater service life, and the accu- 10-23 shows the number of parts required for production of a
racy of the steel castings has eliminated machining and misfits, weldment. Parts 1 through 7 had to be cut from barstock and tubing,
enabling the customer to increase the production rate of complete and welded together. The redesign of the weldment to a steel casting
hoppers. The weight was reduced 8.6% with a better strength-to- resulted in 127 operations being eliminated.
weight ratio, and the total cost of the part was reduced 23.4%. The eliminated operations were as follows:
Redesign for Improved Service Life • 16 purchasing operations
The dipper tooth point shown in the left view of Figure 10-21 • 20 receiving operations
constitutes the original design, and the redesigned point appears at • 16 store operations
the right. The longer, hollow-ground redesigned tooth point resulted • 42 materials handling operations

• 10 fabrication operations The pattern tooling was modified to eliminate the parting line. The
• 1 machining operation back drafted condition of the teeth which would not allow the core
• 22 inspection operations to be drawn from the core box, was overcome by the use of a flexible
urethane loose piece.
Total 127 operations eliminated The re-engineering of this part accomplished the following:
The elimination of indirect labor for seven of the operations is
another positive factor of the casting process. 1. Reduced machining operations
(2) The reducer shown in Figure 10-24 is cast from high-alloy 2. Greater strength
heat-resistant steel for use in the petrochemical industry. Figure 3. Longer service life
10-25 is a sketch of the previous fabrication illustrating the exten- 4. Improved appearance
sive welding of component parts. Re-engineering to the casting not 5. Reduced casting cost due to six cavity mold
only reduced manufacturing costs but greatly improved the reducer 6. Lower end use cost
integrity due to better heat resistance and longer service life.
(3) The steel clevis weldment (Figure 10-26) supports a load from
a hydraulic cylinder. This load is bi-directional and the angle is Redesign for Reduced Stress Concentration
variable. A steel casting was developed primarily for an 8 lb weight
reduction. By removing unnecessary mass from the rear of the part, The double bracket casting drawing shown in Figure 10-30 iOus-
the appearance was improved and better access was also gained for trates the large number of reinforcing ribs and tie bars present in the
the welding operation that anchors it to the assembly, very important bracket design. These ribs are stress raisers in service and produce
for this highly stressed part, Figures 10-27 and 10-28. foundry manufacturing problems as well. The use of the Omega
(4) A pinion shaft that drives a large ring gear for tilting the blade sections in the redesign increases strength, rigidity, and castability.
on a motor grader is manufactured in 90-60 SAE 8630 N+T to a
hardness of 179-229 BHN. The pinion teeth profile and pitch diame-
ter are cast dimensionally within 0.020 in., permitting this feature of REFERENCES
the casting to be used as received by the customer. Previously the
teeth were machined from a casting that had been welded to the 1. H.R. Nara and D.K. Wright, Jr., "Studies of the Design of Steel
shaft. Castings and Steel Weldments as Related to Methods of Their
As can be seen in Figure 10-29 the teeth are protected throughout Manufacture," Steel Founder's Society of America, Cleveland,
shakeout, tumbleblast, and heat treatment by casting a protective OH, 1959
ring around this area. This ring is removed prior to casting shipment. 2. Unpublished materials

CHAPTER 11
Cast-Weld Construction
Page
Criteria And Methods For Cast-Weld Construction 11-2
Examples And Benefits From Cast-Weld Construction 11-3

Design 11-3
Component Size 11-3
Component Integrity 11-3
Foundry Capacity 11-5
Cost Reduction 11-5
Non-Destructive Testing of Welds 11-6
Cast-Weld Preparation 11-6
Castability 11-6
Pattern Cost 11-6
References 11-6

interruptions typically limit the weld deposit rate. The submerged

Criteria and Methods for arc process, on the other hand, due to its continuous operation with
Cast-Weld Construction wire electrodes, deposits metal at much higher rates, as do the gas
shielded methods. Electro-slag welding is accomplished at rates of
Four considerations make this method of construction attractive approximately 30 lb/h (14 kg/h) per electrode.
to the designer. They are: (1) the use of a cast component can Components of different composition can be considered for join-
simplify the production of a fabricated component by allowing the ing in cast-weld construction but choosing the correct method is
weld to be placed in a more accessible position, (2) the use of a cast very important. For example, stainless steel joined to carbon or low
component in a fabricated structure can reduce the weight of fabri- alloy steel is desired in certain applications to achieve specific
cated structures and position the weld in a low-stress area, and (3) it properties. The manual arc welding process is often used in such
makes possible the production of components that are too large to instances with electrodes of the 300 series. However, care must be
cast in one piece and (4) as the complexity of the part increases the taken to have a minimum of penetration as carbide formation with
cost of castings becomes more attractive (Figure 11.1). Cast-weld mild or low-alloy steels will give an excessively brittle layer, which
construction also: (1) makes feasible the production of a part con- can result in early failure.
figuration that would be difficult or even impossible to cast as a When carbon contents are over 0.25%, an initial deposit, or
single high-quality casting because of the laws of molten metal buttering layer, should be applied with a low-carbon electrode. The
feeding, (2) in foundries with limited casting capacity, the designer same approach should be used with the gas shielded processes. The
can make cast-weld assemblies of castings that are within the foun-
dry's casting capabilities, and (3) materials of different composi-
tions can be assembled in a one-piece component.
For successful cast-weld construction the methods of welding
must be examined for their capability of producing the desired
chemical composition, physical and mechanical properties, as well
as ease and rate of welding. Chapter 25 contains considerable detail
on weldability and welding. Only some highlights are reviewed here
for cast-weld construction. The welding engineer has several proc-
esses that can be considered. These include: Welded fabrication
1. Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (SMAW)
o
o
2. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
O)
3. Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW)
c
4. Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW)
5. Electroslag Welding (ESW)
The rate of welding, as related to the size of the weld to be made,

determines to a great degree the economics of a process. The manual
I Casting
arc process is most versatile, but for large cast-weld construction it

is limited in application because changing electrodes and other
Increasing: Section thickness •-
Shape complexity
Stiffening
Fig. 11-1 Schematic cost comparison between cast and fabricated

components
Fig. 11-3 Grand Coulee Francis runner. Picture shows runner

Fig. 11-2 Complex trunnion node weighing approximately 100 tons being taken to the heat-treat furnace built at the site.

Cast-Weld Construction 11-3
deposition rates of the gas shielded processes are high and the
required high current imputes can cause excessive penetration and
dilution of the deposited layer, as well as the chance of carbide
precipitation. Large slag pots for the steel and smelting industries
are often overlaid with abrasion-resistant materials, and this is best
accomplished if the carbon in the base material is kept low, prefer-
ably below 0.20%.
Distortion of an assembly is another major consideration in select-
ing a welding process. Single pass procedures, such as electroslag
welding, produce less distortion than multi-pass processes in which
each pass results in warpage. Unless the setup compensates for
distortion or a constraint is applied, multi-pass welds will pull a
weldment out of alignment. Considerable care must be used in the
set-up and in the sequence of welding. Stress-relief heat treatments
after a number of weld passes help avoid problems. Consequently,
many weldments are never allowed to cool to room temperature
before being stress relieved.
Examples and Benefits from

Cast-Weld Construction
Design
Fig. 11-4 Grand Coulee Francis runner on welding jig. Total
Two examples of the use of cast components in large fabrications weight of runner 550 tons
are described here. The first illustrates the use of cast nodes on oil
production platforms. Oil production platforms are extremely large
structures which operate in some of the most hostile environments.
They are typically fabricated from a large tubular section, where as
many as twelve of these tubes come together at a corner or node.
Extremely complex fabrications are required (Figure 11-2). The
welds in this design are highly stressed because of the size of the
structure which cannot be post-weld heat treated. The use of cast
nodes allows the welds to be positioned in low-stress areas and the
design of the cast nodes produces weight savings of up to 50%
compared to an all weld design. The cast nodes are produced in steel
grades which do not require post-weld heat treatment and have
excellent mechanical properties.
On a smaller scale "off the road" vehicles such as front end
loaders, excavators, etc. use the cast-weld construction technique to Fig. 11-5 Cast-weld crawler wheel. Two simple cast structures are
take advantage not only of placing welds in low-stress areas but also welded together rather than producing the crawler wheel single
the added advantage of producing a structure which is more lowly casting with more difficult molding and feeding characteristics.
stressed due to the smooth transitions which are possible with cast
components. One major manufacturer claims that this type of struc-
ture provides two to three times the strength of equivalently sized
fabrications.
Component Size
The cast-weld technique may serve both the very large and the
small design with good results as the following examples will show.
The expansion of the Grand Coulee Dam called for six water
turbines, each capable of producing in excess of a million horse-
power. To make such designs possible, runners were cast in sections
and electroslag welded together into a final component of 550 tons
(Figures 11-3 and 11-4). The weldments were made at the construc-
tion site in a jig especially built to accommodate the pieces as they
were added to the weldment. The jig held the assembly in such a
position that each weld was performed in as close to the vertical
position as possible.
Component Integrity
At the other end of the size spectrum, cast-weld components (such
as shown in Figure 11-5) make use of high-quality castings which
were joined by welding. The cast-weld design for these complex Fig. 11-6 Small rolling mill housings cast as slabs and welded.
shapes was selected as more economical than producing the compo- Total weight of housings made it impossible to cast in the part
nent as a single casting. Extensive risering would have been re- foundry.

5 fiSfir~r9t —•
^-'-••J:,*:ii.1
Fig. 11-8 A. Stay-ring for hydraulic turbine on boring mill. Outside
Fig. 11-7 Rolling mill edger frame. Assembly of cast components
diameter 37 ft (11.27 m), height 15 ft (4.57 m)
joined by electroslag welding. Total weight over 200 tons
Fig. 11-9 Cast-weld intercept valve. An assembly weld of a valve

casting and a flanged elbow casting
Fig. 11-10 Cast-weld pump. Two cast halves of a pump being
welded together using submerged arc techniques. Castings are
produced with the weld groove cast-to-shape.
f~*
V
Fig. 11 -12 Example of cast-weld construction for a refinery
Fig. 11 -11 Cast CF-8M alloy gate valve with cast-to-shape weld catalytic cracking unit. The large cylindrical section is a centrifugal
bevels casting.

Fig. 11-13 Steam turbine low pressure casing assembly weighing

42 tons. View on the left shows detail of circled portion. 1. manual
metal-arc weld. 2. submerged-arc weld (2)
^ ,—
«li*%
^%j*ipiv
V
Fig. 11-15 Composite fabrication of a gear case. Three cast steel
A frames, top view, are welded together with plate steel.
by 1020 mm). The photograph shows the alignment procedure prior

to the last weld.
Cost Reduction
The assembly of several large castings into a speed ring for a
hydraulic turbine is shown in Figure 11-8. Such assemblies often
measure 30 feet (9 m) in diameter. Transportation to the site was
impossible because of overall size and total weight. To facilitate the
Fig. 11-14 Cast-weld peg roll. Identical steel castings can be transportation the ring was designed as a cast-weld assembly, con-
welded in different positions to produce an entirely different looking sisting of six or eight sections of three vanes each.
single piece cast-weld construction. The following example comparing three methods of manufacture
shows that costs often can be reduced by cast-weld construction.
Ring 1 was made from castings made with three vanes that connect
the upper and lower shrouds. The casting required complicated core
quired for production as a single casting to achieve the desired and mold assembly. The six castings were machined and bolted into
internal soundness level. the final assembly.
In the case of ring 2, a comparative study showed that the shrouds,
Foundry Capacity with cast-on welding stubs for the blades, could be produced as a
simple casting without cores, while the blades could be cast sepa-
Figure 11-6 shows two small rolling mill housings produced as a rately as slabs. Since the casting costs dropped considerably the
cast-weld design. The manufacturer did not have sufficient furnace project moved ahead by making a simple jig for welding the blades
capacity to cast the entire housing as one piece but was able to cast into the shrouds by either submerged arc or CO2 shielded arc. The
bar and slab castings of good quality that were joined by welding. cost of the second ring was reduced by approximately 20%.
A large assembly of castings is shown in Figure 11-7 in the form Ring 3, after further study, was made by electroslag welding. The
of a rolling mill edger frame. This assembly required 15 electroslag same shroud casting was used, together with inexpensive rolled
welds, some of which had cross sections as large as 25 by 40 in. (640 slabs for the blades. A special jig had to be fabricated for quick

through the outlet (Figure 11-10). Other examples are the cast-weld
preparations in valves and the U-bends in petrochemical plants. The
advantage of this design is in the prevention of leaks of potentially
harmful chemicals (Figure 11-11).
Castability
The use of two cast forms, static and centrifugaUy cast, is shown
in Figure 11-12. The combination of the centrifugal casting opera-
tion and weld fabrication permits the production of components in
alloys which cannot easily be produced in the wrought form.
Adequate core support is necessary for one-piece castings to
avoid core movement which can lead to dimensional difficulties and
core breakage. The inaccessibility of core surfaces is also frequently
associated with core removal difficulties. In the examples of Figure
11-13 (2) the problem of enclosed narrow belt cores in a low-pres-
sure turbine casing was solved by producing two separate carrier
ring sections and welding them into the main casting. Core support
would have been extremely difficult if the casing had been made as
a one-piece casting, necessitating a heavy grid to avoid distortion
and cored "windows" for additional support and core removal.
These windows would then have required subsequent sealing by
welded-in sections. In spite of the provision of windows, accessibil-
ity for inspection and subsequent repairs would have been extremely
Fig. 11-16 Composite fabrication of a diesel engine block. The difficult.
seven frame bearing castings are welded into a fabricated plate
steel base.
Pattern Cost
Where the finished part consists of several repetitive elements, as
assembly and positioning of the parts. This approach produced shown in Figures 11-14, 11-15, and 11-16, weld fabrication can
further savings, for a final cost reduction of 40%. simplify and reduce the cost of patterns. Cast-weld construction
often permits the use of a simple low-cost pattern on high-produc-
Non-Destructive Testing of Welds tion molding equipment to produce such items as peg rolls of any
Welds can be tested by any of the following techniques: radiogra- length desired.
phy, magnetic particle, liquid penetration or ultrasonics, see Chapter
15. For example, when alloy steel steam turbines and similar type
components are welded together (Figure 11-9) non-destructive ex- REFERENCES
aminations are made between passes to ensure that welds will be
adequate for steam cycling. 1. G.J. Marston, Proceedings of SFSA National T&O Conference,
Nov 1991
Cast-Weld Preparation 2. T.K. Wallett, "Cast Weld Assemblies," Welding of Castings,
The ability to produce a casting with the weld preparation area Proceeding of the International Conference by the British Weld-
designed and cast in the most desirable location is one of the ing Institute, the Steel Castings Research and Trade Association,
advantages of the process. The weld preparation area for a large and the BN F Metals Technology Center, The Welding Institute,
pump has been cast to shape and located to avoid a longitudinal weld Vol 1, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge, England, 1977

CHAPTER 12
Pattern Equipment
Page
Introduction 12-2
Definitions 12-2
Selection Factors 12-2

Number of Castings to be Produced 12-2
Molding Method to be Used 12-2
Green Sand, Chemically Bonded, and CO2 Molding 12-2
Investment Molding 12-2
Shell Molding 12-3
Vacuum and Full Mold Processes 12-3
Dimensional Tolerances 12-3
Casting Design 12-3
Pattern Cost 12-3
Pattern Design 12-4

Classes of Pattern Equipment . 12-4
Loose Patterns 12-4
Mounted Patterns 12-5
Pattern and Core Box Materials 12-5

Wood Patterns 12-5
Metal Patterns 12-5
Plastic Patterns 12-5
Styrofoam Patterns 12-6
Pattern Repairs 12-6
Core Box Construction and Service Life 12-6

Core Box Cost Versus Service Life 12-7
Patternmaker's Shrinkage Allowance 12-7

Pattern Distortion Allowances 12-8
Machining Allowances 12-8
Casting Finish Tolerances 12-8
Draft 12-8
Locating Points 12-9
Gating and Risering 12-9
Pattern Storage 12-9

12-2 Part 4: Manufacturing of Castings
Introduction Number of Castings to Be Produced

When considering pattern construction and materials, the most
Pattern equipment is the tooling utilized to form the mold cavity important factor is the number of castings to be made from the
of a casting. The pattern equipment needed for making a casting specific equipment. In the case of styrofoam, patterns are usually
includes a pattern and usually one or more core boxes. suitable for one mold only, due to their low strength and poor
The core boxes are the pattern equipment necessary to form the resistance to impact.
cores to the desired shape. A core is generally placed in a mold to Softwood patterns, such as pine and jelutong, may be suitable for
create a cavity in the casting; however, they are also used to elimi- a limited number of molds before repairs or replacement are neces-
nate draft or put part numbers on a draw surface. Cores may be made sary. Frequent handling leads to the damage of softwood patterns
from a variety of materials: chemically bonded sand, oil sand, green more readily than hardwoods. Hardwoods, such as mahogany and
sand, or ceramics. cherry, are more durable than the softwoods. Some foundries prefer
Patterns can be constructed and engineered in several ways; hard maple or birch for core prints for longer life. Aluminum and
therefore, it is important that the foundry be involved in the pattern some plastics will typically last longer than hardwoods with cast
design as early as possible. A number of factors should be consid- iron patterns having the longest life. Table 12-1 is a general guide
ered in the construction and design of the pattern, for example: the for the approximate number of castings that can be produced with a
molding method used by the foundry (e.g., green sand, air set, etc.), given pattern material. Unmounted or loose patterns are for limited
parting line, coring, and risering and gating techniques used. use only. Mounting patterns increases their life. Any fragile areas of
a wood pattern such as ribs or bosses can be made of aluminum to
increase their life.
Definitions
In discussing pattern equipment with foundrymen, it is helpful to Molding Method to Be Used
understand some of the more common terms used to describe pattern
equipment. Many of these terms are indicated in Figure 12-1, a Green Sand, Chemically Bonded, and CO2 Molding.
schematic of a typical pattern and core, that would be used to Different molding methods put various degrees of stress and wear
produce a wheel-type casting. The core is used to create the central on patterns. Within a given molding system type, the wear pattern
hole in the hub. may vary significantly. For example, some green sand foundries
may jolt the molds more than others or squeeze the mold under
higher pressure. Patterns should be manufactured of metal or have
Selection Factors metal faced wear points where sandslingers are used, as the abrasive
action produced by the sandslinger is very high. In lower production
The type of pattern equipment to be constructed should be deter- chemically bonded and CO2 foundries, packing the mold by hand is
mined by consideration of the following factors: not unusual; however, some foundries may use pneumatic rammers
that increase stress and abrasion. Chemical attack can be a concern
1. Number of castings to be produced when an air set system is the method of choice.
2. Mold processes to be employed
3. Dimensional tolerances required I n v e s t m e n t Molding. Since the wax or styrofoam pattern used
4. Casting design in the investment casting process is used only once, wear is not a
5. Pattern cost factor. The wax or foam injection die is typically aluminum and
capable of producing thousands of patterns; however, urethane lined
Before the final casting design is determined, collaboration be- dies are frequently used for prototypes. Urethane lined dies have a
tween the design engineer and the foundry engineer will result in a shorter life as they cannot dissipate the heat as rapidly as aluminum.
design that is functional and economical to produce. In many in- The investment casting method is described in greater detail in
stances, such collaboration will result in a lower cost end product. Chapter 13.
Table 12-1 Effect of Pattern Material on Pattern Life
Number of castings produced before pattern equipment repairs Materials

Pattern Core box
Small Castings—under 24 in. (610 mm), largest dimension

200 300 Hardwood patterns and core boxes
2,000 2,000 Hardwood patterns and core boxes, wearing surfaces faced with metal
6,000 6,000 Aluminum patterns and core boxes. Plastic matchplate patterns. Urethane patterns or
urethane-lined magnesium frame box
100,000 100,000 Cast iron patterns and core boxes
Medium Castings—up to 72 in. (1.8 m), largest dimension
100 100 Hardwood patterns and core boxes
1,000 750 Hardwood patterns and core boxes, wearing surfaces faced with metal
3,000 3,000 Aluminum patterns and core boxes. Urethane inserts in wear areas
Large Castings—over 72 in. (1.8 m), largest dimension
50 50 Softwood patterns and core boxes
200 150 Softwood patterns, exposed projections metal-faced. Core boxes of softwood, metal-faced
500 500 Hardwood patterns, metal-reinforced. Hardwood core boxes, metal-faced

Pattern Equipment 12-3
DRAFT NOT REQUIRED

.COPE CORE
PRINT WITH
DRAFT
COPE
BOARD
DRAG
BOARD
DRAFT
DRAG
CORE
| PRINT
Fig. 12-1 Schematic of a full split pattern and core box to produce a wheel-type casting. Note that draft is required on the vertical surfaces to
allow the pattern to be drawn away from the mold. The core that will be made in the core box will form a cylindrical cavity to reduce machining.
Shell Molding. In the shell process, also referred to as the Cran- tolerances is determined largely by the accuracy and durability of
ing process, sand grains coated with phenolic novolac resins and the tooling. The tighter the tolerances, the greater the importance of
hexamethylenetetramine are compressed and cured in a heated mold the durability and stability of the pattern material. Dimensional
at 300 to 535 °F (150 to 280 °C) for 10 to 30 seconds to produce a tolerances may also vary between molding process; for example,
strong bond. The patterns are heated to approximately 500 °F (245 hard sand molding (chemically bonded and CO2) may hold closer
°C) with some temperature fluctuations during each mold cycle. The tolerances than green sand molding. The size of the casting also
pattern material must resist warpage and cracking and preferably affects tolerances significantly. Chapter 16 contains a more detailed
have a high specific heat. Cast iron patterns are usually used for the review of size effects and tolerances.
shell process, however, beryllium-copper and chrome-copper pat- It is important to only specify tight tolerances where it is neces-
terns may also be used. sary to do so. When tight tolerances are specified selectively, costs
can be reduced. Different types of pattern equipment can be com-
Vacuum (V) and Full Mold Processes. Some molding bined and used to serve this end. For example, a shell core box may
methods utilize different types of patterns from those employed by be used to control tolerances in certain areas while a hardwood
more conventional sand molding methods. Two of these methods pattern is employed for other less critical dimensions. Where ex-
are briefly discussed here: tremely tight tolerances are required, it is frequently necessary to
adjust the pattern after prototype castings are made and checked.
1. V Process—Normally less expensive softwood patterns can be This method is used to adjust the average dimension to the targeted
used since abrasion is considerably reduced. Small holes are blueprint dimension. These adjustments may involve machining and
drilled in the pattern to provide passages through which air can refitting of the pattern equipment.
be evacuated. See Chapter 14.
2. Full Mold Process—A polystyrene pattern is left in the sand mold Casting Design
which decomposes and liquifies during pouring. Each pattern
produces only one casting. The advantages of this method are Collaboration between the customer at the design stage can lead
that cores, draft, and parting lines can be eliminated. Variations to reduced costs and improvements in casting quality. (See Chapter
of this technique involve the removal of all or part of the foam 6 for further details.)
pattern. At the time of writing, this process has some limitations
with respect to the production of steel castings.
Pattern Cost
It is prudent to seriously consider the type and quality of pattern
Dimensional Tolerances equipment to be used, as casting quality and dimensional accuracy
Perhaps, more than any other single factor, casting tolerances are may be influenced by this decision. The least costly tooling may
affected by the quality of the pattern equipment. The dimensional create more expense in terms of molding time, rejected castings, and
accuracy of the pattern is most important. Being able to maintain the repair. The cost of the pattern and core box equipment may vary by
Fig. 12-2 A loose pine pattern

and core box for a large valve
body. The pattern is in the
foreground. The core box with
loose pieces is in the background.
molding, producing distorted and inaccurate castings. If only a few

castings are needed and tolerances are wide, an inexpensive pattern
may be suitable. However, durable patterns and core boxes almost
always yield higher quality castings at lower cost.
i%- \ -•
Pattern Design
Properly designed pattern equipment will lead to higher quality
castings and lower casting cost. The following factors should be
considered when engineering a pattern:
' . • ^
Consulting with the foundry during the part design stage.

Locate control features in the drag.
Fig. 12-3 Cope and drag halves of a machined cast iron pattern Full cores are preferable to half cores that must be joined.
(foreground) and cast iron core boxes (background) used for high Eliminate cores when possible by using offset partings or other
production, close tolerance shell mold castings means.
Will multiple patterns be located in a mold.
Selection of machine locating points to ensure that castings will
a few hundred percent, depending upon the type of equipment machine consistently.
selected, and the accuracy and finish required.
Pattern equipment may be made inexpensively from styrofoam or These design considerations are discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.
pine for only one part. On the other hand, a precision metal die or The increasing demand for closer tolerances and reduced machin-
fully machined metal pattern costing many thousands of dollars may ing costs has caused pattern equipment to become more complex
be required to produce the same part in high volume. For example, and more expensive.
Figure 12-2 shows a large pine pattern to make limited casting
quantities. Figure 12-3 shows a machined cast iron pattern to be Classes of Pattern Equipment
used in producing over 100,000 castings. The simplest and least
expensive pattern equipment can result in castings which will re- Patterns are typically classified according to the way they are
quire large dimensional tolerances. made and used in production.
If only one or a few castings are required, molding, cleaning, and
Loose Patterns. Loose patterns are frequently chosen for low
finishing costs may be higher. Different pattern and casting costs
production and prototype parts. They are not mounted on boards and
will have to be weighed to determine the best approach. "Bargain"
can be in one or two pieces, using pins to register the halves during
wood patterns that are not properly constructed (laminated, seg-molding. A one piece pattern may require a parting block or follow
mented screwed, etc.) may distort or warp while in storage or during
board to aid in the molding process, Figure 12.4a. The cost of a loose
wood pattern is generally lower than a mounted pattern. The disad-

vantages of using loose patterns are increased molding time, in-
creased product variability, and the need for higher operating skills.
These requirements increase the costs of castings and often produce
undesirable variations in the quality of the castings. Loose solid pattern \
Mounted Patterns. Patterns mounted on boards have greatly
increased life and generally produce higher quality castings requir-
ing less finishing. The pattern is normally split into two halves and
can be mounted on one board (Figure 12.4b) or two boards (Figure
12.4c). Generally, smaller patterns are mounted on a matchplate and Molded follow-board
larger patterns are mounted on cope and drag boards.
The pit molding technique does not require a pattern, Figure 12.5.
This method is used for large castings weighing several tons.
Pattern and Core Box Materials

Several materials are used for pattern construction. Each has
advantages in different applications.
Wood Patterns
The most frequently used types of woods for patterns are pine,
mahogany, poplar, and cherry. Softwood (pine) patterns are fre-
quently the least expensive; they should be used for limited produc-
tion only. The cost of white pine is a little less than mahogany and
it is easier to work with. Pine patterns are prone to warpage due to
changes in moisture content. Poplar is a hardwood with good
strength and abrasion resistance, however, like pine it tends to warp.
If properly laminated or segmented and coated, warpage can be
minimized.
Honduran mahogany is hard and fairly stable and is usually the
wood of choice for higher quality production wood patterns. Cherry
is also good for production wood patterns; it is harder than mahog-
any and can easily be turned. To increase the life of wood pattern
equipment, coreprints and areas prone to wear can be made of hard
maple or birch.
Mounting a wood pattern also helps maintain its shape. All wood
patterns should be properly segmented to offset the effects of grain
orientation, glued, and secured with screws. Nailed pattern con-
struction should be avoided wherever possible. Approximate life
before repairs are necessary is shown in Table 12.1.
Metal Patterns
Metal pattern equipment is particularly well suited for long pro-
duction runs. Compared to wood, metal is more abrasion resistant
and less subject to warpage. Tighter dimensional tolerances can be
held with metal equipment than with wood. Metal patterns are
usually made from cast aluminum or cast iron, but steel or other
metals may also be used. Stainless steel is increasing in popularity
as a pattern material because it is easier to weld and does not corrode
or rust. Metal patterns can be cast to size with little or no machining,
or they may be fully machined. In either case, the finishing of the
patterns requires considerable polishing. The finishing operations
may represent 50% or more of the total pattern construction time. Fig. 12-4 (a) One piece pattern with follow board, (b) Pattern
Pressure-cast aluminum patterns, matchplates, and core boxes mounted on matchplate. (c) Pattern mounted on cope and drag
require less finishing. The National Association of Pattern Manufac- boards
turers recommends pressure-cast aluminum for production of 3,000
molds minimum, and sand-cast aluminum for even higher produc- the use of metal equipment. Since aluminum tends to gall and wear
tion. Sand-cast magnesium is better than aluminum, and some rapidly at high temperatures, cast iron or certain copper alloys, such
urethanes are better than both. as bronze or chrome-copper, are recommended.
Some areas of the pattern and core box are more prone to wear or
require tighter tolerances. Such areas are the locating points or
fixture locations, and therefore require a harder, longer life material.
Plastic Patterns
Hardened steel orpolyurethane inserts are occasionally used at these With the steady increase in material and labor cost, the foundry
critical points. Because of the high temperatures needed for ther- industry has, in many cases, turned to plastic patterns. The method
mally setting resins, the shell molding and core process necessitates of manufacture involves the use of a wood master pattern from
Fig. 12-5 An example of pit molding

Fig. 12-6 Tools for foam patterns
which plastic patterns are cast. As many copies as required can be

made from the same wood master. The savings from the use of this The primary advantage of styrofoam patterns is the reduced cost
method can be substantial. compared to wood pattern equipment. Fabrication time is less and
Epoxy resins which are bonded to reinforcing materials have high frequently cores may be eliminated, although core boxes are occa-
strength and have proven to be very acceptable as pattern materials. sionally necessary. When high production runs are required, the
Epoxy resin patterns exhibit: foam patterns are produced in specially designed tools, Figure 12-6.
The full mold process for producing steel castings has not been fully
1. Good dimensional stability developed at this time.
2. High compressive strength
3. Excellent abrasion resistance qualities
4.
5.
Resistance to chemical attack
High bending strength
Pattern Repairs
6. Easy release from the molding sand Polyester putties are used primarily for pattern repair, patching,
and adding fillets. This class of plastics is used extensively for auto
Unreinforced epoxy patterns are satisfactory for small pieces and body repair. However, its toughness, excellent adhesion qualities,
limited production. An iron- or carbide-filled epoxy surface coat and grainless character are well suited to pattern repair and finish-
backed by fiberglass or epoxy resin with wood filler can be used for ing. It can be squeezed into shapes with a small mold, adding
higher production patterns. This method of manufacture can be an features to wood and metal patterns. Making complete patterns of
excellent alternative to expensive metal equipment where large cope this material is not usually recommended, as it is subject to high
and drag patterns are required. Reworking or repairs to epoxy shrinkage and is quite brittle.
patterns may present a problem.
Polyurethane elastomers are now used extensively. They have
excellent wear qualities and serve well for production equipment. In Core Box Construction and
most cases, they are less brittle than epoxy materials and have
greater resistance to chipping. Polyurethane is used for complete Service Life
patterns, wear-resistant inserts, and loose pieces. Core boxes made
with a urethane elastomer must be reinforced with wood or alumi- Cores are used to form internal passageways and cavities. In some
num. Another advantage of using plastics (either urethane or epoxy) cases, a core may be used to shape the external portion of a casting,
is that complete patterns and core boxes can be inexpensively particularly re-entrant areas, where the pattern cannot be drawn from
duplicated from existing production equipment or a master. the mold.
Core boxes, like patterns, are constructed from various materials,
each with its own set of characteristics. Pine is often used as a
Styrofoam Patterns framework for a core box. Hardwoods, such as mahogany and
Polystyrene is a hydrocarbon existing as a long chain polymer cherry, are used in the functional areas of the box. These core boxes
which consists of 92 percent carbon and 8 percent hydrogen by are normally used for cores that are rammed by hand. Plastics are
weight. Styrofoam patterns can be fabricated from 4 by 8 ft polysty- also frequently used. Epoxy and fiberglass reduce the weight of
rene sheets with thicknesses which range from 1 to 12 inches. Not large core boxes. Core blowers, machines that blow core sand into
all styrofoam can be used for pattern work. The recommended core boxes at high pressures, are employed to achieve higher pro-
density for pattern material is 1 to 1.25 lb/ft3 (16 to 20 kg/m3). Less duction rates. The core boxes used on core blowers are typically
dense polystyrene is not strong enough, and heavier polystyrene metal, e.g., aluminum, magnesium, iron, and stainless steel. Metal
leaves behind excessive contaminating residues in the full mold is capable of withstanding high blowing pressures, as well as offer-
process. ing longer service life than wood. Cast iron and stainless steel offer
The full mold process requires that the polystyrene pattern re- better abrasion properties, but they are heavier than other materials.
mains in the sand mold during the pouring of the molten metal. The Core boxes also are constructed with aluminum frames and epoxy
heat causes the patterns to decompose into liquid and then gas. or urethane inserts for abrasion resistance. A core box with this type
Special glues and coatings are now available for the construction of of design can be used for as many as 100,000 cores before replace-
foam patterns. ment or repair is necessary.
Where cores are symmetrical, they can be made as halves with a

half-core box. The two core halves are pasted together to form the
final core. Greater tolerances are generally involved, as pasting of
the two halves together is a manual operation. Whenever the foun-
dry engineer considers it necessary, full, split core boxes should be
used as shown in Figure 12-7. This equipment produces cores to
tighter tolerances that do not require pasting the halves together.
Full, split core boxes are sometimes used with aluminum dryers that
support the core, preventing it from sagging during the curing
process. The use of the cold box method (sodium silicate CO2), and
shell process eliminates the need for dryers as the core is strong
enough to resist sagging and distortion when stripped from the core
box.
The number of cores that can be made from a core box varies with
the materials used in its construction and the coremaking method Fig. 12-7 Split aluminum core box designed to eliminate pasting
employed. Approximately 200 to 300 cores can be made from core halves. This core box is used on a blowing machine.
softwood core boxes; if the core boxes are made from hardwood,
2,000 cores can be made. Facing of the inside and the top of the core
box with metal may allow the production of 5,000 cores with some
periodic repairs. A solid aluminum core box may produce as many
as 50,000 cores with periodic maintenance. Core boxes made from
cast iron or urethane-lined aluminum core boxes also have excellent
life expectancy.
Core Box Cost Versus Service Life

The difference in cost of a wooden half-core box compared to a
full, split cast iron box can be several thousand dollars. The follow-
ing questions should be answered in the selection process:
1. How many cores are to be produced?

Fig. 12-8 A casting design that would normally require different
2. Can wider tolerances, often associated with inexpensive core patternmaker's shrinkage allowances. The dimension "X" will
boxes, be justified over the projected production run? contract freely while contraction of dimension "Y" will be hindered
3. Can delays in production be tolerated while core boxes are by the core.
repaired or replaced if the quantity requirements exceed the
useful life?
4. Is the sum of replacement, repair, original cost of a less expensive moderate-to-severe restraint because as the casting solidifies and
core box, and potential delays less than the split, cast iron box? contracts, the core used at Y will have a tendency to resist casting
contraction. In this case, little or no patternmaker's shrinkage would
be used. For example if X was 24 inches (610 mm), and the
patternmaker's shrinkage was 3/16 in./ft (1.56%), the pattern would
Patternmaker's Shrinkage measure 24-3/8 in. (619 mm). If Y was 8 in. (203 mm) in diameter,
the core box might be made to 8 in. (203 mm).
Allowance It can be seen that the design has a great influence on the selected
Shrinkage allowance is a correction factor built into the pattern patternmaker's shrinkage. Only experienced foundrymen and pat-
which compensates for the contraction of the casting as it solidifies ternmakers should make these selections. Where tight tolerances are
and cools to room temperature. The pattern is made larger than the required, a larger-than-normal shrinkage allowance might be added
nominal drawing dimensions to allow for the solidification and to make a prototype part. The pattern then is corrected when the
cooling contraction. This allowance for contraction is called "pat- precise shrinkage that actually occurred can be measured.
ternmaker's shrinkage." Other restraints to normal contraction include:
The amount of contraction varies with the type of steel and the
casting design. The resistance of the mold to the normal contraction 1. Extremely hard molds
of the casting may be influenced by the casting shape and the mold 2. Flanges perpendicular to contracting dimensions
material. It is therefore possible that several different shrinkage 3. Risers and gates
allowances will be needed in one pattern. 4. Cores
Molding methods influence the required shrinkage allowances.
The methods employed by two different foundries may be dissimilar The most commonly used patternmaker's shrinkage is 3/16 in./ft
and require that different shrinkage allowances be used for the same (16 mm/m) or 1.56% for carbon and low-alloy steels. Austenitic
pattern. It is strongly suggested that buyers of castings have their alloys have a shrinkage 5/16 in./ft (26 mm/m). Therefore, if the same
patterns made at the foundry, or under the direction of the foundry pattern is used for casting different alloys, the dimensions may vary
where the castings are to be produced. Direct involvement of the significantly, causing problems in meeting certain drawing dimen-
foundry in producing the patterns will minimize difficulties arising sions. This problem is most noticeable on large carbon and low-al-
from a lack of knowledge of shrinkage allowance requirements. loy pump and valve castings, where the flange may be machined too
Restraint of the casting during solidification will alter the amount thin.
of shrinkage which occurs. In Figure 12-8, two contraction situ- Different patternmaker's shrinkage allowances are used for differ-
ations exist. The casting along dimension X has virtually no con- ent types of metals, such as iron, aluminum, brass, etc. Therefore, it
straint to contraction, and the pattern would need to be made larger is usually not possible to use the same pattern equipment for various
along the X dimension surfaces. Dimension Y, however, will have types of cast metals.
Pattern Distortion Allowances

Occasionally, castings produced from a pattern are found to be
distorted. Castings that show this tendency include those having
large, flat areas, and those of U-shaped or circular design.
Casting distortion is caused by high contraction stresses resulting
from irregular sections found in the design. Minor distortions found
DEPTH OF
in castings can be corrected by mechanical means. If the distortions DRAFT
are consistent or prominent, it may be possible to make changes to
the pattern dimensions and shape, to counteract these distortions.
When patterns are to be changed, it is important that there be
consultations between the design engineer, buyer, and the foundry
engineer. These discussions should consider future casting produc-
tion, dimensional tolerances, and other factors which may be effec-
tive in reducing the cost of pattern equipment or casting production. DRAFT (° or in./in.)
A review of experience with similar castings can help in predicting
restraint and warpage. This information can be applied to the con- Fig. 12-9 Draft angle facilitates pattern removal from the mold.
struction of the new pattern equipment.
Machining Allowances Table 12-2 A Guide to Machine Finish

Allowances(a)
Sufficient metal should be provided on all surfaces requiring
machining. The necessary allowance, commonly called finish, de- Circular Shapes
pends upon: Machine allowance on the
outside radius
of rings, +
1. The size of the casting spoked wheels,
2. The shape of the casting spoked gears, +
3. The surface to be machined Casting diameter circular shaped castings
4. The pouring position in. mm in. mm
5. The tendency to warp Up to 18 Up to 457 1/4 6
6. The set-up method for machining 18 to 36 457 to 914 5/16 8
36 to 48 914 to 1219 3/8 10
Standard finish allowances for steel castings are difficult to for- 48 to 72 1219 to 1829 1/2 13
mulate since each casting design is unique. However, Table 12-2 can 72 to 108 1829 to 2743 5/8 16
be used as a general guide. Allowances that may be acceptable for 108andup(b) 2743 and up 3/4 19
one casting may not be correct for others. In general, allowances
vary from 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) to 3/4 in. (19 mm), depending on the Bores
variables listed. This subject is discussed in greater detail in Chapter Bore diameter Machine allowance on bore radius
16 and should be reviewed with the foundry engineer for each in. mm in. mm
pattern.
Up to 1.5 Up to 38 Up to 3/16 cast solid Up to 5 cast solid
1.5 to 7 38tol78 3/16 to 1/4 5 to 6
Casting Finish Tolerances 7 to 12 178 to 305 1/4 to 3/8 6 to 10
12 to 20 305 to 508 3/8 to 1/2 10 to 13
Where large quantities of castings are required, patterns may be
deliberately made oversize. The prototype or first castings produced Flat Shapes
are then measured. Based on these results, the patterns may or may Greatest dimension of the casting Machine allowances
not be machined to the final size to achieve the desired casting in. mm in. mm
dimensions.
Up to 12 Up to 305 3/16 5
Draft 12 to 24 305 to 610 1/4 6
24 to 48 610 to 1220 5/16 8
Draft is the angle which must be allowed on all vertical faces of a 48 to 96 1220 to 2438 3/8 10
pattern to permit its removal from a sand mold, Figure 12-9. Regard- 96 and up 2438 and up 1/2 13
less of the type of pattern equipment used, draft must be considered
in all casting designs. In cases where the amount of draft may affect Machine Finish Allowances: The dimensional allowance to be added to the
the subsequent use of the casting, the drawing should specify casting section for machining purposes will depend entirely on the design of
whether this draft is to be added to or subtracted from the casting the casting. Certain faces of a casting may require larger allowances than others
dimensions. as a result of their position in the mold, and the possible hindered contraction
stresses that may be acting on the castings. For example, the cope side of a large
The amount of draft depends upon the size of the casting, the casting may require 5/8 in. (16 mm) allowance whereas on the drag and side
method of production, and whether the molding is done by hand or walls 3/8 in. (10 mm) may be ample. Sufficient excess metal should be allowed
by machine. Machine molding will require a smaller amount of to satisfactorily accomplish the necessary machining operations. One very
good rule is to allow enough "finish" so that the first cut remains in its entirety
draft. Interior surfaces in green sand molding usually require more below the cast surface of the metal by at least 1/16 in. (1.6 mm). Definite values
draft than exterior surfaces. Smaller vertical dimensions need more of machine finish allowances cannot be established for all casting designs, but
draft angle than larger surfaces. The amount of draft recommended certain guides can be suggested to designers. Such guides have been prepared
under normal conditions is about 3/16 in./ft (16 mm/m); approxi- and are given above for gears, wheels, and other circular-shaped castings, (a)
These allowances apply to short orders, and may be reduced to some degree on
mately 1.5%. This allowance can be eliminated, in some cases, production runs which permit adequate pilot work to be done. They also indi-
through special techniques. These situations should be discussed cate mat a flat surface is more easily produced man a true circle, (b) Machine
with the foundry engineer. allowances for castings of very large size, such as greater than 15ft (5000 nun),
Draft should be designated on the casting drawing. The draft angle should be determined through consultation with the foundry that is to produce
them.
selected should be no less than can be tolerated in the design or the

Table 12-3 Draft, in Inches, for Various Draft Angles and Depths (see Figure 12-9 for Definitions)
1/32 to 1/2 in.
Depth 1/32 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 9/32 5/16 11/32 3/8 13/32 7/16 15/32 1/2
1/2° 0.0003 0.0005 0.0008 0.0011 0.0014 0.0016 0.0019 0.0022 0.0025 0.0027 0.003 0.0033 0.0035 0.0038 0.0041 0.0044
1° 0.0005 0.0011 0.0017 0.0022 0.0028 0.0033 0.0039 0.0043 0.005 0.0055 0.006 0.0066 0.007 0.0077 0.008 0.0088
2° 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016 0.018
3° 0.0016 0.0033 0.0049 0.0066 0.008 0.0098 0.011 0.013 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.023 0.024 0.026
4° 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.015 0.018 0.020 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.031 0.033 0.035
5° 0.0027 0.0055 0.008 0.0109 0.014 0.016 0.019 0.022 0.024 0.027 0.030 0.033 0.035 0.038 0.041 0.044
6° 0.003 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.016 0.019 0.023 0.026 0.030 0.033 0.036 0.039 0.043 0.046 0.049 0.053
7° 0.0038 0.0077 0.0115 0.015 0.019 0.023 0.027 0.031 0.034 0.038 0.042 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.058 0.061
8° 0.004 0.009 0.013 0.018 0.022 0.027 0.031 0.035 0.040 0.044 0.049 0.053 0.057 0.062 0.066 0.071
9° 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050 0.055 0.060 0.064 0.069 0.074 0.079
10° 0.0055 0.011 0.0165 0.022 0.027 0.033 0.039 0.044 0.049 0.055 0.061 0.066 0.071 0.077 0.083 0.088
1/2 to 1 in.
Depth 17/32 9/16 19/32 5/8 21/32 11/16 23/32 3/4 25/32 13/16 27/32 7/8 29/32 15/16 31/32 1
1/2° 0.0046 0.0049 0.0052 0.0055 0.0057 0.006 0.0063 0.0065 0.0068 0.0071 0.0074 0.0076 0.0079 0.0082 0.0085 0.0087
1° 0.009 0.0099 0.010 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.017 0.0175
2° 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.022 0.023 0.024 0.025 0.027 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.032 0.033 0.034 0.035
3° 0.028 0.030 0.031 0.033 0.035 0.036 0.038 0.039 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.046 0.048 0.050 0.051 0.052
4° 0.037 0.039 0.042 0.044 0.046 0.048 0.050 0.053 0.055 0.057 0.059 0.061 0.063 0.066 0.068 0.070
5° 0.046 0.049 0.052 0.055 0.057 0.060 0.063 0.066 0.068 0.071 0.074 0.077 0.079 0.082 0.084 0.087
6° 0.056 0.059 0.062 0.066 0.069 0.072 0.075 0.079 0.081 0.085 0.089 0.092 0.095 0.098 0.101 0.105
7° 0.065 0.069 0.073 0.077 0.082 0.085 0.088 0.092 0.096 0.100 0.104 0.107 0.111 0.115 0.119 0.123
8° 0.075 0.079 0.084 0.088 0.092 0.096 0.101 0.106 0.110 0.115 0.119 0.123 0.128 0.132 0.137 0.141
9° 0.034 0.088 0.094 0.100 0.104 0.109 0.114 0.119 0.124 0.129 0.134 0.139 0.144 0.149 0.153 0.158
10° 0.093 0.099 0.105 0.110 0.115 0.121 0.126 0.132 0.137 0.143 0.149 0.154 0.159 0.165 0.170 0.176
cost of the equipment. Table 12-3 is presented to aid the engineer in the pattern. The location of risers and gates must be determined by
his choice of draft angles. the foundry engineer. These considerations reinforce the necessity
to construct patterns at the foundry that is to produce the castings,
or under its supervision at the pattern shop.
Locating Points Gating and risering arrangements for one type of metal usually are
not satisfactory for another. A pattern that is initially constructed for
Locating points are among the most critical design features in- another metal cannot normally be used for steel without some
cluded in the drawing. They are used as reference points by the alterations to compensate for differences in metal shrinkage. Pattern
machine shop and are important items frequently neglected until equipment for iron castings should be reviewed by the steel foun-
after the casting is made. Locating points should be indicated on the dryman before the pattern is used for steel.
drawing, so that castings may be checked dimensionally from the
same reference points by the pattern shop, the foundry, and the
machine shop. When pattern equipment is moved from one foundry
to another, the dimensions should be checked prior to use. Even if Pattern Storage
the pattern is correct, the sample casting must be checked. Foundries
using similar methods may observe different results in terms of Pattern storage is expensive as they must be stored in dry, well-
shrinkage or casting distortion. ventilated buildings. Racks must be provided to protect the patterns
Efforts should be made to place locating points on the same side from damage and to minimize warpage. Wood pattern equipment
of the parting line, and positioned so that they will not be easily may deteriorate during long storage periods.
influenced by the movement of a core, or a slight mismatch of the Four factors govern the space requirements for pattern storage:
cope and drag. Locating points should be as far apart as the size of
the casting permits; this will ensure the most accurate results. Di- 1. Quantity and volume of equipment on hand
mensions which do not have finishing allowances and are to be held 2. Rate of acquisition of new patterns for storage
to close tolerances should be considered as the proper place from 3. General rate of obsolescence of patterns on hand
which to initiate the development of tooling fixtures. 4. Type of pattern equipment
It is the last two items that tend to overcrowd pattern storage areas.
Gating and Risering Only when an agreement is reached between the customer and the
foundry concerning a procedure for returning nonproductive equip-
Gating and risering are important aspects of producing quality ment or the destruction of old or obsolete patterns, can a foundry
steel castings and should be fully considered in the construction of maintain adequate pattern storage space at reasonable costs.

CHAPTER 13
Casting and Molding Processes

Page
Introduction 13-2
Conventional Molding Processes for Static Casting 13-2

Green Sand Molding 13-2
Dry Sand Molding 13-4
Vacuum Molding 13-5
Expendable Pattern Casting (EPC) 13-5
Core and Mold Processes for Steel Castings 13-6

Oil Sand 13-6
Shell Process 13-7
No-Bake Binders 13-8
Sodium Silicate 13-8
Gas Cured Systems 13-8
Liquid Catalyst Systems 13-8
Sand Molds for Large Steel Castings 13-9
Special Sand Molding Process 13-9
Molding Processes not Using Refractory Sand 13-10

Permanent Mold 13-10
Precision Processes for Static Casting 13-11

Investment Casting 13-11
Ceramic Molding 13-13
Centrifugal Casting 13-13

13-2 Part 4: Manufacture of Castings
pattern to improve casting surface finish. This is then backed with

Introduction recycled molding sand.
The casting quality reflects the quality of the molding sand used.
In the manufacture of castings the mold determines the shape and Consistent and close control of the sand mixture is necessary. Most
dimensions of the product. The mold is made from refractory mate- foundries today use extensive molding sand test procedures and
rial which can resist the abrasive and chemical attack of liquid metal. automated sand preparation systems as an aid to attaining this goal.
The mold cavity must retain its shape until solidification is com- Various methods are used to compact the molding sand around the
plete. The mold must have certain properties and characteristics to pattern. The method used determines the mold hardness and the
meet these requirements. variation in casting dimensions. Decisions on the choice of material
and method of construction of the pattern are also influenced by the
1. The mold must be strong enough to support the weight of the method of compaction.
metal. In hand molding the molder rams the sand around the pattern
2. It must be so constructed as to permit any gases formed within manually or with the aid of pneumatic tools. The compaction tends
the mold to escape. to be less uniform and dimensions are not as consistent as other
3. It must resist the erosive action of a rapidly moving stream of methods. Wood and plastic patterns can be used with this molding
molten metal. Metal temperatures for steels are typically in the method. The pattern is normally attached to a pattern board or plate,
range of 2600 to 3000 °F (1430-1650 °C). but can sometimes be used loose. This type of molding is usually
4. The mold must be chemically inert and not react with the molten used for one-of-a-kind or larger castings.
steel to form undesirable surface effects. A sand slinger (Figure 13-2) uses centrifugal force to throw the
5. It must be collapsible enough to permit the steel to contract green sand against the pattern. The operator manipulates the slinger
without undue restraint during solidification.
6. It must cleanly strip away from the casting after cooling.
7. It must be economical since large amounts of refractory material
are used.
Many different molding processes are available for use in steel

casting production. These different processes have advantages and
disadvantages, which can affect the quality of the castings produced.
The purchaser and designer of steel castings should be aware of the
differences in molding processes and take them into consideration
when selecting a supplier. Some areas to be considered when select-
ing a molding process are:
1. The required quality of the casting surface

2. The dimensional accuracy of the casting
3. The number of castings required per order
4. The type of pattern and core box equipment needed
5. The cost of making the mold(s)
Molding processes can be divided into two main categories—

molds that are destroyed when the casting has solidified and perma-
nent molds which can be used over again after the casting has been
removed.
Fig. 13-1 Cope and drag mold halves with cores In place, ready
Conventional Molding for closing
Processes for Static Casting

Green Sand Molding
The most commonly used molding process for steel casting pro-
duction is the green sand process. In this process, sand is coated with
a mixture of bentonite clay and water. When the coated grains of
refractory are compacted around the pattern, they are held together
by a clay and water bond. When the pattern is removed, the mold
cavity retains the shape of the surfaces of the pattern, Figure 13-1.
Silica sand is most commonly used in green sand molding. It is
the most abundant and cheapest material available not only in the
United States but also worldwide. More expensive granular refrac-
tories can be used for special applications such as zircon sand,
olivine sand, chromite, and mullite.
Silica sands are classified by their shape, grain size, grain distri-
bution, and purity. The washed and dried sand is mulled with
clay water and other additives to closely controlled specifications.
No single combination of silica sand, bond, additives, and water
fulfills all of the molding requirements for the many different kinds Fig. 13-2 Sand slinger for filling large floor molds. Operator
of steel castings. Many foundries use a facing sand against the controls the slinger from his control post on the sand slinger.
Casting and Molding Processes 13-3
over the pattern and builds up layers of molding sand. The slinging The disadvantages:
action compacts the sand. The sand slinger is used primarily for
large castings, which are made in a flask or in some cases a pit. 1. If the mold is not properly compacted, the dimensional accuracy
The jolt and squeeze molding machine (Figure 13-3) can be of the casting can be impaired and the surface finish may be poor.
manually operated and uses a tight flask. The cope and drag can be 2. High-pressure green sand molding requires metal pattern equip-
made on one machine using match plate patterns, or on separate ment, which adds to cost.
machines using a separate pattern for the cope and drag. Facing sand
can be used and short to medium runs of parts in castings up to 1000 One variation of green sand molding is the "skin dried" mold. In
lb (454 kg) can be readily achieved with jolt-squeeze machines. this type of molding, the skin of the mold cavity or parting line is
Automatic high-pressure molding machines produce a surface heated to a temperature where the water in the molding sand is
hardness of 85-92 and give very good dimensional repeatability. driven back into the mold. This movement of the water, in effect,
They are used for high-production runs of small castings up to 50 lb leaves a dry sand layer on the mold surface. Special refractory
(23 kg). However, impact molding machines are being used for coatings are brushed or sprayed onto the surface which will be in
much larger castings in the medium to short run range. Figure 13-4 contact with the molten steel. The refractory used in this coating is
shows an automatic high-production molding machine used for usuallyfinelycrushed zircon, chromite, or mullite. When dried this
making small green sand molds. Figure 13-5 shows an automatic
impact molding machine.
Some advantages of green sand molding:
1. The molding material costs are low.

2. It lends itself readily to high-production automatic molding.
3. Wood or plastic patterns can be used in hand molding, sand
slinging, manual jolt or squeeze machine molding.
4. High-pressure molding produces a well compacted mold, which
can produce better surface finishes and casting dimensional tol-
erances.
Fig. 13-4 Automatic flaskless high-production molding machine
Fig. 13-3 Jolt-squeeze molding machine Fig. 13-5 Automatic impact molding machine

'OUuCOOuOO'OOuOOSUO'OO'OOUaO'Cf
D
• a
4"HT~hu J UK EL Jln-Th •
iac-|_q
1. Set pattern o n hollow carrier plate. 2. A heater softens the thin plastic film. 3. Softened film drapes over the pattern
The pattern has numerous vent holes. and a vacuum is applied.
MJkHH4|^ uJbTKg
4. Flask is set on the film-coated pattern. 5. Flask is filled with dry sand. Vibration 6. Form the sprue cup. Level the mold.
compacts the sand. Cover the sprue opening with plastic
film and lay on plastic backing film to
overlap flask.
nl
Jfln-r-
rLJ—i
47-Th -U U| <j>
7. Apply vacuum to flask. Release vacuum 8. Cope and drag assemble. During pouring, 9. After cooling, release vacuum and
on pattern carrier plate and mold strips. molds are kept under vacuum. sand drops away.
Fig. 13-6 Schematic of V-process
coating provides the mold surface with high-temperature resistance

to the liquid steel and enhances the separation of the molding sand 1. There is a good surface finish on the casting.
from the casting. Skin dried molds are preferred for the production 2. With the removal of the water from the surface of the mold, many
of heavier castings. mold related casting surface defects can be eliminated.
3. Both molding processes provide a more stable mold, thus casting
Dry Sand Molding dimensional tolerances are improved.
4. Wood or plastic patternmaking materials can be used.
This method of molding is similar to skin dried molding except 5. When producing large steel castings, it provides a relatively
the mold is placed into an oven and the water is baked out of the inexpensive molding process with good results.
entire mold. A refractory coating is applied to the surface of the mold
cavity. Sometimes a petroleum binder is used that results in a very
high-strength mold after oven baking. Dry sand molds are very The disadvantages:
durable and may be stored for a relatively long time before pouring.
This molding process is used for larger castings and mold size is 1. They are not high- or medium-production rate molding proc-
limited to the size of ovens used to dry the molds. Due to the long esses.
drying cycle, the poor productivity of the process limits its use. 2. The skin dried molds still have some moisture in the mold behind
Some advantages of skin dried and dry sand molding: the dried skin, which can cause mold wall movement.
3. In both of these processes, especially dry sand molding, energy

costs used to dry the sand may be expensive thus limiting their
use.
There are several other molding processes which can be used to

make steel castings. In two of these processes the sand grains are not
bonded together by chemical or clay systems.
Vacuum Molding
The first process is called the Vacuum Molding or "V" process.
This process was developed in Japan and found a market in the
United States in 1977.
The patterns in this process are mounted on hollow matchplates
and have small diameter holes (typically 0.030 in.) drilled through
them. A heated polyethylene film 0.003-0.005 in. (0.076-0.127 mm)
thick is drawn tightly over the matchplate by vacuum. A refractory
coating is applied over the plastic film. A hollow walled flask half is
then placed over the matchplate. The inside walls of the flask have Fig. 13-7 V process molding station showing a cope pattern
being prepared for molding. The resulting mold half is shown in Fig.
screens through which a vacuum can be drawn. The flask is then 13-17A.
filled with dry unbonded silica sand and struck off. A second plastic
film is placed over the sand and flask and a vacuum is applied
through the flask. The mold becomes rigid and can be drawn from
the pattern after the vacuum has been released on the matchplate.
The unbonded sand grains are held together by the vacuum. The
other half of the mold is made in the same manner. These mold
halves can be handled in a conventional manner as long as the
vacuum is maintained. Figures 13-6 through 13-8 illustrate this
process.
Cores are then set in the drag and the mold closed. Molten steel is
poured into the mold using conventional pouring methods. After the
casting has solidified, the vacuum is released and the unbonded sand
collapses from around the casting. The molding sand is reclaimed
and cooled to below 130 °F (54 CC) followed by screening before
reuse.
Some advantages of vacuum molding:
1. Wood and plastic pattern materials can be used.

2. Casting surface finish is excellent.
3. Sand preparation equipment is not as expensive as green sand or
no-bake molding.
4. A wide range of casting sizes can be made using this process.
Castings up to 15,000 lb (6804 kg) are currently being produced.
The disadvantages:
1. Specially designed matchplates and flasks are required.

2. Extensive use of vacuum pumps and hoses is necessary, which
require maintenance.
3. This process is not considered a high-production process for steel
castings.
Expendable Pattern Process (EPC)

The pattern is made of expandable polystyrene beads. In the case
of high-production runs, the patterns can be made in a die. For short-
Fig. 13-8 A. V process drag mold half. B. V process cope mold half
production runs the patterns can be made in the pattern shop by
using sheets of expandable polystyrene. Pattern shapes are cut out
of the sheets using conventional woodworking equipment, and then
glued together. In either case, the passageways in the casting are not
formed by conventional cores but are part of the pattern. the sand to flow and become rigid. The sand flows around the
The pattern is normally coated with a refractory wash, which pattern and into the internal passageways of the pattern.
covers both the external and internal surfaces of the pattern. With After compaction, the mold is moved to the pouring area. As the
the gating and risering system attached to the pattern, the assembly molten metal is poured into the mold some of the polystyrene
is suspended in a one-piece flask. The flask is then placed onto a evaporates while most liquifies and flows into the molding sand.
compaction or vibrating table. As the dry unbonded sand is poured After the casting has solidified, the mold is moved to the shakeout
into the flask and pattern, the compaction and vibratory forces cause area where the unbonded sand is dumped out of the flask leaving the
Fig. 13-9 Foam patterns for grinding balls. Over 2000 are cast in
one mold.
Fig. 13-10 Large polystyrene patterns
Core and Mold Processes for

Steel Castings
Many processes can be used to make either molds or cores. These
include the shell process, oil sand, many different varieties of no-
bake systems, sodium silicate, gas cures systems, and liquid catalyst
Fig. 13-11 Pit mold under construction systems. In the production of some steel castings, the mold may be
made of cores which form both the external and internal surfaces of
the casting, Figure 13-11.
Cores must be strong enough to maintain their shape as the molten
casting with attached gating system. This process is now used metal fills the mold cavity. During solidification the cores must
extensively for aluminum and iron castings but is still under devel- collapse so that the casting can contract. If the core does not com-
opment for the production of steel castings. pletely collapse, high internal stresses can be set up in the casting
In its early stages, the expendable pattern casting process was causing it to tear in the mold.
shunned by steel foundries. The main reason given was that the As the temperature in the mold increases, the binders decompose
carbon in the pattern is absorbed by the molten steel. This of course and produce gases. These gases must be vented to the atmosphere to
would change the chemical composition of the alloy. However, a prevent the formation of gas holes in the casting.
foam has been developed which releases very little carbon, Figure Cores can be made by hand or in core-making machines. The
13-9. production run of a particular core will determine the production
There are several other molding systems utilizing polystyrene method. Just as the quality of the pattern equipment determines the
type foam patterns, Figure 13-10. The first uses chemically bonded quality of the mold cavity surface, so the quality of the core box will
sands where the pattern is cut out of the mold and cores set before determine the quality of the core. Sand is introduced into the core
the molten steel is poured into the casting. This process is used in box by blowing, shooting, or dumping. In all of these cases, the core
larger jobbing type applications. box has to be properly vented to allow the air in the core box to
The second process is a licensed process called "Replicast" which escape.
is similar to the lost wax process where a foam pattern is used The first two mold and core processes which will be described
instead of wax. require heat to cause the bonding material to cure.
Some advantages of expendable pattern casting:
Oil Sand
1. The size of the castings is not limited.
2. Surface finish of steel castings is improved due to the pattern's The oldest of these is the oil sand core process. The sand grains
refractory coating. (normally silica) are mixed and coated with a core oil or resins and
3. There are no fins around core prints or parting lines. other ingredients. When the core or core halves have been com-
4. In many cases, separate cores are not needed. pacted in the core box, they are removed and placed on core driers.
5. Once again, elaborate sand preparation equipment is eliminated. These core driers are made of metal or other heat-resistant material
and are machined to the contour(s) of the core. The core driers, with
The disadvantages: core in place, are then placed in an oven where the temperature is
400 to 450 °F (205-232 °C) for at least one hour per inch of core
1. In the cases of carbon steel castings, the carbon level of the thickness.
pattern material can cause problems if not carefully controlled. When the cores have cooled, those that were produced in two or
2. When using thin section patterns, lack of attention to compaction more parts are pasted together. Sometimes this pasting operation
of the molding sand can cause the pattern to be distorted. will require fixturing and the pasted cores may have to be run
3. In all cases, the pattern is destroyed. The subsequent scrapping through the oven again to help the glue joint develop sufficient
of defective castings requires that new patterns be produced. strength.
Fig. 13-13 Single cavity cast iron core box for use in shell core
Fig. 13-12 Dielectric core baking oven process
A related approach to oil sand cores and the production of small

cores substitutes synthetic resin for core oil and employs dielectric
heating for curing. Such an operation can be seen in Figure 13-12.
Some advantages of oil sand cores:
1. Wooden and plastic core boxes can be used for low-production

runs.
2. For the most part, oil sand cores have good shakeout charac-
teristics.
The disadvantages:
1. This process requires thermal energy to cure.

2. Metal driers are needed to support the core while it cures in the
core oven.
3. This type of core generates a large quantity of gas.
4. This process takes considerable time to make a core from start to
finish.
5. Dimensional tolerance for pasted cores are not as good as for Fig. 13-14 Shell core production
cores made in one piece.
Shell Process
Shortly after World War II another process requiring heat to cure

the core or mold was brought to this country from Germany. The
shell process uses sand grains, which have been coated with a
thermosetting plastic resin. This "coated sand" is then dumped,
blown, or shot into a heated metal core box (Figure 13-13) or over
a metal pattern, which has been heated to at least 450 °F (232 °C).
Shell molds are made in halves, which are glued or clipped together.
Cores can be made whole, or in the case of very complicated coring,
can be glued together.
The term "shell" came from the fact that in most cases the core is
hollow, or in the case of the shell mold, has a relatively thin mold
wall. The required thickness of the core or mold wall is dependent
upon the amount of the molten steel, which will surround the core
or have to be contained by the mold. The shell thickness is deter-
mined by how long the coated sand is in contact with the heated core
box or pattern. The core box or pattern is inverted allowing the
coated sand not affected by the heat to drain out of the center of the
core or away from the mold. This action leaves the shell adhering to
the core box or pattern. The shell is removed by means of push pins.
Shell process, cores, and molds can be used together or in con- Fig. 13-15 Shell molds being ejected from pattern on molding
junction with other molding and core-making processes. machine
Some advantages of shell cores or molds: 2. Cores and molds cannot be stored for long periods of time as the
binder is very hygroscopic (absorbs water from the air [humid-
1. They normally produce an excellent core or mold surface. ity]) which weakens the cured binder.
2. The shell process produces good dimensional accuracy in the 3. This process has poor shakeout and collapsibility characteristics.
casting. 4. The poor shakeout and collapsibility can be reduced by adding
3. Cores and molds can be stored for indefinite periods of time. organic materials which burn out, however, this in turn increases
4. This can be a high-production core and mold-making process. the gas generated by the core or mold.
5. The shell process can use refractory materials other than silica 5. Sodium silicate bonded core and mold sands are very difficult to
sand. reclaim.
6. By using hollow cores and thin shell molds, savings in materials
used can be realized.
Gas Cured Systems
The disadvantages:
Phenolic urethane resin used as a binder can be catalyzed by
amine or SO2 gases. Both of these processes generate an offensive
1. There are size limitations to the cores and molds. odor due to the gases used, therefore, the exhaust gases have to be
2. The shell process requires thermal energy to produce cores and collected and treated to remove the odor. For the most part these two
molds. processes are used to make cores. There is no reason why they could
3. Due to the heat required, metal core boxes have to be used which not be used to make molds.
are expensive and thus, the process is used for medium- to high-
Other gasing systems include an ester cured phenolic system
production runs.
which uses methyl formate and does not have the unpleasant odor
4. The shell molding process is limited to smaller steel castings and
associated with SO2 and amine.
those requiring a medium- to large-production run.
Some advantages of the amine and SO2 process:
5. The shell process gives off a large amount of gas during molding
and pouring which must be collected and removed from the air.
1. The core sand mixture is very flowable and thus, requires little
energy for compaction.
Figures 13-14 and 13-15 show the production of shell cores and
2. Shakeout and collapsibility are excellent.
molds.
3. Dimensional accuracy is very good.
4. Casting finish of both the external and cored surfaces of the
No-Bake Binders casting are excellent.
To eliminate the need for heat to cure the core binder, the binder 5. These processes are used for high production runs since the
supply industry has developed a series of binders, which are often core-making cycle is very short.
called no-bake binders. No-bake binder systems can be used to 6. Cores or molds made with processes have excellent shelf life.
produce either cores, core molds, or just molds. They can be divided
into two main categories, those in which a gas catalyst is used to cure The disadvantages:
the binder and those in which the binder is cured by a liquid catalyst.
1. Since the majority of the core sand used in these processes is
Sodium Silicate (C0 2 ) blown into the core box, the core box has to be made of metal.
2. Special scrubbing or treatment equipment is required to control
The oldest of the gas systems is the sodium silicate-carbon diox-
the offensive odor as the gas catalyst leaves the core box.
ide (CO2) process. In this system, the sand is coated with a sodium
3. Special seals are required at the parting surfaces of the core box
silicate-based binder. Other materials, which will enhance the col-
to contain the gas catalyst and to prevent it from escaping into the
lapse of cores and molds, can be added to this mixture. In the case
air.
of cores, this mixture can be hand rammed, blown, or shot into the
core box. In the case of molds, the sand mixture can be manually
compacted, jolted, or squeezed around the pattern in the flask. After
compaction, CO2 is passed through the core or mold. The CO2 reacts Liquid Catalyst Systems
with the sodium silicate to cure or harden the binder. After curing, The most widely used of the no-bake binder systems uses cata-
the cores are removed from the core box and the pattern withdrawn lysts in the form of a liquid. The refractory sand is coated with the
from the mold. catalyst and then the binder is added. The chemical reaction between
There are several less frequently used variations of the sodium the binder and catalyst starts immediately on contact. The action can
silicate processes that are self-hardening without the use of CO2 gas. be shortened or lengthened by adjusting the amount of catalyst, and
These methods require the use of either ferrosilicon fines, Portland the temperature of the sand, binder, or catalyst.
cement, or an ester to harden the mold. The no-bake air set sand systems are mixed in a continuous mixer
Some advantages of the sodium silicate-CCh process: and deposited directly from the mixer into the core box or into a
flask and over the pattern, Figure 13-16. Although these sand sys-
1. The process when used for making cores can be automated for tems have good flowability, some form of compaction or vibration
high speed and long production runs. may be used to increase mold density.
2. A very hard and rigid core and mold can be made, which gives When the core or mold have sufficiently cured they can be
good dimensional tolerances. stripped from the core box or pattern without distortion. The cores
3. Good casting surface finishes can be obtained. and molds are then allowed to thoroughly cure, after which a
4. Wooden and plastic pattern and core box materials can be used. refractory wash or coating can be applied to help protect the refrac-
5. Both large and small cores and molds can be made using this tory sand from the heat and eroding action of molten steel as it enters
process. the mold cavity.
The no-bake air set systems do not lend themselves to high-
The disadvantages: production rates for cores or molds. This is primarily due to the time
necessary to thoroughly cure the core or mold. Strip times can range
1. When used for making high-production run cores, metal core from a few minutes to an hour depending on the system used.
boxes have to be used. Castings of all sizes and complexity can be made using these
processes. In the case of very complex casting shapes, the mold can When castings are too large to be made in flasks the pit molding
be assembled with cores to shape the outside surfaces and internal method may be used. These molds can take days or weeks to
passageways in the casting. complete. The mold is formed by an assembly of core sections made
Some advantages of no-bake air set cores and molds: outside the pit. These sections are usually made utilizing no-bake
systems. The sections are held in place by anchors with backing
1. Wood, and in some cases plastic, pattern and core boxes can be sand rammed behind them and against the pit walls. The backing
used. sand can be either green or no-bake sand. A slinger or continuous
2. Due to the rigidity of the mold, good casting dimensional toler- mixer is generally used to put the backing sand in place. These two
ances can be achieved. molding processes are used only to make very large steel castings.
3. Sand mixtures have good flowability. Figure 13-11 shows a pit mold under construction.
4. Casting finishes are very good.
5. Less skilled molders and coremakers are required.
6. Most of the systems have excellent shakeout. Special Sand Molding Process
7. Cores and molds can be stored indefinitely.
There are two special sand molding processes where vacuum
The disadvantages: causes the molten steel to fill the mold. These are both patented
processes, and their use is limited to those foundries holding the
1. Since the binders used in most of these systems are derived from patent or license to use the process.
crude oil, their prices fluctuate and can make these expensive The first process uses a refractory tube, which is attached to a shell
systems to use. or no-bake mold. The mold is placed in a metal container. The
2. The time required to properly cure the molds and cores may slow
down production.
3. Careful attention has to be paid to the binder and catalyst levels
to prevent hot tears due to poor collapsibility of the cores and
molds.
4. Disposal of used sands is becoming a problem causing most
foundries to implement reclamation of these sands.
5. Many of these systems give off gases during mixing, molding,
curing, and pouring which necessitates collection and removal.
Sand Molds for Large Steel

Castings
Floor and pit molding are used where the casting is too large to be
made in a conventional jolt squeeze or automatic molding machine.
Floor molding is performed in flasks that sit directly on the
foundry floor. Depending on the size of the casting, the usual cope
and drag flasks are used. Should the casting be too large, intermedi-
ate sections called cheeks are used. Floor molds can be made of
green sand, no-bake sand, or an assembly of cores. In the case of
green sand, sand slingers may be used to compact the sand. In the
case of no-bake a continuous mixer is used to fill the flask. Compac-
tion of the sand is usually carried out manually with pneumatic
tools. Fig. 13-16 No-bake molding
Fig. 13-17 Schematic

presentation of the vacuum casting
process

Fig. 13-19 Steel die castings

Fig. 13-18 Dies for die casting of steel
exposed end of the tube is submerged into the molten steel bath. A ured amount of liquid steel is forced underpressure [10,000 psi (138
vacuum is applied to the container and the molten steel is drawn into MPa)] from a shot chamber into the permanent mold. Castings up to
the mold. The vacuum is maintained until the casting has solidified, 8 lb (3.6 kg) and up to 1-in. (25 mm) sections can be produced, but
after which it is released and the remaining liquid steel in the tube overall size is a limiting factor. Figures 13-18 and 13-19 show a
drains back into the furnace. permanent mold for die casting and steel die castings.
The second and most recently developed process uses the same Some advantages of die casting:
vacuum assist mold filling operation. The main difference is that
instead of using the refractory tube, a portion of the mold is sub- 1. Surface finish is excellent.
merged into the bath of liquid steel. 2. Dimensional tolerances of+0.005 to ±0.010 in. (0.127-0.25 mm)
The mold halves are circular in cross section and are glued are possible.
together. Either shell molding or no-bake molding processes may be 3. Machining allowances of 0.010 to 0.030 in. (0.25-0.75 mm) can
used. The drag half of the molds have an opening, which is con- be achieved.
nected with the casting cavities in the mold. The completed mold is
then secured in a round metal chamber which has internal threads. The disadvantages:
As the chamber rotates, threads are cut into the circumference of the
mold, usually just below the parting line. The chamber and mold are 1. Dies or permanent molds are expensive, and expensive to main-
then lowered into the furnace until a portion of the drag is sub- tain.
merged in the bath of liquid steel. A vacuum is then applied to the
2. Die casting is limited to high-production runs.
container and liquid steel is drawn into the mold cavities, Figure
3. Due to the extreme turbulence in filling the permanent mold, air
13-17. When the castings have solidified, the vacuum is released
can be entrapped producing gas and reoxidation defects.
and the mold withdrawn from the bath.
Some advantages of these processes:
A semi-permanent mold process uses molds constructed of graph-
ite. These molds require resurfacing periodically. This process is
1. Flow rate into the mold cavity is accurately controlled by the
used for specialized types of castings such as railroad car wheels.
vacuum applied.
This process is usually associated with a special pouring operation
2. Only clean metal is drawn into the mold cavities.
3. Castings have good surface finishes. such as pressure pouring. The geometry of the casting must also be
4. Dimensional tolerances are good. such that solidification shrinkage takes place without restriction to
5. Castings with wall thicknesses of 0.080 in. (2 mm) can be prevent hot tearing of the casting and damage to the mold.
produced. Some advantages of these processes:
A disadvantage: 1. The chilling effect of the graphite mold minimizes risering.

2. Dimensional accuracy is excellent and machining is not required
on many types of castings.
1. These processes are limited in the size of casting that can be 3. Casting surface is excellent.
produced.
The disadvantages:
1. The use of these processes is limited to specialized types of

Molding Processes not Using castings.
2. Large quantities of a casting are required.
Refractory Sand
Squeeze casting is a method where molten metal is metered into
Permanent Mold a permanent mold die cavity where the metal solidifies as pressure
is applied to it. Significantly less pressure, as low as 8,000 psi (55
In these processes, the molds are not destroyed and can be used MPa), is required for forming in this process.
several times. Some advantages:
Die casting is a form of permanent molding and is used for
producing small steel castings. The molds are made of molybdenum 1. The process reduces the incidence of shrinkage or gas voids.
and are preheated before being filled with molten steel. Apremeas- 2. Dimensional shrinkage is eliminated.
3. Surface finishes are excellent.

4. Significantly less steel is required to produce a part compared to
hot forging or conventional casting.
Disadvantages:
1. This process is limited to high-production rates.

2. Part geometry must fit the process.
3. This process is limited to small castings.
Precision Processes for Static

Casting
Investment Casting
The investment casting process was one of the first processes used
to make metal castings. This process has been described as the lost
wax, precision casting, and investment casting process. The term
"investment casting" has been generally accepted to distinguish the
present industrial process from artistic, medical, and jewelry appli-
cations.
The basic steps of the investment casting process are as follows:
1. Production of patterns, usually wax or plastic

2. Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
3. Investing or covering the pattern assembly with ceramic to pro-
duce a monolithic mold
4. Melting out of the pattern assembly to leave a mold cavity
5. Firing the ceramic mold to remove the last traces of the pattern
material, develop the high strength bond, and to preheat the mold
ready for casting
6. Pouring of the casting
7. Knock-out, cutoff, and finishing
These basic process steps can be followed schematically by refer- Stucco coating Completed mold
ence to Figure 13-20.
The patterns are produced in dies as shown in Figure 13-21a and
b. For the most part, the patterns are made of wax, however, patterns
can be made of plastic.
Casting Pattern
Fig. 13-21 A. Example of a simple die for investment casting. B.

Example of complex dies for investment casting Fig. 13-20 The basic steps in investment casting production
When cores are required, they are made of soluble wax or ceramic
materials. In the case of soluble wax cores, they are removed from
the pattern before the pattern is "invested." Ceramic cores on the
other hand stay in the pattern during the casting process and are
removed during the cleaning process.
After the pattern has been assembled into a "tree" or "assembly,"
it is coated with a ceramic slurry. There are two types of molding
processes, the block (solid) mold or ceramic shell process. The more
widely used of these processes is the ceramic shell.
The ceramic shell is built up around the tree assembly by repeated
dippings into the slurry. After each dipping, a refractory aggregate,
such as silica or zircon sand is rained over the wet slurry coating.
After each dipping and stuccoing is completed, the assembly is
Fig. 13-22 A variety of investment castings allowed to thoroughly dry before the next coating is applied. The
thickness of this shell is dependent on the size of the castings and
temperature of the steel to be poured.
After the ceramic shell is completed, the assembly is placed into
an autoclave or flash fire furnace. The shell is heated to about 1800
°F (982 °C) to burn out any residual wax and to develop a high-
strength bond in the shell. The shell molds can then be stored for
future use or molten metal can be poured into them immediately.
The majority of investment castings produced weigh less than 5
lb (2.3 kg), but there is a distinct trend to produce many larger
castings in the 10-30 lb range (4.5-13.6 kg). Castings weighing up
to 800 lb (363 kg) have been poured in this process. Figure 13-22
shows a variety of investment castings.
Some advantages of investment casting:
1. Excellent surface finishes are produced.

2. Very tight dimensional tolerances can be held.
3. Machining of the casting can be reduced or completely elimi-
nated.
4. Investment casting can be a high-production molding process.
Fig. 13-23 The ceramic molding process: A. Mixing the slurry. B.

Pouring the slurry over the pattern. C. Cope and drag parts of mold Fig. 13-24 Horizontal centrifugal casting machine
The disadvantages:
1. Cost of dies for patterns is expensive.

2. Length of time required to make a shell mold is high.
3. The size of casting produced is limited.
Ceramic Molding
This process is also known as the Shaw Process, the Unicast
Process, the Osborn-Shaw Process, and Ceramicast Process.
The ethyl silicate process employs a mixture of graded refractory
fillers, hydrolyzed ethyl silicate, and a liquid catalyst, which are
blended to a slurry consistency. Various refractory materials can be
used as filler material. The slurry is poured over the pattern, a gel
forms, and the pattern is stripped from the mold, Figure 13-23. The
mold is heated to a high temperature to attain maximum strength.
Molten steel can be poured into the molds with or without the molds
being preheated.
Some advantages of the ceramic molding process: Fig. 13-25 View of molten steel being poured into a mold rotating
horizontally. Centrifugal force is causing the molten metal to spread
1. Surface finishes are excellent. over the mold surface.
2. Casting dimensional tolerances are good.
3. This process is particularly suitable for intricate castings.
Disadvantages:
1. The process is limited to casting size.

2. The process has limited applications due to high cost.
3. The process is usually limited to small- or medium-size produc-
tion runs.
Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting is a process in which the mold is rotated in a
horizontal or vertical position as the molten steel is being poured.
Centrifugal castings can be produced in a variety of lengths depend-
ent upon the wall thickness and diameter. Because the mold forms Fig. 13-26 Hold down column pedestals that support NASA's
only the outside surface, castings of many different wall thicknesses shuttles and solid rocket boosters at launch site
can be produced from the same size mold.
Horizontal centrifugal casting machines are used for the produc-
tion of pipe and tubing up to 40 ft (12 m) long. The length and
outside diameter are fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while the
inside diameter is determined by the amount of molten steel poured
into the mold. Figure 13-24 shows a steel tube being poured on a
horizontal axis machine.
Castings other than cylinders and tubes can be poured in the
vertical casting machines. Castings such as controllable pitch pro-
peller hubs have been cast using this process.
The molds used for centrifugal castings are generally divided into
three classifications. One is the permanent mold of steel, iron, or
graphite. This type of mold is usually coated on the inside surface
with a thin refractory wash to increase mold life. The mold is
preheated before the wash application to dry the wash and improve
its adherence to the mold surface. A second type of mold is the
rammed mold. It consists of a metal flask, usually steel, lined with
a layer of refractory molding mix, which has been rammed into
place. The lining is usually coated with a refractory wash and then
baked dry and hard. A third type of mold is the spun or centrifugally
cast mold. It consists of a metal flask into which is poured a
predetermined weight of refractory material in slurry form. The
flask is rotated rapidly and the refractory material is centrifuged onto
the wall of the flask. Excess liquid is drained off. The mold is then
baked dry before use.
In the casting process, molten metal is poured into a rotating mold
where it is accelerated to mold speed due to the friction between the
molten metal and the mold surface (See Figure 13-25). Centrifugal
force causes the metal to cover the mold surface. Continued pouring Fig. 13-27 Custom engineered, high-stress winder cores for high-
of the molten metal increases the thickness to the intended cast speed rolling thin gage metal
dimensions. Rotational speeds vary and may sometimes develop

more than 150 times the force of gravity on the bore surface of the
castings.
Once me metal has been distributed over the mold surface, solidi-
fication begins immediately. Most of the heat in the molten metal is
extracted through the mold. This induces directional solidification.
During solidification, the liquid head of metal feeds the solid-liquid
interface as it progresses toward the bore. Impurities and shrinkage
are generally confined to the bore of the casting. The inside layer of
metal can be removed by machining.
Often the designer cannot obtain a steel alloy which contains all
the properties he would like in a given application. To meet these
needs, dual-metal centrifugal castings which consist of two concen-
tric layers metallurgically bonded can be poured. Dual-metal cast-
ings are made by pouring the first or outer metal into a spinning
mold. When the first layer of metal is solidified, the second metal is
poured into the spinning mold against the first metal. Properly
executed, this procedure produces a metallurgical bond between the
two metals. There are many different combinations of ferrous and
nonferrous alloys which can be poured using this process.
Examples of castings produced by the centrifugal casting process
are shown in Figures 13-26, 27,28 and 29.
Some advantages of centrifugal casting:
1. All grades of steel common to static pouring can be poured

centrifugally.
2. Castings can range from 2 to 130 in. outside diameter.
3. A cleaner, denser metal is found on the outside of the casting and
the impurities are on the inside surface where they can be bored
out.
A disadvantage:
Fig. 13-28 Manifold with cast-on sockolets 1. The inside surfaces of the casting may have to be machined to
remove inclusions and shrinkage.
Fig. 13-29 Compressor case for

flying gas turbine

CHAPTER 14
Melting
Page
Introduction 14-2
Melting Furnaces 14-2

Coreless Induction Furnaces 14-2
Direct Arc Furnaces 14-2
Refractory Types 14-2

Acid Refractories 14-2
Basic Refractories 14-2
Neutral Refractories 14-2
Melting Practice 14-2

Arc Furnace Melting Cycle 14-2
Induction Melting Cycle 14-3
Selection of Metallic Charge Material 14-3
Refining Reactions 14-3
Boiling 14-3
Removal of Phosphorous 14-4
Removal of Sulfur 14-4
Recovery of Elements from Slag 14-5
Temperature 14-5
Other Probes 14-5
Chemistry Control 14-5
Ladles 14-6
Lip Pour Ladles 14-6
Teapot Ladles 14-6
Bottom Pour Ladles 14-7
AOD Refining 14-7
Vacuum Processing 14-10
Energy Conservation 14-10

Some furnaces use water cooled upper walls and roofs to reduce
Introduction refractory wear, and spray cooled electrodes to reduce electrode
consumption.
Melting and pouring metal are two of the most important proc-
esses in the manufacture of castings. During these processes, the
chemistry and grain structure of the metal are determined. The metal
comes into contact and reacts with the atmosphere, the furnace and
Refractory Types
ladle refractories, and the molding media. Proper control is neces- Several types of refractories can be used in a furnace to meet
sary to minimize defects such as inclusions, porosity, hot tears, and specific needs. The principal types of refractory are classified as
adhering sand defects. In addition, thefinalproperties and quality of "basic," "acid," and "neutral." The method used to determine the
the metal are strongly influenced by the method of melting and category of lining is by the basicity (V) of the slag formed on the
pouring. metal surface. Where:
The type of melting equipment is determined by the requirements
of the foundry and the type of product produced. Some important
_ % CaO + % MgO
considerations are: the ability to accurately control chemistry; the
% Si02
need for refining; selection of raw materials; the ease of changing
alloy types; pollution control equipment requirements; capital
equipment costs; manpower requirements; maintenance; and the a ratio of less than one is considered acid, more than one is basic, and
overall cost of operation. All of these attributes are related to the cost approximately one is neutral.
and quality of castings produced. While it is essential that the refractories contain the melt at the
Electric arc and induction melting are the common methods of high temperatures experienced, it would be ideal if the refractories
melting metal. Most materials are tapped into ladles directly from were inert and did not react with the molten steel bath. The refracto-
the melting unit, but some specialty metals require further refining. ries used strongly influence the type of processing and have given
This is typically done in an argon-oxygen-decarburization vessel their names to the arc furnace practices in common use, i.e., basic
(AOD), or at a ladle refining station. Pouring is accomplished by practice and acid practice.
using a refractory lined ladle with the metal being bottom poured, The following refractory types and classifications also apply to
lip poured, or teapot poured. the refractories used in ladles.
Acid Refractories
Melting Furnaces "Acid" linings are typically silica or fire clay. They are low in cost
Coreless induction furnaces are used for melting carbon and and are suitable for use with many alloys where refining techniques
low-alloy steel, stainless steel, high-alloy steels, nickel-base alloys, are not required. Control of charging materials may be required,
and heat-resistant alloys. Arc furnaces can be subdivided into indi- with special emphasis on high-quality scrap.
rect arc, direct arc, and DC arc, and can also be used to melt a wide
variety of materials. The greater tonnage is cast from arc furnaces Basic Refractories
because the arc furnaces are generally larger. "Basic" linings are principally magnesium oxide although some
linings contain chromium oxide, calcium oxide, and many other
Coreless Induction Furnaces oxides in small, controlled percentages. They resist temperatures
several hundred degrees higher than "acid" linings. "Basic" linings
Foundries which require a great deal of flexibility in their opera- can be used when producing some families of alloys which require
tions have found the coreless induction furnace to be a valuable refining.
melting method. When processing a different alloy, the furnace is
easily emptied and recharged. It may be advisable to process alloys
in a particular sequence to minimize contamination of unwanted
Neutral Refractories
elements from prior batches. "Neutral" refractories are typically alumina (AI2O3), containing
The coreless induction furnace melts by passing an alternating some chromium oxides, silica, and magnesium oxide. These "neu-
electric current through a water cooled coil that surrounds the tral" refractories are usually more tolerant to intermittent melting
refractory lining of the furnace. The flow of electric current in the than acid refractories and basic refractories. They are capable of
coil generates a magnetic field which interacts with the metal charge withstanding chemical attack and can be used at relatively high
generating an induced electric current in the pieces of metal. The temperatures.
heat generated by this induced electric current melts the metal.
Direct Arc Furnaces Melting Practice

The three-phase direct arc furnace consists of a vessel with a
refractory bottom and sidewalls, and a refractory roof with three Arc Furnace Melting Cycle
electrodes projecting into the charge. When the electrodes and their A typical arc furnace melting cycle is as follows:
holders are raised clear of the body of the furnace, the roof can be
swung aside so that the furnace can be rapidly charged by a drop 1. Raise the electrodes, swing the roof, and drop the charge.
bottom charge bucket. 2. Melt the charge to the desired temperature.
The electric current arcs from the graphite electrodes to the 3. Determine the chemistry.
charge. The arc is controlled automatically by continuously reposi- 4. Refine the metal.
tioning each individual electrode. The electric current leaves one 5. Add any necessary alloy to the metal.
electrode via an arc, flows through the metal, and exits the furnace 6. Adjust the temperature.
via the arcs developed by the other electrodes. The metal is heated 7. Determine the chemistry.
by die current flow and from the heat generated in the arcs. Consid- 8. When the temperature and chemistry are determined to be cor-
erable energy is lost through heating the electrode, and radiation rect, the furnace contents are tapped into a ladle.
from the arc to the walls and roof. 9. Patch the furnace refractory in preparation for the next charge.
Melting 14-3
Induction Melting Cycle Boiling

A typical induction melting cycle is as follows:
The most common reaction, called "boiling," occurs at tempera-
1. Charge the furnace. tures above 2750 °F. Oxygen reacts with carbon causing the produc-
2. Melt the charge to the desired temperature. tion of carbon monoxide gas bubbles at the bottom of the bath.
3. Determine the chemistry. These bubbles rise through the metal, causing the top of the metal
4. Add any necessary additions to the metal. to appear to be boiling. The oxygen is often injected through a pipe
5. Adjust the temperature.
6. Tap into a ladle.
1925 o 3497
Selection off Metallic Charge
Material 1900 - /Jy 3452
y s>y
Selection of charge materials is a major concern for steel foun-
dries. The foundry will remelt the risers, runners, pigs, and other
1875 - y~- 3407
scrap produced from earlier heats where the analysis is appropriate.

1850 3362
Recycled scrap from sheet steel tamping, shredded automobiles, and
used and worn parts is a major source of material. Virgin materials
y / ; °/
(Fe, Ni, Cu, Cr, Mo, Si, Mn) in various forms make up the balance p / y&y y 3317 £
of the charge. The meltdown composition must be carefully control- £ 1825 /y$y zs
led to enable the proper refining actions to occur. Carbon is added yy^ 2
//y/ y<cy <v
Is
in excess of the specification limits on many alloys to permit an - 3272 E
oxygen blow. Oxidizable elements such as Si, Mn, and Cr may need f"
CD
1800 ^y a)
to be restricted. Tramp elements such as S, P, Pb, Sn, Zn, As, Bi, etc.,
1775 3227
must be controlled.
Induction charges must be clean and dry to avoid the pick-up of / Jy
hydrogen. Since relatively little refining occurs during melting, the 1750 - 3182
charge chemistry is the same as the desired final chemistry.
1725 3137
Refining Reactions 1700 I i 3092

10 15 19
During the initial melting of the metal, oxidation of Al, Si, Mn, Chromium, %
and Cr may occur. These oxides float to the top of the metal surface
to form a slag cover. Basicity of the slag may be controlled by Fig. 14-2 Relation among chromium, carbon, and temperature in
adding CaO in the form of lime. oxygen-saturated bath
Temperature, °F
Fig. 14-1 Hydrogen and nitrogen
1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600
solubility in iron 50
I I I I K } ^ ^
c- 40
ii 30
N •
if 20
Alpha Gamma Delta Liquid
N
10
N _^
0 srtrt
x^T--'" I I I I I
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Temperature, °C

or lance during an oxygen blow. This reaction is exothermic and ity level or defects will be formed on solidification. The nitrogen and
causes the temperature of the bath to rise. It is also possible to add hydrogen migrate into the rising bubbles of carbon monoxide and
oxygen from other sources, such as iron oxide. these gases leave the metal with the carbon monoxide.
Hydrogen and nitrogen are soluble in liquid iron at high levels Alloys containing chromium are more difficult to blow down to
(Figure 14-1). These levels must be reduced below the solid solubil- low carbon levels as can be seen from Figure-14-2. It may be
necessary to restrict the meltdown chromium, or blow at high
temperatures to achieve the proper final carbon content.
,x T = 3060 °F(1685 °C)
/ \i
/
/
i
Removal of Phosphorous
// •
/ ! To remove phosphorous, a high calcium oxide content slag is used

400 — / ; which contains large amounts of iron oxides (Figure 14-3). The
i
/ \\ phosphorous and all other oxidizable elements react with this oxi-
i » dizing slag and become part of the slag. If the high oxide content of
i/ »» the slag is not retained, the slag containing the phosphorous can
'/ »\ CaO/Si02 ~ 4 "revert" and return the phosphorous to the metal. Care is taken to
300 — / \ prevent the slag from reverting. The usual practice is to manually
/ \ remove the slag from the molten bath, thus permanently removing
\ the phosphorous from the furnace. A new slag, suitable for die next
\
\ operation, is then charged and melted.
\
0. - - • »
s
\ *
200 /' x \\x

/ \ Removal of Sulfur
/ \
// \\ CaO/Si02~3
The removal of sulfur from the molten metal bath is also done
/ // \\
X under a slag with a very high content of calcium oxide and high
basicity. In order to remove the sulfur, this slag must be "reducing,"
100 — ' S ^xx i.e., free of iron oxides. This is the opposite of the oxidizing condi-
— /1 '.' XX
xx
N
tion required to remove phosphorous from the metal (Figure 14-4).
/ CaO/Si02 - 2.5 N The slag is generally made reducing by the addition of silicon,
carbon, aluminum, or other reducers to the slag in order to either
remove or tie up metallic oxides. The sulfur from the metal then
1 1 1 chemically combines into the reducing slag and becomes part of it,
10 20 30 as long as the slag remains reducing. The sulfur laden slag can then
(FeO), wt.% be removed from the furnace, taking the sulfur with it.
If both sulfur and phosphorous are to be removed, the operator can
Fig. 14-3 Relationship between phosphorous distribution and % choose to first perform either the sulfur removal process or the
FeO at different CaO/Si02 ratios phosphorous removal process. In some cases, the sulfur is removed
100
Fig. 14-4 Effects of stag basicity and
T = 2912 °F (1600 °C) iron oxide on sulfur distribution ratio
\ \ \
X X X
10 X X X
X X V
\s \N S V
V X
VN XX
\ X X "*»
X X X^ V = 2-4
W
vx-; V = 1.9
1.0 V = 1.7
, V=1.5
Blast Electric furnace «" Steel making

furnace reducing conditions slags
0.1 I
0.1 1.0 10
(Mol.%FeO)
Melting 14-5
first, but general practice is to first remove phosphorous and then Figure 14-9 illustrate how composition can strongly influence the
remove sulfur, tapping the sulfur containing slag into the ladle melting point of the slag.
where it is then removed. It should also be pointed out that arc furnace design gives a bath
which is very shallow over a large area. Reactions that take place in
one area, such as in front of the door, may be complete long before
Recovery of Elements from reactions are complete in other areas of the furnace. Stirring the bath
Slag and slag helps to speed up the reactions.
Expensive and desirable elements may be unavoidably oxidized

into the slag during the melting and blowing operations. If the slag Temperature
containing these oxides has not been removed, it may be practical to
The control of temperature during melting and pouring will deter-
recover them by reducing them back into the metal bath. This is
mine the repeatability of these processes. All of the reactions pre-
achieved by deoxidizing the slag with additions of one or more
viously mentioned are strongly influenced by temperature to the
reducing elements such as carbon, silicon, and/or aluminum. See
point that a change of 50 °F will greatly change the result.
Figure 14-5 for the relative influence on oxygen concentration using
One of the most used controls is the "immersion thermocouple"
different deoxidizers.
which is plunged into the metal and gives an accurate temperature
The recovery of chromium from the slag is a notable example of reading in less than four seconds. It can be used in furnaces, ladles,
this practice. During the melting and carbon removal operations, pouring basins, and in casting risers.
much of the chromium content is oxidized and enters the slag. The
amount of chromium in the slag is strongly influenced by the
basicity of the slag and the silicon content of the bath as seen in
Figure 14-6 and Figure 14-7. By controlling the chemistry of the
Other Probes
slag and metal, most of the chromium can be recovered. In addition to the temperature measurement probe, other types of
The reactions to remove sulfur and phosphorous and to recover specialized probes can determine the oxygen, hydrogen, and nitro-
chromium are carried out in basic lined furnaces. Acid lined fur- gen content of the metal.
naces carry an acid slag which precludes refining operations. For
this reason, the choice of raw materials is extremely important when
melting in acid lined furnaces. Chemistry Control
All of these reactions are strongly influenced by the kinetics of the
system. The ability of the slag to come into contact with the metal is Chemical analysis is performed using either optical emission or
influenced by the viscosity of the slag, which is determined by the x-ray spectrographs. The optical emission spectrograph works on
chemistry and melting point of the slag. Since the slag has many the principle of the unique wavelengths of light given off by the
different oxides, it is impossible to predict exactly the kinetic re- different elements when a sample is burned or arced. The x-ray
sponse. The ternary phase diagrams shown in Figure 14-8 and spectrographs use the principle of the unique wavelength of x-ray
1.0
Fig. 14-5 Effect of
deoxidizers on the solubility Ni-Co
of oxygen in liquid iron and 0.5
nickel at 1600 °C (2912 °F).
(From Metallurgiya,
Metalloved, 1962 No. 11,
36-53) 0.2
c 0.1
CD
yCD
d'u
0.05
O
CO
c
CD
o
0.02
c
o
o
cz
CD 0.01
O)
s?
o 0.005
0.002
0.001
0.0005
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 50 100
Concentration of deoxidizer, percent

2.0
36 -0
1 5 si**'
32 1550°C ,'%?'
(2822 °F) <£&'
28 1.0 —
O) S0° \ ,<S<f
iS 24 O ^VV \
//// / , ' \ °C
U)
E
20 — 0.5 1600
/// (2912 °F)
IO 16 — 1 oo o
12 —
n- ' #1650
^ °C
0 ///
O
8 '// (3002 °F)
0 ^
-O.b
4 — o
I 1 1 1 t 1- 1 1 n I I I I I I I
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
%CaO + %MgO
(a) Slag basicity, Log % Si
%Si0 2
Fig. 14-7 Chromium and silicon contents of liquid iron in
equilibrium with silica-saturated slags
Points which lie outside the best fit curve should be rechecked for
analysis. Interference from one element to another is common, and
correction factors may be needed to ensure the best analysis. Mod-
O
to ern analytical equipment has built in many of these factors.
To ensure that the instrument is operating properly, it should be
O
calibrated on a regular basis using working standards. These consist
of one or two coupons with a known analysis which lie within the
working area of the curves. If they are analyzed and found to be
outside of tolerance, a correction factor can be used for the produc-
tion analysis to improve the accuracy. It should be noted that all of
the standards will have very slight differences in composition as
metal is removed from the face. As the standard becomes thin, it
should be discarded and a new working standard used.
(b) All of the spectrographic operations are controlled by PCs. They
can perform the calculations for corrective additions very quickly
Fig. 14-6 Effect of slag basicity (V-ratio) and bath silicon on the
and accurately. The determination of chemistry and the corrective
retention of chromium in a reduced slag, (a) Rassbach and additions can be made within a few minutes from the time that a
Saunders, (b) Taylor properly prepared sample is received. The analysis determined rep-
resents the analysis of the sample, which may or may not be repre-
sentative of the entire melt. Attention to the details of sampling, such
from each element. A discussion of these techniques is beyond the as stirring of the bath, sampling location, and cooling technique for
scope of this chapter. However, both techniques rely heavily on the the sample, are all important details which must be properly per-
formed.
use of standards which require some discussion.
In order to have an accurate analysis using spectrographic analy-
sis, a standard must be available for each element analyzed covering
the entire range of analysis intended. If seven or eight elements are Ladles
analyzed, this could easily require more than thirty distinct stan-
dards. Each standard must have as precise an analysis of all the The principles given in the previous discussion of refractories also
elements as possible. This analysis should be traceable to the Na- apply to ladle linings. In general, the refractory must be able to
tional Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) or other inter- withstand the temperature to which it is subjected. They must not
nationally recognized agencies. Unfortunately, many common al- react with the molten metal or any slag with which it may come into
loys have none or only a few benchmark standards to help in contact. The ladles are normally lined with either neutral refractories
establishing curves. This leaves the foundry the task of developing or with a refractory similar to the furnace.
standards with all the composition required. These in-house stan-
dards should be carefully analyzed using wet chemistry techniques Lip Pour Ladles
by more than one laboratory to minimize error. Failure to pay When the ladle is tilted, metal flows from the ladle via a spout at
attention to this important step may create a biased analysis due to the top, like liquid poured from a measuring cup. These are called
incorrect standards. "lip pour" ladles. Before pouring castings from a lip pour ladle, the
Once a suitable selection of standards is available, the spectro- slag must be removed from the top of the metal, and care must be
graph must be standardized. This involves running the standards taken to prevent any remaining slag from entering the mold.
repeatedly and recording the amount of counts (x-rays or light rays)
for each element. This count is then plotted versus the known Teapot Ladles
analysis to create a best fit curve. These curves are normally smooth These ladles have a spout that takes metal from the' bottom of the
curves which are straight lines over only a very small analysis range. ladle cavity and pipes it to the top of the ladle. When tilted, the spout
Melting 14-7
CaO 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 MgO
Weight %
Fig. 14-8 Liquidus phase diagram for the system CaO-MgO-Si02
discharge is lowered and metal flows from the spout. The mainte- common in wrought steel production, but is not generally used in
nance of the spout pipe on a "teapot" ladle requires greater attention the steel foundry industry. This type of system has not been found
than the lip pour system. It is difficult to tell when the last metal has to be reliable where large numbers of molds are to be poured.
been poured from a teapot ladle. Care must be taken to prevent slag
from being poured into a mold. To avoid this, the last metal in the With the bottom pour ladle, it is difficult to determine the amount
ladle may be pigged. of metal left in the ladle. Often the last metal is pigged in order to
avoid pouring slag into a mold.
Bottom Pour Ladles
Some ladles have an opening extending through the refractories
in the bottom. Metal is discharged through this opening and the rate AOD Refining
of metal flow is regulated by a special control valve. This type of
ladle is called a "bottom pour" ladle and is not tilted during pouring. The primary furnaces, the arc or induction furnace, regularly
Several configurations of flow control are in use: produce metal suitable for difficult applications. AOD vessels are
used to further process the metal for use in demanding applications.
1. Stopper Rod System—A stopper is located on the bottom of a rod The AOD vessel permits easier control, refining, and removal of
which is operated by a lever. The opening and closing of the gases. Many of the operations performed in an AOD vessel may be
stopper is controlled by the operator. carried out in a ladle. This is common in the steel industry, and is in
2. Sliding Gate—Refractories slide past each other in a fashion the development stage in the foundry industry where plasma refin-
similar to the operation of a gate in a gate valve. This system is ing has been used successfully on commercial-sized heats to reduce
Si0 2
10
20,
1700
\
\
30, 7 0
.Cristobalite \ A
1700 \
\
\
40 >60
""Tridymite
CaO-Si02 Pseudowollastonite
50, J 500 \ 50
1400 ^FeOSi0 2
j/Wollastonite
3CaO-2Si02 1300
60, 1250 / 1150 , , . . v40
1200 j 1100.,
1150
2CaO-Si02 J) \ N ^ \ V
«0>-^ - ~
CaO-FeO-Si0 olivine
2100 4
\ XX^'Rankinite
70 y £ v 2000 s
\ N 1200
2FeO-Si02
CaO 50 MgO
Weight %
Fig. 14-9 The CaO-FeO-SiCte phase diagram
sulfur and oxygen levels to less than 10 ppm. Several other efforts difference lies in the speed of reactions possible due to the violent
are being made to overcome these problems and permit expansion stirring of the bath.
of the technology of "ladle metallurgy" to the foundry industry. The final operations bring the metal to the proper chemistry and
The AOD vessels are used in a "second stage" of processing. The temperature. Analytical sampling is followed by alloy additions.
metal is first melted in a conventional arc or induction furnace. It is Heating is accomplished by adding aluminum or silicon and a
then slagged and weighed before transporting to the AOD vessel. A precise quantity of oxygen. Nitrogen may be removed by bubbling
carefully selected slag cover is added to the vessel. argon at the end of the heat, or may be added in desired quantities
During the process of AOD blowing, nitrogen or argon gas is by bubbling nitrogen for a prescribed time.
combined with oxygen and injected into the metal through a tuyere The advantages of AOD processing are the extreme cleanliness of
at the bottom of the vessel. The oxygen content of the injected gases the metal and precise chemistry control. Low melting point elements
is carefully monitored to control the oxidation of elements contained such as Sn, Zn, and Pb are volatized during the blowing procedure
in the molten bath. Heat is generated by the exothermic oxidation of and removed to the baghouse. Carbon, sulfur, and phosphorous can
carbon, silicon, and aluminum. The carbon is oxidized to carbon be removed to extremely low levels even in high chromium alloys.
monoxide and leaves the vessel. The other oxidized elements are Hydrogen and oxygen can be controlled to low levels. Nitrogen can
retained by the slag. The purpose of diluting the oxygen during this become a true alloying element with tight controls.
phase of operation is to reduce the partial pressure of reaction The disadvantage of AOD processing is its high cost. The refrac-
(Figure 14-10) such that the oxidation of carbon is favored over tory brick is expensive and must be replaced frequently. The gases
other oxidation reactions. add cost as well as many of the slag and alloy additions.
The second phase of the AOD operation is to refine the metal. This Whether or not to use AOD processing becomes a trade-off
involves the removal of sulfur and phosphorous using the same between cost and alloy quality. Where the cost is justified by diffi-
chemical reactions as discussed in the basic arc furnace practice. The cult applications, AOD processing is a valuable foundry tool.
Melting 14-9
PH2/PH2O 1/108 1/107 1/106 1/105 1/104 1/10

/ / / / /
Pc<ypco2 1/108 1/1Q7 1/106 1/1Q5 1/104 1/103 1/102
/ / / y / /
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
500 1000 1500 2000

Temperature, °C
Fig. 14-10 Change in standard free energy of reaction versus temperature diagram for various reactions concerned with metal melting and
refining

In some of the large furnaces, gas fuel is also injected through the
Vacuum Processing doors and through special ports to help heat the metal in the furnace
at the same time that the electric arc is heating the metal.
Relatively small amounts of steel are vacuum melted and poured
because both the melting furnace and the molds must be in a
common vacuum vessel. One major application is casting thin REFERENCES FOR FIGURES
walled turbocharged casings used on gasoline engines.
Appreciable tonnages of non-AOD processed foundry metal are 1. Electric Furnace Steelmaking, a publication of The Iron and Steel
"vacuum degassed" and/or "vacuum deoxidized." A vacuum proc- Society, Inc., p 134
ess may be the last step in AOD processing. These vacuum processes 2. Electric Furnace Steelmaking, p 149
are usually the last step before the metal is cast. 3. Electric Melting Technology, Vol 3, Arc Melting of Cast Steel, AFS
Cast Metals Institute Instructional Material, p 6-22
4. Electric Melting Technology, Vol 3, Arc Melting of Cast Steel, p
Energy Conservation 6-26
5. Metallurgiya, Metalloved, No. 11,1962, p 36-53
The foundry industry is very conscious of the cost of energy and 6. Electric Furnace Steelmaking, p 155
tries to minimize its use. 7. Electric Furnace Steelmaking, p 156
Some sources of heat are more economical than others, and the 8. Electric Furnace Steelmaking, p 377
metallic charge is often preheated with gas fuel so that less electric 9. Electric Furnace Steelmaking, p 323
energy will be required after the metal is charged into the furnace. 10. Electric Furnace Steelmaking, p 283

CHAPTER 15
Finishing, Heat Treatment and Inspection

Page
Introduction 15-2
Shakeout . 15-2
Abrasive Blast Cleaning 15-2
Removal of Risers, Gates and Metal Padding 15-3
Welding 15-4
Heat Treatment 15-5
Straightening 15-6
Machining 15-7
Dimensional Layout . 15-7
Mill-and-Scribe Qualification 15-7
Non-Destructive Testing 15-7

Magnetic Particle Inspection 15-7
Dye Penetrant Inspection 15-8
Radiography 15-8
Ultrasonic Testing 15-8
Pressure Testing 15-9

Introduction
After pouring, castings are allowed to solidify and cool. They are
later removed from the molds in the shakeout operation. A series of
activities then follow which are generally referred to as finishing and
heat treatment. These activities can be broadly categorized as:
• Shakeout
• Abrasive blast cleaning
• Removal of risers, ingates, and discontinuities
• Rough inspection
• Removal of discontinuities
• Finishing welding
• Heat treatment
• Final visual, dimensional, and NDT inspection
The type of alloy, desired quality level, and applicable specifica-
tions, will dictate the order and extent of these activities. The
operations listed above will be reviewed in this chapter. Casting
inspection takes place on several occasions and dictates the extent
of remedial operations such as upgrading, dimensional adjustment,
and surface finishing.
Shakeout Fig. 15-1 4 x 8 ft (1.2 x 2.4 m) vibratory shakeout, equipped with

12,800 CFM (363 m3/min) side draft exhaust
The shakeout operation, i.e. the separation of the casting from the
mold and core sand, is the first step in finishing a casting after it has
solidified and cooled in the mold. A considerable amount of energy
is required to remove the adhering sand and oxide, and lumps of
sand still bonded together. This energy may be supplied by a vibrat-
ing deck or grate, shaker pan conveyor, or any other type of vibra-
tory mechanical action (Figure 15-1). For small castings, the vibra-
tory shakeout action may be combined with a means of conveying
the casting to the location where the next operation is performed.
Abrasive blasting may be used to remove individual sand grains and
reduce the remaining lumps of bonded mold and core sand that
adhere to the casting.
Abrasive Blast Cleaning

Blast cleaning is used at various stages in the finishing operation
to remove adhering sand, oxide scale, and weld or air carbon-arc
spatter, or to slightly peen the surface and produce a uniform matte
finish which is pleasing to the eye. Blasting is usually done after
shakeout, heat treatment, and processing steps such as torch cutting,
air carbon-arc metal removal, or grinding.
Various types of equipment are employed for blast cleaning of
steel castings, all of which utilize some means of exposing the
surfaces of the casting to a stream of abrasives. Small castings, and
those up to a few hundred pounds each, are frequently blasted in
equipment whose inside chamber is composed of a belt of metal
slats in the form of a continuous loop. The castings are cradled in the
trough formed by the slats and continuously tumbled by the move-
ment of the continuous slat belt. Throughout this process the abra-
sive, usually steel shot, is thrown at the castings from rotating
wheels (Figure 15-2).
Castings may also be hung inside of cabinets on steel bars which
rotate, or on a meat hook-type conveyor which passes continuously
through the cabinet. This type of equipment may be used for castings
of similar size to those processed in tumble equipment. The blast Fig. 15-2 Blast cleaning equipment showing loading bin in
abrasive is also usually propelled by a wheel in this type of equip- foreground and opened tumbling chamber loaded with small
ment. castings
Castings from a few hundred pounds up to a few thousand or even
many thousands of pounds may be blasted on table blast equipment.
In this case, the castings rest on a circular table which rotates so that the inside of the door of the room-type enclosure, or on the top of a
different parts of the castings are exposed to the blast emanating movable car which forms the bottom of the enclosure. There may be
from rotating wheels (Figure 15-3). The table may be mounted on two doors, each with a table mounted on the inside, or there may be

Finishing, Heat Treatment, and Inspection 15-3
Fig. 15-3 Dual purpose shotblasting equipment. The turntable Is

for miscellaneous castings and the hanger arrangement for railway
castings (visible in the background). Miscellaneous castings on the
turntable are blasted alternately with those on hangers, not
simultaneously.
two cars, with a door at each end of the room. With this type of
equipment, loading and unloading can proceed while other castings
are being blasted, keeping the equipment in a more continuous mode
of operation.
Besides propelling the blast cleaning abrasive by centrifugal ac- Fig. 15-4 Removing risers by sawing
tion from the vanes of a rapidly rotating wheel, abrasives may be
propelled in a stream of compressed air. In these cases, the stream
of abrasive is usually directed at the casting by means of a hand-held
hose and nozzle.
Although cast steel shot, heat treated to a tough, hard structure is
the most popular abrasive used in steel foundries, other abrasive
materials that are used include steel grit, iron shot or grit, cut wire,
or other metallic abrasives. Non-metallic abrasives consisting of
sand, glass beads, or alumina and zirconia grit can be used when the
presence of iron residue is undesirable. Each abrasive material is
selected on the basis of the intended work to be done and the type
of surface desired after blasting. Surface texture comparator plates
(ASTM A802) can be used as references.
Removal of Risers, Gates and

Metal Padding
The contacts through which the metal entered the casting must be
cut to remove the risers and the gating system from the casting.
Various methods may be selected for this operation depending on
the size and type of casting, type of metal, and the configuration of
the contacts to be cut.
A popular method of cutting is oxy-gas torch cutting for burning,
utilizing acetylene, natural gas, propane, or proprietary fuel gases. Fig. 15-5 Abrasive wheel cut-off machine
When cutting the higher chromium or stainless steels, iron powder
may be included in the stream of cutting oxygen. Castings from
very small sizes up to those weighing several thousand pounds may base alloys are involved. Plasma arc cutting is a process applicable
have risers removed by oxy-gas cutting. Even larger castings may to thinner section work.
have risers removed by oxygen lancing after a preliminary start is When riser contacts are designed so that a small reduced section
made with the oxy-gas torch. Massive sections of steel may be cut contact connects the riser to the casting, these risers can be removed
with this method. by mechanical action such as by use of a hammer blow, press,
Risers may also be removed by the air carbon-arc process, espe- hydraulic wedge, or by self removal in a shakeout or tumbleblast
cially where various high-alloy grades of stainless steel or nickel- operation.

Other operations used for riser removal on small to medium arc washing, oxy-gas torch cutting, or chipping with a pneumatic
castings consist of high speed friction handsaws (Figure 15-4), chipping hammer and chisel. The oxy-gas torch cutting process is
mechanical shear, or abrasive wheel cutoff (Figure 15-5). New actually a burning process where the heat of the fuel gas is used to
technology involving semi-automatic manipulator cutoff equipment raise a localized spot on the steel surface to the ignition temperature,
and robotics can be used when the casting design and production then a stream of compressed pure oxygen is activated by a lever on
numbers allow. the handle and directed through the tip of the torch to burn through
After removal of the risers and gates, the contact areas are shaped the steel by oxidation of the iron, producing liquid iron oxide slag.
to the casting contour by grinding, oxy-gas flame cutting, or most When sufficient chromium is present as an alloy ingredient, chro-
commonly by air carbon arc. Grinding equipment may include stand mium oxide forms and interferes with the oxidation of iron. Torch
or swing grinders (Figure 15-6) to abrasive belt, hand-held high cutting can be done on these materials when additional fine iron
speed electric or air driven wheel grinders. powder is introduced into the cutting oxygen stream. The powder
Metal padding added to the casting to enable proper feeding of provides sufficient heat and flow of liquid iron oxide to melt the
specific areas may be removed by any of the processes discussed chromium oxide film when it is formed.
above, but it is more advantageous if these pads or feeding lanes can The air carbon-arc process uses a DC power supply as a power
be incorporated into the design of the casting so that they need not source to supply a high amperage current to a carbon rod, usually
be removed. This normally results in improved casting appearance 1/4 in. to 3/4 in. diameter. The electrode is positioned in an electrical
with considerable labor savings. contact handle (Figure 15-7) which also serves to direct compressed
Some extraneous metal which has to be removed from the casting air jets toward the electrode tip. The electrode continuously melts
is usually present, such as a residual fin at the parting line where the the metal surface which the air jet blows away. The air carbon-arc
mold halves have come together or where the mold surface contacts process is a melting rather than a burning process and it can be
a core or chill. These are usually removed by grinding, air carbon applied to removal or surface contouring.
Welding
During the finishing processes the castings are inspected by visual
and/or non-destructive methods to identify any areas which do not
comply with specified quality standards. Based on economics a
decision is made based as to whether to finish weld or recast the part.
The finish welding of steel castings in the finishing process is very
similar to weld fabrication of forged or rolled products. Preparation
of the area to be welded may be necessary to provide a clean,
properly shaped surface that will facilitate complete fusion of weld
metal. Preparation by grinding or air carbon-arc includes removal of
the discontinuity and shaping the resultant cavity to specific geo-
metric features. Weld metal of the proper composition is chosen to
approximate the base metal in composition and other desirable
physical characteristics such as strength, toughness, or corrosion
resistance.
Since the weldability of steel castings is very similar to that of
Fig. 15-6 Swing grinding a wheel-shaped casting other steel product forms, the welding processes and procedures are
Fig. 15-7 Air carbon-arc electrode and electrical contact handle, used for metal removal

also similar. The manual shielded metal-arc ("stick" electrode

SMAW) and the gas shielded semi-automatic welding processes
(GMAW) are commonly used (Figure 15-8). Other processes some-
times used include the gas tungsten-arc (GTAW), submerged arc,
and electroslag welding processes.
Research has confirmed the fact that most cast steel alloys have
equal or better weldability than the equivalent wrought alloys.
Furthermore, once steel castings are welded, the weld bead is fin-
ished to the contour of the casting, thus ensuring freedom from
stress raising notches at the weld heat affected zone (HAZ). The
welded casting may be further processed through a stress relieving
heat treatment, with the outcome being that cast/welded structures
have excellent properties in the weld metal, the weld HAZ, and the
base metal. After corrosion-resistant alloy castings are welded, they
may be given a solution anneal heat treatment in order to restore the
full corrosion-resistant properties of the alloy that may have been
compromised by the heat of the welding process.
Fig. 15-8 Gas metal-arc welding of a casting
In order to further ensure the quality and integrity of the welding
process, all casting specifications require that both the welding
procedure and the welding operator be qualified and certified ac-
cording to the same procedures as the common fabrication welding
processes. The specifications used in these weld qualification proc-
esses are ASTM A488 or ASME Section IX, both of which are
similar in the type of tests required.
The final inspections to be carried out on the weld should be part
of the contracted specifications and are generally the same as the
processes and acceptance standards that are required of the un-
welded portion of the casting. Sometimes special quality require-
ments may be specified which could include inspection of the defect
cavity prior to welding to ensure complete removal of the original
discontinuity, or that maps of the welded areas of the casting are
produced.
Heat Treatment
An essential part of the processing of most steel castings includes
one or more thermal cycle treatments collectively known as heat
treatment. The mechanical properties of strength, hardness, and
toughness are effectively controlled by these heat treatments in
order that the mechanical properties comply with the specifications.
Fig. 15-9 Castings being lowered into quench by crane
In the case of corrosion-resistant castings, the heat treatment imparts
improved corrosion-resistance. In the case of castings which have
been welded, the heat-treating cycle is called a stress relief because
it reduces the thermal stresses present after welding, and provides cles. In this case the castings are heated to 1950 °F or above and
uniform hardness in and around the welded area. rapidly cooled by liquid quenching.
Carbon and low-alloy steel castings usually receive a cycle called Since castings are used in a wide variety of alloys and applica-
normalizing treatment in which the casting is austenitized at 1650- tions, occasions arise which require specialized heat treatments in
1750 °F and then cooled in air to room temperature. If fully softened addition to the above. These are usually performed by an outside
conditions are required for machining, the cooling rate is slowed by source since they require specialized equipment. These might in-
cooling in the furnace and the cycle is called an anneal. When higher clude a controlled atmosphere furnace or salt bath heat treatments
strength, hardness, and toughness are required of low-alloy castings, which are utilized where it is desirable to prevent oxidation, decar-
the castings are austenitized, then the cooling rate is increased burization or scaling of the surface or to preserve close tolerance
greatly by quenching into an agitated liquid such as oil, synthetic machined dimensions. Other heat treatments which are designed to
quenchant, or water depending on the cooling rate required. Figure produce compositional changes at the casting surface include car-
15-9 illustrates a large tray loaded with castings being lowered by burizing and nitriding. These procedures increase the surface hard-
crane into a quench tank. This heat treatment is followed by a ness for improved wear resistance. Certain types of alloys may even
tempering heat treatment in which the casting is heated to within the be given a sub-zero cryogenic heat treatment to improve their
range of 400 °F to 1350 °F as determined by the type of alloys mechanical properties. These special requirements should be part of
present and the desired final mechanical properties and cooled to the purchasing agreement and require involvement of the casting
room temperature in air or quenchant. The heat treatment given to metallurgist.
post-weld stress relieve a casting is identical to the tempering Equipment used for heat treating steel castings involves a great
operation, but may be performed at a slightly lower temperature. variety of furnace configurations, handling methods, and energy
Another type of heat treatment given to high-alloy corrosion-resis- sources.
tant and to Hadfield 13% manganese castings is called solution Car-bottom furnaces are commonly used for large castings which
annealing which dissolves undesirable and harmful carbide parti- are handled by overhead bridge crane, or for large loads of medium-

Fig. 15-10 Car bottom heat-treating furnace with miscellaneous Fig. 15-11 Continuous heat-treating furnace with water
castings
quench-tank in left foreground. Conveyor at right returns heat-
treating tray and castings for unloading.
to-large castings which are heat treated by normalizing or annealing tion gas analysis, and in addition, the furnaces should be peri-
(Figure 15-10). Car-bottom dimensions range from as small as 4 x odically surveyed by placing several thermocouples on the castings
8 ft (1.2 x 2.4 m) up to 15 x 50 ft (4.6 x 15.3 m) and even larger. within the oven to determine heating rates and temperature uniform-
Continuous furnaces are particularly useful when high-production ity throughout the working zone of the oven.
quantities of similar castings are to be treated. These furnaces are Most purchasers of steel castings allow the casting manufacturer
usually of the pusher type with a roller hearth (Figure 15-11) or a to establish the temperature and time cycles which produce the
skid hearth, but may also be of the walking beam variety. specified mechanical properties. This is the reason ASTM does not
Pit furnaces which utilize an overhead crane for loading and have a separate heat-treating specification but instead specifies
unloading of castings contained in baskets, tubs, or fixtures are also within the material specification the heat-treating information when
popular. the individual alloy demands special handling.
Another very common type of furnace is the box furnace which It should be noted at this point that requiring heat-treat cycle times
can have a great variety of casting loading and unloading systems. to be a certain number of hours per inch of section thickness is
These can include fork lift truck handling where castings are loaded counterproductive and is based on early heat-treating rules of thumb
directly onto the furnace hearth, or carried by trays and supported that have recently been discredited. Heat-treat cycle times and
on pedestals above the hearth. Other box furnaces utilize a roller temperatures should be based on the desired mechanical properties
conveyor on the hearth where trays of castings roll in and out of the and time cycles based on furnace loading and heat input rates, which
furnace. Some of the larger box furnaces are loaded by gantry cranes vary widely. Most casting manufacturers today base their holding
with large forks that move loads of castings in and out of the furnace time cycles on thermocouple surveys of the castings in a loaded
on trays. Most box furnaces utilize the conventional guillotine-type furnace.
door at one end. Some designs eliminate the furnace door and the
entire furnace shell tilts or lifts for loading and unloading with
mechanized fork handlers, fork trucks, or movable furnace bases.
The method of heating the furnace working chamber may be
Straightening
direct, by open-fired gas burners or electric radiant heating elements Stresses induced by contraction of the casting during solidifica-
on the walls, or by some type of indirect heating by gas or electric tion, cooling from shakeout, and sometimes heat treatment may
energy. Indirect heated furnaces may be of the radiant tube type or cause a certain amount of warping of steel castings. Variation in
muffle type. metal section thickness, while desirable from the standpoint of
Forced recirculation of hot air or products of combustion may be design freedom, promotes nonuniform cooling and resultant stresses
provided by mechanical fans for improved temperature uniformity, and distortion. Rangy casting shapes are more susceptible to distor-
especially at temperatures below those of radiant heat. tion than the more rigid designs, such as box sections.
The furnace atmosphere temperatures are controlled by solid state Straightening methods involve the use of hydraulic presses for
or electro-mechanical devices which monitor the temperature by larger castings, with fixtures, templates, and gauges utilized to
means of thermocouples inside the furnace and then relays signals ensure dimensional tolerances. Smaller hydraulic presses or hand-
to the control device. The desired furnace temperature is set on the hammer and die-straightening methods may be utilized for smaller
controller and the unit controls the energy input level until the castings.
temperature in the furnace is the same as the control set point. The Press-straightening is generally done at normal room tempera-
solid state devices are capable of controlling the heating and cooling tures, but higher strength castings may be heated to 200 to 400 °F
rates and usually have a memory which can store numerous heat- (93-204 °C) for increased ductility during straightening. Coining is
treatment cycles. The temperatures attained and time are recorded an operation in which a part is pressed between die surfaces. Certain
on a chart recording unit for permanent record of the heat-treating cross-sectional thickness dimensions at localized area of castings
cycle. Furnace controllers and recorders are calibrated on a regular and flatness may be held to tighter dimensional tolerances by the
schedule, the fuel burner units inspected and adjusted by combus- addition of a coining operation to those locations.

Fig. 15-13 Preparation of a casting for magnetic particle testing by

the prod and dry powder technique. Approximate casting weight is
20 tons.
Fig. 15-12 Dimensional evaluation of multistage pump case casting

repeatability. These factors should be discussed with the casting
producer at the time of purchasing negotiations. It must be remem-
bered that specifying "blanket tolerances" and needlessly tight di-
mensional tolerances only serves to increase the cost of production
on the part without improving the performance or reliability of the
Machining final product.
Some steel foundries are equipped with machine shops capable of

performing some or all of the required machining operations (Chap- Mill-and-Scribe Qualification
ter 25) on castings to prepare them for the intended application. In
other cases, preliminary or rough-machining operations may be Another method used to pre-quality castings for customer ma-
performed by steel foundries for their own purposes. Control of chining operations is the mill-and scribe operation. Some foundries
certain dimensions to closer than cast tolerances and removal of are equipped to perform this operation where machine stock is
metal padding added to aid in feeding are examples of such pur- checked and equalized on all surfaces to be machined. Machine
poses. stock is equalized by adjustment of the casting position in a qualifi-
Qualification of surfaces, before machining to final dimensions cation fixture owned by the customer. When the desired machine
by the customer, is another reason why some machining is per- stock is indicated on all surfaces, the casting is clamped in place in
formed prior to shipment of castings to the customer. the fixture. Locating pads are then milled into the casting surfaces,
and layout lines may be scribed at the edges of the machined
surfaces to provide visual indications of machine stock.
Dimensional Layout These castings are subsequently clamped into machine tool fix-
tures in a customer's machine shop at the locations of the machined
Many designs involve the use of castings in multicomponent pads. This permits rapid location of castings in the machine tool with
assemblies demanding complex relationships of dimensional attrib- respect to all three directions. Assurance of desired machine stock
utes between the cast components. In this case the required dimen- tolerances on all surfaces is thus achieved without exception, and
sional attributes are specified on a casting drawing which increas- the degree of utilization of the machine tool is maximized. Expen-
ingly involves the use of the geometric tolerancing practices and sive machinists' labor cost is limited to actual machining operations
CAD/CAM generated reference points and surfaces. These complex by such prior accomplishment of qualification and stock equaliza-
dimensional situations require that both foundry and customer agree tion steps.
on the procedures and responsibilities for laying out the castings on The cost of customer-owned mill-and-scribe fixtures is justifiable
the first article and production sampling basis. Many casting pro- for many higher production parts, and is a tooling investment similar
ducers have facilities which include layout tables and layout ma- to that for pattern equipment.
chines to accomplish these tasks. Figure 15-12 shows such a system
in use at a steel casting layout facility.
Many castings do not have critical dimensional requirements and Non-Destructive Testing
may require only a few dimensional checks. These castings would
be inspected using the more conventional layout and measurement
tools, calipers, and gages. It should be remembered when specifying Magnetic Particle Inspection
critical dimensions and tolerancing that the type, accuracy and Discontinuities, which are located either on or close to the surface
condition of pattern equipment, and the type of molding system used of a ferritic steel casting, can be revealed by magnetic particle
to make the casting will have a large effect on casting dimensional testing. This test method is based upon the attraction and adherence

Fig. 15-14 A 12,500 lb compressor case for pipeline application

receives radiographic inspection by the 8 MeV linear accelerator. Fig. 15-15 Video display of casting being radiographed
Material: ASTM A216, Grade WCC
of fine ferromagnetic particles to the component surface where Radiography

localized leakage fields form as a result of a discontinuity at, or just
below, the component surface. These tests are performed in accord- Radiography has become the major non-destructive test method
ance with procedures set forth in ASTM E-109, E-138, and E-125. for determining the presence of internal discontinuities. Iridium 192
Non-magnetic steel castings cannot be inspected in this manner. is used as a radiation source primarily for casting section under 1.5
During magnetic particle inspection, either a portion or all of the in. (28 mm), and Cobalt 60 is generally employed for sections
casting is magnetized by the application of a high-amperage current between 1 and 6 in. (25-152 mm). More powerful x-ray machines or
to the part either through prods (Figure 15-13) or other direct contact linear accelerators are chosen by foundries producing heavy sec-
methods, or through placing the casting within a magnetic field tions where exposure time with small isotope sources would be
generated by passing current through a central conductor or cable prohibitively long, and where the production program is specialized
coil. Magnetic yokes are another method of inducing magnetic for castings requiring extensive documentation of internal integrity.
fields within a casting. Discontinuities on or near the casting surface Figure 15-14 illustrates the x-ray head of an 8 MeV linear accel-
create highly localized magnetic fields that attract iron powder erator being positioned. The x-ray heads are typically equipped with
particles to the site of the discontinuity. The particles can either be low-energy laser for accurate aiming. Filmless radiography has also
applied in dry powder form (the dry method) or in a suspension in a been introduced (Figure 15-15) for examining up to 2 in. (51 mm)
liquid medium (the wet method). The particles can either be colored thick casting sections. The image is projected on a fluorescent
for easier visibility under normal lighting or be coated with a screen, rather than being reproduced on film.
fluorescent dye which renders the particle buildup visible under ASTM has prepared standards for radiographic testing and refer-
ultraviolet light. ence radiographs to rate the degree of soundness (E-446, E-136,
Since the choice of method and extent of magnetic particle inspec- E-230, E-192, and E-390). The reference radiographs represent
tion depends on the casting design, application, and production graduated severity levels of discontinuities. Since the degree of
levels, the purchaser should discuss the requirements with the cast- casting integrity required varies with end use, the discontinuity
ing manufacturer during purchase negotiations and purchase order severity levels which are acceptable are set by the casting purchaser.
specifications. In addition, the criteria that should be used by the The acceptance levels must be specified according to their effect on
inspector in determining acceptability or rejectability of a part the serviceability of the component as discussed further in Chapter
should be agreed upon. Again, overspecification of acceptance cri- 4. Casting purchasers typically realize significant savings by avoid-
teria will add to the cost of manufacturing and will be counterpro- ing unnecessarily tight soundness requirements for noncritical com-
ductive. ponents. High quality levels, on the other hand, are required in the
highly stressed portions of critical components.
Dye Penetrant Inspection
Discontinuities which extend to the surface of magnetic and
Ultrasonic Testing
non-magnetic materials can be revealed by dyes that are applied by The ability of ultrasonic testing to determine the location of
spraying, brushing or dipping of the casting. Fluorescent dyes are discontinuities below the component surface, the low cost of the
available to improve the visibility of the discontinuities in ultraviolet inspection method, and the speed with which it can be performed
light. The process of inspection involves application of the liquid has led to its increased use. Ultrasonic impulses are sent into the
penetrant, its removal by washing and wiping, and the subsequent component from special probes. Attenuation and echoes of the
application of the developer, frequently a powder which is discol- sound impulses are monitored to determine the presence of discon-
ored by the dye seeping from the discontinuity. ASTM has prepared tinuities and their location (Figure 15-16).
standard procedures for liquid penetrant inspection in ASTM E-165, Until recently the lack of permanent records, as obtained routinely
E-433. Acceptance criteria should be indicated at the time of order. in conventional radiography, has been the reason for customers'

preferences for specifying radiography in non-destructive testing.

The low cost of the ultrasonic technique, however, and the ability to
determine the size and location of discontinuities, have been the
reasons for foundries to adopt the technique in inspection for up-
grading and repair of steel castings prior to final radiography. These
measures reduce the direct examination costs and expedite the
movement of castings through the cleaning room.
The benefits of ultrasonic testing are greater for a casting with the
section size exceeding 2 in. (51 mm) although special techniques are
available for thin sections. The application of ultrasonic testing is
also largely restricted to ferritic steel because the large grain size of
stainless steel castings severely reduces the sensitivity of the tech-
nique and limits the method to such applications as wall thickness
measurements and examination of machined weld ends for which
special probes have been developed. The cost reduction achieved by
substituting ultrasonic testing for radiography was 2 to 1 for this
example. Greater savings are usually obtained.
ASTM has prepared a recommended practice for ultrasonic test-
ing of steel castings (A609) which is revised periodically to satisfy
the most stringent purchaser requirements.
Pressure Testing
Pressure testing is employed for pressure-containing parts and
flow control devices using primarily hydrostatic or air pressure
techniques, with visual leak detection remaining the most widely
used method. Other pressure testing methods include the use of high-
pressure air or nitrogen, freon, helium, steam, and high vacuum. Fig. 15-16 Ultrasonic inspection of a steel casting on the shop floor

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CHAPTER 16
Process Capability and Tolerances

Page
Introduction 16-2
Measurement Accuracy and Precision 16-2
Variation of Process Characteristics 16-3
Process Capability 16-4
Process Performance 16-5

Variation in Chemical Composition 16-5
Variation in Mechanical Properties 16-6
Variation in Dimensions 16-7
Effect of Casting Contraction 16-7
Effect of Casting Design 16-7
Draft 16-7
Cores 16-7
Dimensional Type 16-7
Effect of Pattern Equipment 16-8
On Nominal Dimensions 16-8
On Variation in Dimensions 16-8
Effect of Molding Processes 16-8
Effect of Casting Weight and Length 16-9
Summary 16-9
Tolerance Specification 16-9

Process Capability Considerations 16-9
Dimensional Tolerances 16-10
Geometric Tolerances 16-11
Weight Tolerances 16-11
Summary 16-13
Data Sources 16-13
References 16-13

0.40 ' 0.42 ' 0.44 ' 0.46 ' 0.48.' 0.50
0.41 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.49
Percent nickel
Fig. 16-1 Percent nickel in a series of heats of a cast Cr-Ni-Mo Fig. 16-2 Distribution of percent nickel in a series of heats of a
low-alloy steel (1) cast Cr-Ni-Mo low-alloy steel (1)
Introduction
One of the first responsibilities facing the producer of every The measures most commonly used for expressing variation are
product is to satisfy the customer that their needs and expectations AVERAGE and STANDARD DEVIATION. The PROCESS CA-
can be met. Typically, this responsibility has most often been accom- PABILITY is described by a specific set of quantitative tools used
plished by producing a "first piece" for examination by the cus- to compare the variation in characteristics of the product as deter-
tomer. This "first piece" answers the question, "can we produce an mined by the manufacturer with the tolerance for variation in those
article meeting the customer's requirements?" but that is not the characteristics as expressed by the customer.
right question. The question should be, "can we produce the re- One issue which should never be taken for granted in considering
quired number of articles consistently meeting the customer's re- capability and tolerances is the ability to measure with ACCURACY
quirements?" In order to answer that question, we must deal with and PRECISION (REPEATABILITY and REPRODUCIBILITY).
issues of: Few realize how difficult it is to obtain interchangeability of results
in measurement when the results are obtained in different laborato-
1. The specifications and tolerances of the customer ries, or even in the same laboratory at different time periods. Spe-
2. Variation inherent in the process and the product; i.e., some cific methods for ensuring accuracy and precision are a necessary
statistical method(s) for expressing variation of product charac- part of any measurement activity.
teristics
3. Some technique for relating the tolerances to the characteristics,
e.g., "capability" indices Measurement Accuracy and
4. Recognition of the difficulties and limitations of the process of Precision
measuring quality characteristics of interest with accuracy and
precision In order to compare the results achieved by the producer with
standards and specifications, the results must be measured. Most
Users of steel castings establish performance requirements for models for quality systems require the supplier to determine the
specific characteristics of the castings based on the planned use. accuracy and precision of the measurements. For example, ANSI
They express tolerance for variation in those characteristics to the Q92 (ISO 9002), 4.10 (d) states "(the supplier shall) ensure that the
producer of the castings. Tolerance in characteristics is given as inspection, measuring and test equipment is capable of the accuracy
either maximum or minimum values, or as upper and lower specifi- and precision necessary." Over and above the requirements of such
cation limits of the characteristics. Characteristics generally of inter- standards, it is just good practice for a supplier to know his meas-
est in steel castings include (but are not limited to) dimensions, urement ability in order to correctly determine if the customer's
mechanical properties (tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, requirements can be met, or if lack of measurement precision ob-
reduction of area, and impact strength), hardenability, weldability, scures the capability.
and the percentages of certain chemical elements in the steel. Accuracy is defined as "closeness of agreement between test
Variation exists in all manufacturing processes and, therefore, also result and accepted reference value," while precision is defined as
exists in the characteristics of products coming from the process. "closeness of agreement between independent test results obtained
Examples of such variation (in Ni content of a cast low-alloy steel under prescribed conditions." Repeatability is "precision under re-
chemistry) are shown in Figures 16-1 and 16-2. The first figure peatability conditions"; i.e., where independent test results are ob-
shows variation in nickel content over time as the heats are produced tained with the same method on identical test material in the same
(run chart). The second figure shows the number of heats produced laboratory by the same operator using the same equipment within a
at each percent of nickel; i.e., the DISTRIBUTION of nickel content short interval of time. Reproducibility is "precision under reproduci-
for this cast alloy. bility conditions"; i.e., where test results are obtained with the same
Process Capability and Tolerances 16-3
methods on identical test material in different laboratories with Upper control unit
different operators using different equipment (1). .30
To achieve useful measurement in practice, we should:
1. Make sure that a reasonable degree of accuracy is achieved

o
CO
.25
"'-yW Aim
2. Evaluate the degree of precision, both within laboratories and o Lower control unit
.20
between laboratories r T -i i r
3. Take whatever steps are necessary to improve precision to a 10 15 20 25 30
satisfactory level
Accuracy is achieved by comparison of the inspection or test

equipment to certified equipment having a known valid relationship
Aim
to nationally recognized standards. The process of maintaining
accuracy is referred to as calibration. Achieving a "reasonable de-
gree of accuracy" is a function of the quality of the reference
standard, and the frequency and care with which the comparison is
made. The most widely recognized standard for maintaining an
effective calibration program is MEL-STD-45662 (2).
Achieving precision is accomplished by controlling the environ-
mental factors that affect the measuring process. Procedures must be
established and carefully followed by trained operators, and test
equipment must be maintained. Precision of a measurement can be
studied by methods generally referred to as "repeatability and repro- Aim
ducibility" (R&R) studies. There are several generally accepted
methods for performing R&R studies (3,4,5,6). | Daily extreme values
Standards for "adequate" measurement precision can be estab- .30
Lower control unit o Mean
lished from the references. For example, the AIAG Reference Man- .25
r T ~
ual states: 10 15 20 25 30
August
Guidelines for acceptance of gage repeatability and reproducibil-
Fig. 16-3 Examples of variations in carbon, manganese, and silicon
ity (%R&R) are: of cast 1025 carbon steel due to melting process variables (2)
• Under 10% error; gage system o.k.

• 10% to 30% error; may be acceptable based upon importance of
application, cost of gage, cost of repairs, etc.
• Over 30% error; gage system needs improvement. Make every
Table 16-1 Maximum Permitted Discrimination
effort to identify the problems and have them corrected and %Gage R&R for Various Tolerance Ranges
and Process Standard Deviations
Measurement precision and gage repeatability and reproducibility
are related to total process variation rather than to tolerance spread. Tolerance Standard Discrimination % Gage R&R
The total process variation, expressed as six standard deviations, is range deviation not larger than 10% 30%
expected to be less than the tolerance spread. This emphasizes the (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
importance of the concept of capability in measurement. Table 16-1
illustrates the idealized relationship between (i) tolerance range, (ii) 0.030 0.005 0.003 0.003 0.009
0.060 0.010 0.006 0.006 0.018
process standard deviation, (iii) measurement discrimination, and
0.090 0.015 0.009 0.009 0.027
(iv) %R&R at the 10% and 30% levels for several tolerance ranges 0.120 0.020 0.012 0.012 0.036
and standard deviations. (The table is dimensionless, but gives
values typical of tolerances on casting dimensions in inches.)
Variation of Process books available is the "Manual on Presentation of Data and Control
Characteristics Chart Analysis" provided by ASTM (7). While describing several
tabular and graphical methods and calculations for presenting data,
Even the most tightly controlled manufacturing process is subject this ASTM publication recommends on page 34 that "the average,
to variation, and the products of the process also have variation in the standard deviation, and the number of observations contain the
their characteristics. Variation in product characteristics will mani- essential information for a majority of the uses made of such data...."
fest itself in one or more ways: variation in a single unit of produc- There is no fixed rule for a proper sample size to determine the
tion (within a piece); variation from one unit to the next (piece-to- average and standard deviation of a characteristic. The selection of
piece); and variation between a series of units produced during one sample size often has to do more with economics than statistics.
time period relative to those produced during another time period However, we should note that we are estimating the expected per-
(time-to-time). Piece-to-piece (in this case heat-to-heat) and time- formance of characteristics of interest in the future and the largest
to-time variations are evident in Figure 16-3, which shows chemical sample sizes possible should be used. The selection of "one piece"
composition plotted against the date of manufacture for a particular is not a sample and data from one piece does not permit estimating
grade of cast steel, along with in-plant control limits for each (predicting) future performance.
element plotted. Generally, reliance is placed on the data being distributed approxi-
Variation can be measured and characterized in several ways mately to what is called the "normal" distribution. For example, the
using the methods of descriptive statistics. One of the more useful distribution of percent nickel shown in Figure 16-2 is essentially
16-4 Part 4: Man ufactu re of Castings
MEAN
and each has a different meaning and a different utility. The capability
index, Cp, is simply the ratio of the tolerance range of the specification
to six times the standard deviation of the process characteristic; i.e.,
USL-LSL
Cp
~ 6s
The C p index only speaks to the capability of at least six times the
standard deviation to fit within the tolerance range of the specifica-
tion; whether it actually does or not relates to the location of the
process average with respect to the tolerance range.
Six times the standard deviation is the common measure used
because, if the characteristic is distributed normally, 99.73% of all
the measured values will lie within ±3 standard deviations, or 6
standard deviations of the process average. This means that if the
process average is centered within the tolerance range of the speci-
fication, we would expect to have no more than 0.27% of our parts
out of specification; i.e., 2700 parts per million. The relationship
between C p and parts-per-million defects is shown in Figure 16-5.
Since location of the distribution of the quality characteristic of
interest within the tolerance range of the specification is important,
the capability index number Cpk has been developed to take location
Fig. 16-4 Significance of the standard deviation in relation to into account. CPk is the ratio of the distance of the average of the
normally distributed data. Plus or minus 1 standard deviation from
the mean will include 68% of all measurements. Plus or minus 2
quality characteristic from the upper and lower specification limits
and 3 standard deviations will include 95 and 99.7%, respectively. (or the maximum or minimum, if only one is specified) to three
standard deviations, and the smallest value of the two is used:
USL-X X-LSLl
CPk = MIN
3s 3s
If the quality characteristic is normally distributed and is at least

normally distributed. For "normally distributed" data, Figure 16-4 3 standard deviations away from the specification limit, Cpk will be
shows the significance of the average and standard deviation for at least 1 and the tail area outside the specification limit will contain
predicting the expected behavior of the characteristics of our prod- no more than 0.135% nonconforming parts. However, CPk alone is
ucts. still an inadequate measure of process centering and, for cases where
Careful users of data will test the distribution of the data using one the process average is not centered in the tolerance range, most
of the graphical techniques (7) to observe serious departures from a practitioners require both C p and CPk to be used.
normal distribution. Where there is a critical application, more To get around this difficulty and provide a capability index which
sophisticated tests of normality are available (8,9). Most statistical is a better indicator of centering, the index C pm has been proposed
computer programs provide measures for evaluating the fit of data (11). This index is calculated using the following formula:
to normal distributions, and these evaluations should be done prior
to making predictions. USL - LSL C„
In summary, data from processes and products is used to deter- 2 1+(T-X^
mine the average and standard deviation of characteristics of inter- ecMlî
est to producers and customers. These statistical characteristics
permit the prediction of performance of the characteristics in the
future, and they also enable estimates to be made of how well the
customer's requirements are met, i.e., how "capable" the processes where T is the target or aim of the process [and is generally taken to be
are. the midpoint of the specification; i.e., T = 1/2 (USL-LSL)].
The capability index C pm has more satisfactory statistical proper-
ties than Cpk and is more easily understood in terms of its relation-
Process Capability ship to Cp when the process is centered, C pm - Cp. As the process
average departs from the target, C pm becomes smaller and smaller,
"Process capability" refers to a set of measures for relating the approaching zero as a limit, whereas CPk takes on negative values
actual behavior of process characteristics to the requirements of the when the process average is outside the tolerance range of the
customer as expressed in specifications through numerical measures specification, which is not so easily interpreted. The relationship of
referred to as capability indices. The capability indices currently the three capability indices is described in a brief summary by
being used were introduced relatively recently (10,11), and there is Montgomery (12).
some controversy surrounding their application, particularly to Capability indices are statistical estimates from sample data and,
characteristics which are not distributed "normally." However, their as such, they are not exact values but have confidence intervals
use is increasing, and, with proper care and understanding on the surrounding them (13). Demonstrating achievement of a particular
part of those who use and interpret them, the indices often provide capability is a statistical hypothesis testing problem, not just a
valuable insight and guidance for process improvement. straightforward calculation. An important assumption underlying
There are three capability indices in general use: process capability indices is that their interpretation is based on a
normal distribution of the process characteristic of interest. If the
C p , Cpk, and Cpm underlying distribution of the characteristic of interest is not normal,
1,000,000
Fig. 16-5 Expected
nonconformities per
million for various values
of Cp or Cpm 100,000
10,000
1,000
CD
Q.
0.01
0 0.2 0.4
Table 16-2 Typical Variations in Chemistry of a Table 16-3 Process Capability and Control Limits
Carbon Steel(a) for Cr and Cr-Ni High-Alloy Steels(a)
Smallest standard Average standard Smallest standard Average standard
deviation reported deviation reported CF8M deviation reported deviation reported
C 0.005% 0.012% C 0.004% 0.011%

Mn 0.013% 0.058% Mn 0.011% 0.07%
Si 0.011% 0.059% Cr 0.19% 0.46%
P 0.0037% Ni 0.08% 0.30%
S 0.0036% Mo 0.029% 0.10%
(a) SFSA Survey, 1993 (a) SFSA Survey, 1993
then any conclusions concerning the percent of nonconforming Variation in Chemical Composition
parts for a particular capability index may be seriously in error.
There are methods for dealing with these distributional problems but The data in this section depict the approximate extent to which
they are not simple (12). chemical elements can be controlled. Those elements which are not
oxidized from the bath during melting, such as nickel and molybde-
num, are easily controlled with little variation (small standard devia-
Process Performance tions). The more readily oxidizable elements, such as carbon, man-
ganese, silicon, and chromium, are less easily controlled and have
Process performance measures for all characteristics which are more variation (larger standard deviations). Standard deviations for
specified and must be determined. Capability is a function of the both P and S are on the order of 0.004%, illustrating a quite
average value of each characteristic and the variation of the charac- satisfactory level of control.
teristic (expressed as standard deviation) relative to the tolerance Table 16-2 presents a compilation of data from over 20 sources
range of the characteristic as expressed by the customer. If the representing the range of variation which could be expected from
average value of the characteristic(s) is not close to the aim desired conventional melting practices in modern foundries. These data are
by the customer, the situation can normally be corrected readily. In presented as a reference to give potential specifiers of composition
most cases, all that is required is some adjustment of chemistry, heat ranges, either internal or customer, a feel as to what is possible in
treatment procedure, or pattern equipment. However, if lack of modern practice. Obviously, in order to demonstrate a capability of
capability is caused by too large a variation (standard deviation), 1.00, the tolerance range of the specification should be six times the
correction becomes more difficult. The amount of variation of a standard deviation, and for a capability of 1.33, the tolerance range
characteristic is a function of the process equipment and procedures should be eight times the standard deviation. These are minimum
used to produce the characteristic. Reducing the amount of variation values and the tolerance ranges should generally be much wider than
nearly always requires changing some aspect of either the equip- six or eight standard deviations to accommodate the uncertainty of
ment or procedures or both, which is not always easy to accomplish. estimating standard deviations from small samples.
There are implications of these typical variations in chemistry as To estimate the standard deviation of CE, the square root of the
shown in Table 16-2, where wettability or heat treat response are sums of the standard deviations squared of the elements of the
important and where indicators of such characteristics as Carbon equation are calculated.
Equivalent (CE) and Critical Diameter (DI) are calculated from Examples of variations in the chemical composition of high-alloy
chemistry. In these cases, estimates of the expected variation should cast steels are illustrated in Table 16-3 for CF8M corrosion-resistant
be made in these calculated indices by statistically combining the stainless steel. These data are typical of the results that can be
variations of the elements making up the calculated index. An expected in the production of high-alloy cast steels.
example of this for carbon equivalent follows.
The formula for calculating CE (from ASTM A216) is Variation in Mechanical Properties
„ Mn Cr + Mo + V Ni + Cu The mechanical properties obtainable with cast steels of a given
CE = C + - r + + —75— analysis depend on the alloy content of the steel and its subsequent
heat treatment. For carbon and low-alloy steels, variations in carbon
and alloying elements will have the greatest effect on the maximum
strength attainable and the depth of hardening, respectively. How-
ever, for a given steel composition, heat treatment process parame-
ters such as cooling rate from the austenitizing temperature have the
most significant effect on variation in mechanical properties. Given
knowledge of the chemistry and proper controls on the heat treat-
ment process, mechanical properties can be produced with remark-
Table 16-4 able consistency.
Standard Coefficient A measure sometimes used to express variability of characteristics
Average deviation of variation on a relative scale rather than on an absolute scale (such as standard
deviation) is the Coefficient of Variation (CV). It is calculated
A27,65-36
Tensile strength 75.9 ksi 2.68 ksi 3.53% CV = ^-xl00
Yield strength 45.6 ksi 2.54 ksi 5.57%
Elongation 30.1% 1.59% 5.28%
Reduction of area 48.6% 3.53% 7.26%
and is a percentage. Examination of numerous reports of mechanical
A148,80-40 properties from many different compositions of carbon, low-alloy, and
Tensile strength 99.5 ksi 4.00 ksi 4.02% high-alloy steels heat treated to meet many different specifications show
Yield strength 57.8 ksi 3.33 ksi 5.76% CV's consistently below 10%, a very low amount of variation. Table
Elongation 22.1% 1.67% 7.56% 16-4 gives typical data to illustrate this point and Figures 16-6 and 16-7
Reduction of area 53.0% 6.81% 12.85%
show typical distributions of mechanical properties.
YIELD STREN GTH - MPa YIELD STRENGTH-MPa

600 650 700 750 300 350 400 450 Fig. 16-6 Distribution of tensile
1 1 1 25 I 1 I I . and yield strength and ductility of
z / \ a 0.45% carbon steel (meets
z S?
0
z^ // \\ ASTM A 148 grade 80-40), 513
MU
20
0^ I
z / \ heats
- z \
>.20 >-1 5 / \
O 1
2 '»
ON
ifl 15 - \ UJ O / \
ATI
3 1- o io -
S 10 - 0
u.
\ UJ
° / \\
or or . u. /
SPECI
L_ 0 ^ 5
i
SPE
b
- 1 1 1 1 1 1 \ J.
r
82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 114 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68

TENSILE STRENGTH-ksi YIELD STRENGTH - ksi
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
25
'/\ ' 30 -
S«
• 20 z
.z
2
//
/ \
\ -
25 --
I f\
>-
MIN
O i 2 0 -- 1 \
2 15
s / >-
UJ \ 15--
o /
1 1
ECIFICAT ION
z> o
ATI
o 2
UJ
or 10 - •oE / \ r> 10
u. / o
"Ul-> /
/ UJ
5 in / or
u. Q.
' 1 1 1 1 ^k. -—t T i l i i \

18 20 22 24 26 28 30 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67
ELONGATION - % REDUCTION IN A R E A - %
TENSILE STRENGTH-MPa YIELD STRENGTH- MPa

Fig. 16-7 Distribution of tensile
800 900 I000 IIOO 700 800 900 1000
test properties for alloy cast 25 I I I 1 i i i
steels heat treated to a Brinell - / ^ BRINELL RANGE -
hardness range of 270-321 S?20 - / \ 2 7 0 - 32I 25 -
[120 ksi (827 MPa) minimum
FREQUENCY-
tensile strength]. 260 heats >- - / \
O 15
O
2 / \
UJ
!D _ / \
O oi
OI0
UJ - / \ -
<r _ / \ ~
u. 5 - / \ 5
- -
I I I I I 1 I 1 1 >^L i !*•**
120 128 136 144 152 160 168 96 104 112 120 128 136 144 152
TENSILE STRENGTH-ksi YIELD STRENGTH-ksi
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 24 32 40 48 56 62 70
ELONGATION - % REDUCTION IN A R E A - %
Variation in Dimensions DIMENSION LENGTH - mm

500 1000 1500
Variation in casting dimensions is influenced by at least six \ 1 1
factors: 1) the amount of contraction which the metal undergoes in J.
the mold; 2) the casting design; 3) the type of pattern equipment; 4) \
the molding process used; 5) the length and weight of the casting; \
and 6) heat treatment. l
- \ _
UJ
Effect Of Casting Contraction. The contraction behavior ^ ^ + 1 STD. DEV. _
<
of steel is the primary source of dimensional variations. Contraction
is a three-stage process: liquid contraction, solidification contrac- i rr
tion, and solid contraction. If contraction was unhindered, it would — ^— — _ — .=
be approximately 3/16 to 1/4 in./ft (1.56-2.08%) for most steels. o OT _ / ' -1 STD. DEV.
CO
However, contraction is hindered by the mold and cores to varying z - /
degrees. Even in different parts of the same casting, contraction may / I 1 I 1 1 I
X
vary from almost nothing to the full 1/4 inch per foot. Adding to the UJ
20 40 60 80
complexity of predicting contraction are normal variations in mold DIMENSION LENGTH - i n .
hardness and mold stability at elevated temperatures which cause
variations in mold wall movement. The effect of mold wall move- Fig. 16-8 Relation of apparent shrinkage to dimension length (4)
ment is particularly noticeable in the thickest dimensions of heavy
castings. Figure 16-8 summarizes extensive data from an SFSA
study, illustrating the difficulty in predicting contraction behavior of
cast steel, particularly for dimensions less than 10 in. (254 mm).
Effect Of Casting Design. Draft. Draft is the pattern taper

that must be allowed on all vertical faces of the part to permit the own size or shape and by the pressure of surrounding metal. The
pattern to be removed from the sand without tearing the mold walls. minimum diameter core which can be used successfully in steel
Regardless of the type of pattern equipment, draft has to be consid- castings is dependent on the thickness of the metal section surround-
ered in all casting designs. The necessary amount of draft depends ing the core and the length of the core.
on the size of the casting, the method of production, and the type of Dimensional Type. Different "dimensional types" have different
pattern and core equipment. Draft can be avoided by using external degrees of variability. Various dimensional types are recognized in
cores and loose pieces, but these introduce added costs. Figure 16-9 depending on whether the features are controlled by the
Cores. Variation in features produced by cores is limited by the mold alone, a core alone, or by combinations of mold and core with
ability to make cores which resist bowing or sagging caused by their and without the effect of the parting line.
Approximate correction factors for dimensional tolerances, de- also be taken into account. Castings produced from the same pattern
pending on their dimensional type, are given in Table 16-5. by different foundries will usually not be identical.
On Variation in Dimensions. Dimensional variations will be
Effect Of Pattern Equipment. On Nominal Dimensions.
greater for some pattern materials than others. Table 16-6 presents
Patterns should be manufactured so that the castings produced from
some typical factors illustrating the degree to which type of pattern
the pattern are, on average, on the nominal (aim) dimensions of the
material affects variation. Table 16-7 contains a listing of types of
customer's drawing. The pattern must be produced with dimensions
pattern material in order of decreasing dimensional variation.
that compensate for contraction, distortion, and dimension type.
Effect of Molding Processes. Significant factors in determining
Foundry-to-foundry differences in metal and mold handling must
the tolerance range which can be held are the molding process and
production techniques. Table 16-8 is a general comparison of steel
casting molding methods. The values in this table should be used for
Table 16-5 Effect of Dimension Type on comparative purposes only and not as design tolerances because of
Dimensional Tolerance (4) the great differences in variation between foundries.
Process capability Molding equipment also affects dimensional variation. For in-
Dimension type correction factor(a) stance, high pressure green sand molding produces harder molds
which resist mold wall movement more effectively than green sand
Wholly on one core—WC .95 jolt-squeeze molding. The apparent effect of equipment used also
Mold-to-mold—MM 1.00 interacts with variation effects of casting size and weight because
MM across parting line—MMPL 1.24 different equipment types tend to be selected for certain casting size
Mold-to-core—MC 1.39 and weight ranges.
Core-to-core—CC 1.57
MC across parting line—MCPL 1.78
(a) Relative to MM type dimensions
Table 16-6 Relative Dimensional Tolerances for

Steel Castings Produced with Different Pattern
Equipment in Green Sand Molds (4)
Relative dimensional
Pattern equipment tolerances—%
Metal matchplate 100

Metal pattern mounted on wood 130
Wood pattern mounted on wood 160
Loose wood patterns 210
Table 16-7 Degree of Variability in Dimensions for

Different Pattern Materials
Loose wood pattern Greatest variation
Pine pattern, mounted on cope and drag boards
Hard wood pattern, mounted on cope and drag boards Fig. 16-9 Dimension types of a casting classified by the mold
Plastic pattern, mounted on cope and drag boards components which control them. A, B, C, D = Mold to Mold (MM); T
Metal pattern, mounted on cope and drag boards = Mold to Core (MC); E, H, I, = Mold to Mold Across the Parting
Line (MMPL); K = Mold to Core Across the Parting Line (MCPL); F,
Metal matchplate Least variation
G = Wholly on One Core (WC)
Table 16-8 General Comparison of Steel Casting Methods(a)

Casting Green Chemically
requirements sand bonded Shell Ceramic Investment
Surface smoothness Fair Fair Good Very good Excellent

Minimum metal section-in. 1/4(6.4) 3/16(4.8) 5/32 (3.9) 3/32 (4.8) 1/16(1.6)
(mm)
Base tolerances for a 1 -in. ±0.030(0.76) ±0.020(0.51) ±0.008 (0.20) ±0.006(0.15) ±0.005(013)
(25.4 mm) cube-in. (mm)
Added tolerance-in. (mm) ±0.030(0.76) ±0.030(0.76) ±0.010(0.25) ±0.010(0.25) No parting
across a parting face
Intricacy Fair Good Very good Extra good Excellent
Finish allowances Most Most Average Least Least
Adaptability No limit No limit Limited Limited Limited
Pattern costs Low Low High Average High
Lead time Shortest Shortest Long Short Longest
(a) Values are presented for comparison only and should not be used directly as design tolerances on drawings.

CASTING WEIGHT - k g
IO IOO IOOO 10,000
"I 1 i I I I II ~l 1—I—I I I I II "1 I I I I *I ~\ 1 1—I I I M ~i i l I r
- MEAN
RANGE OF STD. DEV.
1
E
- STO. DEV." 1
e
& N«- 10 ,
-o^ ' s&*
- ^ ^ 2O
EVI AT
§o.i p&, Q
4&
DARD
Q
or
< •I
Q
o f "*»*-
— I
\t
M o
I
UJ •fct w
z
2 s
0.1
.002
X 3 STD. DEV. = 0.0139 W .356
0.62
i t i i i i 11 _i i i i ' ' '' i j ' i i i i i
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
CASTING W E I G H T - l b
Fig. 16-10 The relation of casting weight to dimensional variability in terms of the standard deviation (4)
Effect of Casting Weight and Length. Casting weight it requires some "trying out" to get good information on the vari-
and length have significant effects on dimensional variations. Both ation which, will be present for a particular dimension. Figures 16-11
the weight and the length influence variability relative to dimen- and 16-12 are provided only for the purpose of showing that, given
sional tolerances in a nonlinear fashion. Research done by SFSA all the variable factors present, the variation in a given dimension is
(see Data Sources 4) resulted in the following equation: distributed sufficiently normally that once the extent of variation is
known, the variation in future production may be predicted.
T = 0.01296W^ + 0.0221 L H
-0.00138
Tolerance Specification
-0.04128 if no-bake molded
-0.04224 if shell molded Process Capability Considerations
-0.03165 if the dimension is controlled by one core Only the customer has sufficient information concerning the end
+ 0.03336 if the dimension is controlled use of a casting to determine what characteristics are significant and
by two cores, or crosses a parting line what is an acceptable tolerance range within which those charac-
teristics will be fit for use. The tool of CAPABILITY provides a
where T is ± inches, L is inches, and W is pounds. The basic equation bridge between what the foundry knows about the variation inherent
applies only to green sand molding and to dimensions controlled by in the characteristics it produces and the tolerance range for those
the mold only. This equation is intended only to reflect relative characteristics specified by the customer.
effects of weight and length; the comments above concerning foun-
dry-to-foundry differences continue to apply. Figure 16-10 presents • If the process producing the characteristic is "capable" (e.g., C pm
data from the same study on the relation between casting weight and
= 1.33 or some similar definition), it then becomes the responsi-
dimensional variability.
bility of the foundry to maintain control of average and standard
Summary. AH of the foregoing material on variability in casting deviation with some suitable control technique such as Statistical
dimensions shows how complex and uncertain it can be to estimate Process Control.
the amount of variation expected on given dimensions of a particular • If the process producing the characteristic is "not capable" (i.e.,
casting, even if one knows the pattern material, the alloy, the pour- if the fraction nonconforming is too high for a given process), the
ing temperature to be used, the molding process, the size and weight alternatives are: 1) change the specification, 2) change the proc-
of the casting, the dimension types present, etc., etc. In most cases, ess, or 3) accept the situation as it is and provide 100% inspection
ACTUAL CASTING DIMENSION - mm

23! 232 233 234 235 236 237
T 1 1 1 r r
AVG. = 9 1/4 in. ( 235 mm )
30 - STO. DEV. «0.0546 in. (1.39 mm)
PROC. CAP. = 0.3276 in. (8.32mm)
>- 2 0 -
o
z
UJ
o 10
UJ
<r
S2 "8 ~32 "16 12 4 « 16 " 32

ACTUAL CASTING DIMENSION - i n .
Fig. 16-11 Histogram and statistically determined distribution curve of actual casting dimensions held on dimension B of the bearing retainer
pictured. The pattern was pine, mounted on cope and drag boards.
ACTUAL CASTING DIMENSION - m m

223 224 226 228
T "T T
40 - AVG. » 8-|- in. ( 2 2 5 mm)

STD. OEV. =0.0296in. (0.75mm)
PROC. CAP. = O.I78in. ( 4 . 5 l m m )
^30
O
2
UJ
S20
(T
IO
B S5 a !i 8§2 a 2 B2£
B B B B B
32 I6 32 8 32
ACTUAL CASTING DIMENSION - i n .
Fig. 16-12 Histogram and distribution curve of actual casting dimensions obtained on dimension G of the valve body shown. The casting was
made from an aluminum pattern and mounted on cope and drag boards.
of that characteristic, removing the nonconforming parts prior to can normally produce are required, upgrading using one of the
shipment to the customer (NOTE: For this alternative, sample operations shown in Table 16-9 may be the least expensive method
inspection is inadequate.) of satisfying the customer's requirements.
The best way to make this determination is through a joint effort
Dimensional Tolerances in a value engineering or value analysis project. Good communica-
Tolerances for dimensions of as-cast features are a matter for tion of requirements on the one hand and the processes needed to
agreement between the producer and consumer of the castings. meet them on the other is the key.
However, to minimize the rejection of castings for dimensional The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) issued
reasons, the tolerances selected should be compatible with the capa- the International Standard, ISO 8062-1984, Castings - System of
bility of the process selected. Dimensional Tolerances, which is particularly worthy of attention
Tolerances affect the cost and delivery of the castings. Most and contains much to commend it. This Standard provides a system
castings have only one or a few critical dimensions which require of tolerances and machining allowances, different tolerances for
tight tolerances. Placing tight tolerances on dimensions which are mass production and single production, a series of tolerance grades
not critical merely increases the final casting cost without benefit to which allows for different tolerances for different molding methods,
the purchaser. However, where tolerances tighter than the process and a range of tolerance grades for each method so that only the
tightest tolerances needed may be selected. Table 16-10 is extracted such features as parallelism, concentricity, angles, etc. For conven-
from the Table 1 of ISO 8062 for the tolerance grades covering steel tional molding techniques for steel castings, a sampling of such
castings. shape tolerances with suggested values are summarized in Table
The ISO standard provides for selecting tolerances for castings 16-12. Table 16-13 shows suggested values for investment castings
from the tolerance grades as follows: (14).
Weight Tolerances
When weight considerations are important to the customer, and
Tolerance weight tolerances are necessary, an allowance must be made for
Long series production grades variations in weight from casting to casting within a lot. Table 16-14
gives recommended allowable deviations from average casting
Sand cast, hand-molded 11-13 weight. It should be noted that these deviations do not give values
Sand cast, machine-molded and shell 8-10 for casting weight as calculated from a design drawing because it is
molding very difficult to calculate casting weight with accuracy. Actual
Investment casting 4-6
weight will often differ somewhat from estimates made from design
drawings. Note that thin, large castings may have weight variations
which exceed the values of Table 16-14.
Short series of single production
Sand cast Green sand 13-15

Hand-molded Self-setting material 12-14
Table 16-9 Operations Employed to Control to
Tight Tolerances
This idea of tolerance grades provides for a lot of flexibility in 1. Patterns
1.1 Changes in construction, mounting and material (e.g., wood
selection of specifications. Both customers and suppliers of casting
to metal matchplate)
should consult the full Standard for guidance.
1.2 Alteration of patterns after production of pilot castings
SFSA has also developed a tolerancing system for steel castings. 2. Molding and core making
This system is based on an analysis of actual measurements taken in 2.1 Changes in molds (e.g., green sand to shell or to CO2 sand)
foundries. The SFSA system takes into account the weight of the 2.2 Changes in cores (e.g., oil sand to shell)
casting being produced. The tolerance ranges extend from T3 to T7, 2.3 Mold and core setting gages
with T3 being the tightest. The nominal tolerance range for steel 3. Finishing
castings is T5, which is shown in Tables 16-lla and lib. Further 3.1 Gage grinding (e.g., belt sanding grinding or surface
details of the SFSA tolerance system can be found in Supplement 3 grinding to gage)
of the Steel Castings Handbook. 3.2 Hand straighten to gage
3.3 Hydraulic press to gage
3.4 Coining to gage(a)
Geometric Tolerances 3.5 Machine locating points(a)
Geometric tolerances are tolerances that involve the shape fea- 3.6 Rough machine to gage(a)
tures of the part. It is a general term applied to a category of 3.7 Target machine casting(a)
tolerances used to specifically control form, profile orientation, and 3.8 Finish machine part(a)
location. To completely describe the shape of a component and to (a) Not all steel foundries offer these finishing operations.
set tolerances on all aspects of its shape, tolerances are needed for
Table 16-10 Casting Tolerances (CT) Extracted From ISO 8062 for Steel Castings
Raw casting basic dimension Total casting tolerance (mm), Casting tolerance: grade CT
over up to and including 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
10 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.8 4.2

10 16 1.1 1.6 2.2 3.0 4.4
16 25 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.6 6 8 10
25 40 1.3 1.8 2.6 3.6 5.0 7 9 11
40 63 1.4 2.0 2.8 4.0 5.6 8 10 12
63 100 1.6 2.2 3.2 4.4 6 9 11 14
100 160 1.8 2.5 3.6 5.0 7 10 12 16
160 250 2.0 2.8 4.0 5.6 8 11 14 18
250 400 2.2 3.2 4.4 6.2 9 12 16 20
400 630 2.6 3.6 5 7 10 14 18 22
630 1000 2.8 4.0 6 8 11 16 20 25
1000 1600 3.2 4.6 7 9 13 18 23 29
1600 2500 3.8 5.4 8 10 15 21 26 33
2500 4000 4.4 6.2 9 12 17 24 30 38
4000 6300 7.0 10 14 20 28 35 44
6300 10000 11 16 23 32 40 50

Table 16-11a Tolerances (±inches) for Tolerance Grade T5 (5)

Casting weight, lb
L(a) 2 5 10 20 50 75 100 150 200 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
0.5 0.038 0.045 0.052 0.061 0.076 0.085 0.092 0.103 0.111 0.118 0.145 0.163 0.178 0.190 0.201 0.219 0.248
1.0 0.042 0.049 0.057 0.066 0.081 0.090 0.096 0.107 0.116 0.123 0.149 0.167 0.182 0.194 0.205 0.224 0.253 0.276 0.296
2.0 0.048 0.055 0.062 0.071 0.087 0.095 0.102 0.113 0.121 0.129 0.155 0.173 0.188 0.200 0.211 0.229 0.259 0.282 0.301
4.0 0.055 0.062 0.070 0:079 0.094 0.103 0.109 0.120 0.129 0.136 0.162 0.180 0.195 0.207 0.218 0.237 0.266 0.289 0.309
6.0 0.060 0.068 0.075 0.084 0.099 0.108 0.114 0.125 0.134 0.141 0.167 0.186 0.200 0.213 0.223 0.242 0.271 0.294 0.314
8.0 0.064 0.072 0.079 0.088 0.103 0.112 0.118 0.129 0.138 0.145 0.171 0.190 0.204 0.217 0.227 0.246 0.275 0.298 0.318
10.0 0.068 0.075 0.082 0.091 0.107 0.115 0.122 0.133 0.141 0.148 0.175 0.193 0.208 0.220 0.231 0.249 0.278 0.302 0.321
15.0 0.075 0.082 0.089 0.098 0.113 0.122 0.129 0.140 0.148 0.155 0.181 0.200 0.215 0.227 0.238 0.256 0.285 0.308 0.328
20.0 0.080 0.087 0.094 0.103 0.119 0.127 0.134 0.145 0.154 0.161 0.187 0.205 0.220 0.232 0.243 0.262 0.291 0.314 0.334
30.0 0.089 0.96 0.103 0.112 0.128 0.136 0.143 0.154 0.162 0.169 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.241 0.252 0.270 0.299 0.323 0.342
40.0 0.096 0.103 0.110 0.119 0.135 0.143 0.150 0.161 0.169 0.176 0.203 0.221 0.236 0.248 0.259 0.277 0.306 0.330 0.349
50.0 0.102 0.109 0.116 0.125 0.140 0.149 0.156 0.166 0.175 0.182 0.208 0.227 0.241 0.254 0.265 0.283 0.312 0.335 0.355
60.0 0.107 0.114 0.121 0.130 0.145 0.154 0.161 0.172 0.180 0.187 0.214 0.232 0.247 0.259 0.270 0.288 0.317 0.341 0.360
(a) Dimension length in inches
Table 16-11 b Tolerances (±mm) for Tolerance Grade T5

Casting weight, kg
L(a) 1 2 5 10 25 50 75 100 150 200 400 600 800 1000 1500 2000 2500
20 0.83 0.91 1.05 1.19 1.43 1.67 1.83 1.97 2.18 2.34 2.82 3.15 3.41 3.64 4.09 4.45 4.75
40 0.97 1.05 1.19 1.33 1.56 1.80 1.97 2.10 2.31 2.48 2.95 3.28 3.55 3.77 4.22 4.58 4.89
80 1.14 1.22 1.36 1.50 1.73 1.97 2.14 2.27 2.48 2.65 3.12 3.45 3.72 3.94 4.39 4.75 5.06
100 1.20 1.28 1.42 1.56 1.80 2.03 2.20 2.33 2.54 2.71 3.18 3.52 3.78 4.00 4.46 4.82 5.12
150 1.33 1.41 1.55 1.69 1.92 2.16 2.33 2.46 2.67 2.84 3.31 3.64 3.91 4.13 4.58 4.94 5.25
200 1.43 1.51 1.65 1.79 2.02 2.26 2.43 2.56 2.77 2.94 3.41 3.75 4.01 4.23 4.69 5.05 5.35
300 1.59 1.67 1.81 1.95 2.19 2.42 2.59 2.72 2.93 3.10 3.57 3.91 4.17 4.39 4.85 5.21 5.51
400 1.72 1.80 1.94 2.08 2.31 2.55 2.72 2.85 3.06 3.23 3.70 4.03 4.30 4.52 4.97 5.33 5.64
500 1.83 1.91 2.05 2.19 2.42 2.66 2.83 2.96 3.17 3.33 3.81 4.14 4.41 4.63 5.08 5.44 5.75
750 2.05 2.13 2.27 2.40 2.64 2.88 3.04 3.18 3.39 3.55 4.03 4.36 4.63 4.85 5.30 5.66 5.96
1000 2.22 2.30 2.44 2.57 2.81 3.05 3.22 3.35 3.56 3.73 4.20 4.53 4.80 5.02 5.48 5.83 6.14
1250 2.37 2.45 2.59 2.72 2.96 3.20 3.36 3.50 3.71 3.87 4.35 4.68 4.95 5.17 5.62 5.98 6.29
1500 2.50 2.58 2.72 2.85 3.09 3.33 3.49 3.63 3.84 4.00 4.48 4.81 5.07 5.30 5.75 6.11 6.41
(a) Dimension length in mm
CASTING WEIGHT- kg
17.5 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 20.0
24 ~r n
' BE(AsT
AVG. =41.7 (18.9)
STD. DEV. = 1.09 I .49)
20 - PROC. CAP. = 6.54 (2.97)
16
>•
O
z
z>
o
UJ
<r
38 40 41 42 43 45
CASTING W E I G H T - l b . SECTION X - X
SECTION Y - Y
Fig. 16-13 Histogram and distribution curve for casting weights. 94.88% of the distribution is within ±5% of the average casting weight.
Table 16-12 Suggested Shape Tolerances for Figure 16-13 shows an SFS A test casting which was produced by
Steel Castings (Sand Molded) 97 foundries for a 1960 study of weight variation. The histogram
shows the distribution of weights for 115 castings measured. The
Straightness 0.010in.perin.(l%) average weight was found to be 41.7 lb (18.9 kg), with the distribu-
Parallelism 1/64 in. per in. (1.56%) tion being essentially normal. The standard deviation of weight was
Perpendicularity l/64in.perin.(1.56%) 1.09 lb (0.49 kg), which is a very small amount of variation. In line
Out of round with previous discussions, this represents a Coefficient of Variation
1/2 in. (13 mm) diameter 3/64 in. (1.19mm) TIR(a) (CV)of2.6%.
1 in. (25 mm) diameter 2/32 in. (1/58 mm) TIR
2 in. (51 mm) diameter 4/32 in. (3.18 mm) TIR
Concentricity Summary
Largest diameter up to 5 in. (127 mm) 3/64 in. (2.38 mm) TIR In closing, it should be emphasized once more that variation exists
Each additional 3 in. (76 mm) add 1/64 in. (0.40 mm) in all of the characteristics of our products and tolerances, and
specifications should be established in recognition of variation typi-
(a) TIR, Total indicator reading cal of the processes and materials selected to make the products.
Communication between customer and producer is critical. Vari-
ation recognized can be a valuable helper; variation not taken into
account is our enemy.
"It is therefore important to every technician who is dealing with
Table 16-13 Suggested Shape Tolerances for problems of manufacturing control to know the laws of statistics and
Investment Castings to be able to apply them correctly to his problems." (Becker, Plaut
Flatness and Straightness and Runge, "Anwerdungen der Mathematischen Statistik auf
Probleme der Massenfabrikation," Julius Springer, Berlin, 1927)
The casting geometry is often the critical factor in control of overall flatness,
straightness and dishing; customers should fully discuss dimensional require-
ments with the investment caster so as to take full advantage of his experi-
ence.
Mechanically DATASOURCES
Casting length As cast straightened
in. (mm) in. (mm) in, (mm) • FMC Corporation, unpublished data, 1992
• Steel Castings Handbook, Fifth ed., 1980, Chapter 13, Reference 1
Flatness • Steel Castings Handbook, Fifth ed., 1980, Chapter 13, Reference 3
1(25) ±0.008(0.20) ±0.004(0.10) • P.F. Wieser, L.S. Aubrey, and C. Rowe, "Dimensional Tolerances
2(51) +0.015 (0.38) +0.006(0.15) of Production Castings," Journal of Steel Castings Research, No.
4(102) ±0.025 (0.64) ±0.010(0.25) 85, Dec 1975
6(152) ±0.030(0.76) ±0.015 (0.38)
Straightness
2(51) ±0.020(0.51) +0.010(0.25)
4(102) ±0.030(0.76) ±0.020(0.51)
REFERENCES
6(152) ±0.050(1.27) ±0.025 (0.64) 1. ISO 3534, Terminology
Parallel Sections 2. MIL-STD-45662A
Parallelism can be maintained to a tolerance of+0.005 in .(0.13 mm) by the use 3. D.J. Wheeler and R.W. Lyday, "Evaluating the Measurement Proc-
of "ties" to help control casting distortion. Typicalfiguresare as follows: ess," Knoxville, TN, SPC Press, Inc., 2nd ed., 1989
4. ASTM STP 335, "ASTM Manual for Conducting an Interlabora-
Tolerance Tolerance tory Study of a Test Method," Philadelphia, PA, 1963
Gap size as cast straightened 5. ISO 5725, "Precision of test methods - Determination of repeatabil-
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) ity andreproducibilityfor a standard test method by interlaboratory
tests," 2nd ed., 1986-09-15
6. Automotive Industry Action Group, "Measurement System Analy-
1/4(6.4) ±0.003 (0.08) ±0.003 (0.08) sis," 1990
1/2(13) ±0.005(0.13) ±0.004(0.10) 7. ASTM MNL7, "Manual on Presentation of Data and Control Chart
1(25) ±0.007(0.18) +0.005(0.13) Analysis," Philadelphia, PA, 6th ed., 1990
1-1/2(38) ±0.010(0.25) +0.007(0.18) 8. S.S. Shapiro, "How to Test Normality and Other Distributional
Assumptions," ASQC Basic References in Quality Control: Statis-
tical Techniques, Vol 3, Milwaukee, WI, 1980
9. A.J. Duncan, "Quality Control and Industrial Statistics," Richard D.
Irwin, Inc., Homewood, IL, 5th ed., 1986
10. VE. Kane, "Process Capability Indices," Journal of Quality Tech-
Table 16-14 Allowable Deviations from Average nology, Vol 18, No. 1, Jan 1986, p 41-52
Casting Weight (Percent)(a) 11. L.K. Chan, S.W. Cheng, and F.A. Spiring, "A New Measure of
Process Capability: C pm ," Journal of Quality Technology, Vol 20,
Casting Positive Negative 1988
weight lb (kg) deviation deviation 12. D.C. Montgomery, "Introduction of Statistical Quality Control,"
Up to 100(45) 5.0 5.0
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2nd ed., 1981, p 365-390
100 to 500 (45-225) 4.0 3.0 13. Y-M. Chou, D.B. Owen, and S.A. Borrego, "Lower Confidence
500 to 10,000(225-4500) 3.0 2.5 Limits on Process Capability Indices," Journal of Quality Technol-
10,000 (4500) and up 2.5 2.0 ogy, Vol 22,1990, p 223-229
14. Personal communication, H.T. Bidwell, Investment Casting Insti-
(a) Deviations do not apply to weights as calculated from a design drawing. tute, Dallas, TX, Jan 1979

CHAPTER 17
Quality Control and Quality Assurance

Page
Process and Product Quality Control 17-2
Process Control 17-4

Statistical Process Control and Process Improvement Systems 17-4
Sand Preparation and Molding 17-7
Melting and Pouring 17-7
Product Quality Control 17-7

Simultaneous Engineering 17-7
Pilot Castings 17-8
Inspection, Upgrading and Repair 17-8
Mechanical Property Testing 17-9
Quality Assurance Programs 17-9

Definition and Purpose 17-9
Traceability 17-9
Welding Procedure Qualifications 17-11
Welder Qualification and Certification 17-11
Inspection Personnel Qualifications and Certification 17-12
Control of Measuring and Test Equipment 17-12
Corrective Action Controls 17-12
Quality Assurance Audits 17-12

DISCOVERY Process and Product Quality

Control
To keep pace with the increased customer demands and expecta-
DEFINITION OF PROBLEM tions process and product quality control in the steel casting industry
has become increasingly complex and sophisticated. Whether steel
castings are selected for critical functions or whether they are chosen
to perform in non-critical areas, the casting quality and consistency
INVESTIGATION TO are carefully controlled.
ESTABLISH CAUSE The function of quality control is to ensure a specified level of
quality. The level of quality required varies with the intended serv-
ice, the function of the component, and the consequences of compo-
nent failure.
The quality control program involves not only the inspection of
CORRECTIVE the product, but also the process steps which affect the product
ACTION quality. These process steps are carefully specified, and monitoring
and correction procedures are established in the process control
program. Chemical analysis of the steel, for example, is part of the
product quality control program. The analysis and the weighing of
PROOF OF charge materials for melting, slag tests, and the measurement of
EFFECTIVENESS metal temperatures during melting, tapping, and pouring are corre-
sponding process control functions because these characteristics
may affect the performance of the final product. The results of
quality control tests indicate whether the agreed upon quality level
CONTROL has been achieved or whether corrective action is required. Process
control test results, however, frequently alert the foundry of the need
Fig. 17-1 Corrective action cycle for corrective action before the product quality deviates from speci-
fication limits. Some deviations from the desired quality can be
remedied by simple adjustment of the process, while others may
require a more complex course of action, consisting of problem
identification, investigation of cause to determine proper corrective
action, and subsequent control (Figure 17-1).
Process and product quality control functions have other impor-
PRO- PRO-
DUCTION DUCTION tant advantages. They provide early warning of potential process
ORDERS REPORTS problems, ensure consistently acceptable product quality, and mini-
JOB NO. ACTUAL TIME
STD. TIME VS. mize the cost of quality. The complex task of a coordinating process
STD. TIME and product quality control with production should be strictly organ-
ized and increasingly utilize electronic data processing aids as
shown in Figure 17-2.
NORMAL PRODUCTION To help categorize and control quality related expenses, many
JOB NO.
( TIME
CARDS
ACTUAL
TIME
oo INFORMATION
foundries have developed detailed quality cost reports (Figure 17-
3). In the illustrated example quality costs are broken into four
categories:
REWORK NO SCRAP a REWORK
ACTUAL
TIME DATA
1. Prevention and Appraisal Costs are those costs associated with
INFORMATION
/
TIME ^. PROCESSING the operation of the Quality Control Department. Prevention
CARDS expenses are related to such endeavors as pattern engineering,
customer service, procedure preparation, and corrective action
REWORK NO. ACTUAL systems. Appraisal costs consist of all inspection expenses as
TOTAL well as the costs incurred in operating the prototype sampling
REPAIR
TIME program. The would include non-destructive examination tech-
1 niques such as radiography, dimensional layout, hardness testing,
REWORK .* _J PART etc.
TAGS DEFECT
(IN- P EFE T
_ 1? I P E. _ CARDS 2. External Failure Costs are the credits against sales due to defec-
SPECTION DEFECT
REPORTS) a TOTAL COST _ TABLE
tive castings being shipped to customer's plants, plus the in-
r- -*•
I (TABLE I) house costs associated with repairing castings that have been
I returned to the foundry
TYPE DEFECT |
t
J
I
3. Internal Failure Costs are expenses incurred in manufacturing
I
SCRAP ft TOTAL COST I I castings that are scrapped in the foundry
REPORT Y 4. Rework Costs are the costs of welding casting discontinuities in
. DEFECT PART
kGRAPH GRAPH
the foundry
0 ^ Quality costs are computed on a monthly basis and are expressed

as a percentage of sales. The scoring method involves the use of
Fig. 17-2 Simplified information flow diagram historical data to compare the present month's quality costs in each
Quality Control and Quality Assurance 17-3
Cost of Quality Index Month: Annual

QC&QA Def Cstgs & Scrap Rework
costs Rep/Rtn $'S costs costs Total Quality
Indices
(lab/matl) (lab/matl) (lab/matl) (lab/matl) costs scale
2.50% 0.57% 0.62% 3.80% 7.5% 10

2.80% 0.85% 0.81% 4.10% 8.6% 9
3.20% 1.13% 1.00% 4.40% 9.7% 8
P 3.50% 1.41% 1.19% 4.70% 10.8% 7
E
R 3.90% 1.70% 1.38% 5.00% 12.0% 6
C
4.20% 1.98% 1.57% 5.30% 13.1% 5(Base)
E
N 4.50% 2.26% 1.76% 5.60% 14.1% 4
T
4.90% 2.54% 1.94% 5.90% 15.3% 3
5.20% 2.82% 2.13% 6.20% 16.4% 2

5.50% 3.10% 2.31% 6.50% 17.4% 1
>5.50% >3.10% >2.31% >6.80% >17.4% 0
Results from Current Year
Indices QC&QA Def & Rep/Rtn Scrap Rework Totals
Actual
dollars
Actual
percent
Total Objective: 10.00
sales: Base: 5.00
Score
Weight 20% 35% 20% 25% 100%
Value
Last
month
+/-
Goal of
"6"
Actual
Difference
Fig. 17-3 Quality cost report
category to a base year, thus measuring whether quality is improving techniques. Rather than making changes to the process in an intui-
and how much progress has been made. tive, on line way, this method allows changes to be tested off line in
Another tool that is being used by steel foundries to improve a planned, statistically valid way. Several variables can be tested
quality by improving the process is the use of designed experiment using a minimum of experiments. Interactions between variables
Define and Prioritize Required Fig. 17-4 Statistical

Process Improvements process improvement
system
Cost Analysis Descriptive Process Statistics
- of internal or external - process control charts

quality failures - Gage R & R studies
• pareto analysis of cost - Data collection & analysis
of process failures Histograms
Process Capability
Cp & Cpk
Correlation Studies
Assemble Process Improvement Team

From Management and Production Personnel
- "Brainstorm" the problem

- Establish Cause and Effect Diagram
- Collect and Analyze Information Data
The Solution to Process Improvement lies within:
Assignable (known) Causes Unassignable (unknown) Causes
Variable search Many possible

• Control process variation
strategy process variables
- Make process change and evaluate
(diagnostic statistics)
by x-plot or end count
• Optimize process variable levels I
Multi-level factorials Multi-vari charts Identify pattern
EVOP component search of variation and
Response cube correlation plot <10 possible suspect
paired comparisons variables
- Process control and maintenance I
Pre-control Screening experiment Suspect variables
S.P.C. charting designs: narrowed down
Documentation Taguchi array to 2 to 6
Communication Paired comparisons
I
Variable prioritization • Major process
and interactions: variables and
Factorial designs interactions
(full or partial) identified
Process Optimization and Control
can also be examined. Results are replicated before becoming a to improve the quality level and
permanent process change so that improvement is ensured. the consistency of their castings. The diagram shown in Figure 17-4
is a flow chart which shows how these methods are related to a
Process Control Quality Improvement Program.
Descriptive statistics are techniques which are used to describe the
state of control or capability of casting processes to meet the appli-
Statistical Process Control and Process cable tolerances, specifications, and inspection criteria. The most
Improvement Systems common in this category is Statistical Process Control Charting
Steel casting producers are utilizing a number of statistically These charts are kept on the outputs of many of the associated
based systems to evaluate the control of the casting processes, and foundry processes such as analytical, mechanical, sand, and dimen-
7.8 -
7.6 — Q
UCL
7.4
7.2
7
K
Ave
\/ ° V i
\ I
6.8
6.6 -
6.4 -- 5 \ I
W \ I LCL
6.2 -
6 - I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 17-5 Xbar chart for active clay
Fig. 17-6 Distribution of

Plant 1 Chemistry (8630) Carbon Histogram
carbon analyses Lsl(-28) Nom(0-3a) Vsl (-33)
sional properties. An example of a computer generated chart is the process output is to the specification range. The histogram and
shown in Figure 17-5. Such charting techniques are useful in detect- indexes are illustrated in Figure 17-6 and Table 17.1 showing an out-
ing when unacceptable loss of control of the critical aspects of of-control system.
casting quality occurs. When descriptive statistical techniques, more conventional in-
Other statistical techniques include histogram and other process spection, or NDT procedures reveal the need to improve on a quality
capability studies which serve to describe the capability of a process characteristic or reduce variation in a process out put, many foun-
to meet the specification or tolerance range as required by the design dries apply further statistical techniques which fall under the cate-
engineer. These techniques utilize mean and standard deviation to gory of Diagnostic Statistics. These methods are used to diagnose a
describe the process spread variability relative to the specification casting process to determine cause of variation and to evaluate the
range. Another index, the Cpk, is used to describe how well centered interactive effects of the many process variables on process output.
METHODS OPERATOR(MAN)
wash practice
\ \ \ application
\ V \ '— Baume
\ v_
\ ' — spray
temp, control
deoxidation
\ * swab
melt practice \
\ preheat
A gating system pourers finishing
slag off /
\ V — design closeup
\ V — ratio pour rate
\ V sprue
pour height — j
\ \ filter
slagoff COPE
DEFECTS
ladles
pouring / \ \ \ _ refractory
rate ^— t-pot
height \ |jp
deoxidation
handling
v_ when
how
MATERIALS temperature
Fig. 17-7 Fishbone diagram used in identifying variables
One diagnostic method used by casting producers is shown in

Table 17-1 Plant 1 Chemistry (8630) (Carbon) Figure 17-7 (fishbone diagram). It is useful in reducing the number
Moving Xbar and Moving Range Chart of process variables to the key variable(s) which are causing the
Spec info poor or varying quality. A team of people with various areas of
expertise combine their efforts in a "brainstorming" type approach
Lsl = 0.2800 %UnLsl= 12.6582 to develop cause and effect diagrams, and outline further experimen-
Usl = 0.3300 %OvUsl = 5.0633 tal methods with which to diagnose a quality problem. Often a most
Nominal = 0.3000 % In Spc = 82.2785 useful approach is to use the Techniques of Analysis of Variation
#Obser = 79 % Normal = 69.3467 (ANOVA), in which process output is sampled during production on
a regular basis and scored for a particular quality aspect. The goal is
to search for and identify the pattern of process variation, looking
Performance measures
for part to part, time to time, machine to machine, or operator to
Using mean Using nominal operator variations. It is often possible to identify the major "family"
Mean = 0.2938 Nominal = 0.3000 containing the critical process variable, thus narrowing the field of
StdDev = 0.0215 StdDev = 0.0224 possibilities considerably. The Multi-Vari Chart can be used in this
Cp = 0.3877 Cp = 0.3725 approach, Figure 17-8. Use of statistical correlation graphs can
Cpl = 0.2140 Cpl=0.2056 establish whether or not a correlation exists between a suspect
Cpu = 0.5613 Cpu = 0.5394 process variable and a process output (Figure 17-9).
Zrain = 0.6420 Zmin = 0.6168
Cr=2.5795 Cr = 2.6847 Once the suspect Process Variables are narrowed down to a
Cpk = 0.2140 Cpk = 0.2056 workable number using the above techniques, the Design of Experi-
Cn=0.0961 ment methods are used to further investigate the individual and
interactive effects of these process variables and rank them in the
5.30 ;.ir^:^-^.TT^.x.-.-7. First Day Second Day

UPPER CONTROL LIMIT
M Shift-i M Shift 2 M Shift-) M Shift 2
CD - 2 5
or ^-ff^--p^-^~ ?W AIM
54
M Shift
< INCL 18 36
Early
First Metal
o LOWER CONTROL LIMIT
.20 MISRUN 3 8 11 111
10 20 25 30
28 29 57 37
M Shift
Late
13 13 26
22 30 52
M Shift
Early
AIM
Last Metal
19 13 32 109
22 35 57 59
M Shift
Late
15 12 27
60 - -
UPPER CONTROL LIMIT 40 71 50 59 220
18 20 32 26
96
111 109
38 58
AIM
w
.35
DAILY EXTREME VALUES Fig. 17-9 Sand inclusion and misrun results for truck frames
.30 MEAN
LOWER CONTROL LIMIT
.25
10 15 20 25 30
the monitoring and control activities because of the important influ-
AUGUST
ence that mold quality has on the foundry's ability to produce
Fig. 17-8 Examples of variations in carbon, manganese, and castings at the desired quality level.
silicon of cast 1025 carbon steel due to melting process variables
Melting and Pouring
Steel foundries produce steel by melting purchased scrap and
order of importance. More sophisticated techniques such as Re- revert material from their own operation, rather than by producing
sponse Surface can be used to optimize a key variable to determine steel from ore as the primary steel mills do. Separation of scrap into
the level at which to run the variable in the production process. various categories and the monitoring of its composition and condi-
Design of Experiment techniques utilize matrices such as Facto- tion (in terms of rust, oil, nonferrous content, etc.) is therefore an
rial or Taguchi, and can be of great value to a foundry in improving important activity for steel foundries.
the understanding of the complexities of the casting process, and The chemical composition of the steel may be determined several
thus improving process control and quality level. Modern statistical times during the process of steelmaking to ensure that the final heat
analytical software makes the task of evaluating the results of analysis is within the desired chemical limits. Carbon determination
designed experiments easier. A computer analysis of a designed can be made directly by the melter on the furnace floor, or in a
experiment is shown in Figure 17-10. The relative significance of central laboratory depending on the melting program of the foundry
each test variable can be obtained, as well as any significant inter- and the rapidity with which the results are needed. A variety of
action between variables. spectrometers and other analytical equipment is available for use in
Top management commitment is necessary to provide the training the steel casting industry. Hydrogen and nitrogen levels are also of
and expertise needed by key personnel to apply these techniques. interest to some manufacturers and are monitored for some cast steel
There is a growing trend toward the use of these techniques as grades (Figure 17-13).
evidence of their value increases. Temperature measurements of molten steel are made with immer-
sion thermocouples or optical pyrometers. Higher temperatures are
Sand Preparation and Molding required in foundries pouring a large number of small castings from
each heat. Fluidity and mold filling ability also depend to a large
Sand mixtures for molds and cores are controlled by weighing and degree on having sufficiently high metal temperature. Excessive
metering the additives. Automatic systems are available for moni- temperatures, however, can produce mold defects such as burn-in,
toring and controlling the sand temperature to provide a consistent and also promote large grain size.
molding aggregate. A variety of tests exists: sand moisture content,
For experimental purposes, oxygen probes have been used to
loss on ignition, pH value, sand flowability, compatibility, compres- simultaneously record the oxygen dissolved in liquid steel and the
sive strength, room-temperature strength, elevated-temperature temperature of the bath (Figures 17-14 and 17-15).
strength, and mold hardness. For example, to evaluate the degree of
curing of no-bake molds the resistance of the mold to a spring-
loaded impact tester has been adopted by some foundries and the
results have been correlated with tensile strength of the bonded and
Product Quality Control
cured sand (Figure 17-11). Tests utilized to monitor and control
reclaimed sand are grain size and grain size distribution (Figure Simultaneous Engineering
17-12). The necessary molding sand test requirements are estab- Today design engineers and foundry engineers are working to-
lished by the individual foundry. Considerable care is exercised on gether in the initial design stages to create the most cost effective
Pour
Temp. Rate A1 - Mold preheat A2 - No mold preheat Fig. 17-10 Computer ANOVA
C1 - Same day C2 - Next day C1 - Same day C2 - Next day analysis of factorial design
51 01
1 2 3 4
2920° Slow
02
5 6 7 8
Fast
52 01
9 10 11 12
2880° Slow
02
13 14 15 16
Fast
Cope Porosity Test Factorial
Factor SS df MS F Signif
—«-A 413.28 1 413.28 3.282 —"-91.4
B 63.28 1 63.28 0.503 49.5
C 3.78 1 3.78 0.030 14.1
D 69.03 1 69.03 0.548 47.6
AB 42.78 1 42.78 0.340 42.6
AC 47.53 1 47.53 0.378 44.6
AD 5.28 1 5.28 0.042 16.6
BC 75.03 1 75.03 0.596 45.7
BD 2.53 1 2.53 0.020 11.6
CD 63.28 1 63.28 0.503 49.5
* ABC 270.28 1 270.28 2.147 .-84.1
ABD 42.78 1 42.78 0.340 42.6
ACD 5.28 1 5.28 0.042 16.6
BCD 47.53 1 47.53 0.378 44.5
ABCD 7.03 1 7.03 0.056 15.9
Within 2014.50 16 125.91
Total 3173.22 31
Mean of cell 1= 3
Mean of cell 2= 4.5
Mean of cell 3= 14.5
Mean of cell 4= 9
Mean of cell 5= 9
Mean of cell 6= 9.5
Mean of cell 7= 14
Mean of cell 8= 8
Mean of cell 9= 6.5
Mean of cell 10 = 5.5
Mean of cell 13 = 12
Mean of cell 14 = 4
design for part manufacturing. An exchange of information between dards in the subsequent production castings. Full scale destructive
these groups in the early stages of product design should be encour- tests are sometimes performed in pilot castings to evaluate the
aged. This is essential to provide a better product, lower costs, and casting design. If needed, design changes can be made by the casting
improved delivery. Successful designers and manufacturers of the purchaser before proceeding with production of the order.
future must act as a team, in order to be effective and competitive.
Obviously, the keys are better communication and sharing of infor- Inspection, Upgrading and Repair
mation. For more information on simultaneous engineering refer to
Chapter 8, Concurrent Engineering. A series of quality control steps are involved in the operations
which follow the production of the raw casting to achieve the
desired casting integrity. Castings are inspected in various stages of
Pilot Castings manufacturing with the type of tests and inspection methods de-
When castings are ordered in large quantities, pilot castings are pending on the purchaser and the end use requirements. Those
usually made to evaluate the casting quality against specifications. requirements in turn affect the sequence, the type, and the frequency
If required, changes can be made to pattern equipment or molding of upgrading and repair. Upgrading is considered as that series of
techniques to ensure correct dimensions, and required quality stan- operations which raises the integrity level beyond that which can be
- i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — r The Q A program of the individual steel foundry is tailored to each

80 company's unique product mix and it's customer's requirements. It
IMPACT - 500 can range from the requirements outlined in ISO 9000, Section ITI
70 of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (B&PV Code), or
MIL-Q-9858A - Government document, down to a simple outline
- 300 ;60 o of the QA programs determined by the individual foundry's estab-
u) 400^12000 lished quality assurance philosophy.
a. I I
1 50 TENSILE I Elements of a QA program can vary from the routine testing of
I I- X
1250 H purchased materials such as sand or charge scrap to the more
I- 300g 1500 O involved programs, including a description of control of quality
<S> UJ40 UJ UJ
l±j200 IT <r or costs, and a description of qualification of non-destructive examina-
AFSNo.50SAND t-
V) co tion personnel.
150 " 3 0 FUR AN 1.85% 200
H IOOO H The following are elements of a Q A program.
o BINDER o
«2 IOO 2= • Incoming Materials
IOOUJ 500 §
50 10 A. Incoming materials are controlled by:
1. Purchasing requirements included with purchase orders to sup-
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 pliers
AIRSETTIME-h 2. Certificates of properties furnished by suppliers to show com-
pliance to purchase order requirements
Fig. 17-11 Impact and tensile strength versus hours air set, furan 3. An approved suppliers list to guide purchasing activities
binder (A.F.S. #50 sand, 1.85% binder) B. The incoming materials usually controlled are:
1. Furnace charge materials
a. Purchased scrap
achieved by commercial practices. Repair, on the other hand, in- b. Ferro-alloys
volves the correction of product conditions that result from unex- c. Primary charge metals such as molybdenum, nickel, chro-
pected process variations. mium or silicon
All castings are visually inspected. Dimensions are verified (Fig- d. Deoxidizers
ure 17-16) and machine finish tolerances examined in mill and 2. Molding and coremaking materials
scribe fixtures when required. For more detailed discussions of mill a. Sand
and scribe qualifications and tolerances, refer to Chapters 15 and 16. b. Binders
Many other methods of casting inspection are used depending on the c. Tile
level of quality needed and the type of part. These include magnetic d. Sleeves
particle testing, dye penetrant testing, radiography, ultrasonic test- 3. Welding Electrodes
ing, etc. More detail is given on non-destructiveexamination meth- a. Coated rod
ods in Chapter 15. b. Bare rod or wire
c. Flux cored wire
Mechanical Property Testing
• Procedures
Standard coupons of ASTM design (A370), attached to the cast-
ings or poured separately at the same time as the castings, are Quality assurance procedures are written to cover the elements of
routinely produced and heat treated. The coupons are machined into the individual foundry's program, and include some or all of the
standard test specimens for tensile and impact testing in accordance following:
with specification requirements (A370, E-23). Figures 17-17 and
17-18 illustrate typical testing equipment for tensile and impact A. The quality assurance organization, including an organization
testing. Some foundries perform hardenability tests as well as such chart and statement of responsibilities for carrying out the quality
specialized functions as evaluation of wear, corrosion, fatigue, and assurance program.
creep of cast steel. These specialized tests are not specified but are B. A procedure for a regularly scheduled audit of the quality assur-
conducted when they are of interest, often being conducted under ance program. The procedure includes a list of program elements
cooperative arrangements between the customer and the foundry. that are surveyed during the audit.
C. Written procedures describing any non-destructive testing ex-
aminations used in the foundry.
Quality Assurance Programs D. Procedures which describe any welding operations.
E. Procedures that describe the process and product quality controls
Definition and Purpose previously described in this chapter.
F. Procedures that verify the effectiveness of the controls.
The term "Quality Assurance" or QA, has broad implications, G. Procedures that tell employees step by step how a particular job
generally signifying all the actions taken by a manufacturer to is to be molded, inspected, etc.
ensure that the product not only meets established quality require-
ments, but also that the product is produced in agreement with the Written procedures are a key method of reducing the variability
ultimate customer's requirements. Thus, a QA program goes beyond of steel castings by helping to make sure things are done the same
a QC program that verifies the quality of the end product and the way each time a part is made.
intermediate process steps that have a direct bearing on end product
quality. An important aspect of QA programs is the fact that they
may be subjected to customer audit. Quality Assurance programs are
Traceability
therefore often prepared in writing and entail documentation of When heat or melt traceability is required by customer's purchase
actions taken to provide proof of compliance when audited. orders (i.e., by reference to ASTM A703; ASME B&PV Code,
Reclaimed Sand Report

Fig. 17-12 Reclaimed sand
Sample Location analysis report form
Test Results Standard
Temperature
LOI
Time
Grade 410 Carbon

Date
New Sand Average
Water
Sieve No. Sieve No.
6 6 AFS Grain
Fineness No.
12 12
%of
20 20 Fe 2 0 3
30 30 pH of Fe2C-3
40 40 Additive
50 50 pH of Sand
Additive
70 70
% thru 200
100 100
140 140
200 200
270 270
PAN PAN
Total Total
Tensile Test Tensile Test
1 Hour 3 Hours 24 Hours 1 Hour 3 Hours 24 Hours

psi psi psi psi psi psi
psi psi psi psi psi psi
— psi psi psi — psi — psi psi
100
• - Purchased sand
— Reclaimed sand
50
40
E 30
£ 20
<D
P
CD
Q. 10
_L _L _L
12 20 50 70 100 140 200 270 PAN
Sieve numbers
Section III; or a Military Specification), a procedure is established customers. Traceability is verified by pouring and production con-
to ensure the traceability of the castings to the melt or heat from trol department records that originate in the pouring area.
which it is poured. This is done by using heat numbers, serial Some purchase orders require individual lots of certified welding
numbers, or code numbers that are cast or stamped on the casting. materials to be traceable to each casting weld repair and individual
This identification is retained through processing and shipment to welders traced to specific weld repairs on castings. (Section III of
Fig. 17-14 Combined oxygen probe and immersion thermocouple

with portable recorder
Fig. 17-13 Nitrogen analyzer
0.12 „
o 4 ^ - 0.10 2
w|-
9 5t,
UJ
00
CM
CM
ft 0.08 £
X
10.06°
. MANGANESE
0.04
OXYGEN
UATlitN __ • v*-l—r
—•- - 002 SILICON
*-*"* 1 - k • t i I i 1 I _fc l_
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 I00
TIME FROM MELTDOWN-min
Fig. 17-15 Composition versus time plots of composition and

temperature data for a heat blocked on target Fig. 17-16 Layout table and casting in position for dimensional
verification
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code has this traceability who make fabrications or repair welds on castings. The qualifica-
requirement as do many military specifications.) tions are shown by a qualification certificate of the welder or
welding operator stating the procedures and materials for which
Welding Procedure Qualifications they are qualified.
When welding procedure qualifications are required by govern- Procedures and requirements for welder qualification or certifica-
ment agencies or technical societies such as the American Welding tion are set forth in detail in Section IX of the ASME B&PV Code,
Society, American Society for Testing and Materials, Association of ASTM A488, and MIL-STD-00248 (Ships). If the requirements of
American Railroads, or the American Society of Mechanical Engi- Section IX of the B&PV Code are met, the qualifications are auto-
neers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the welding procedures are matically accepted by ASTM A488 and MIL-STD-00248.
qualified in accordance with the purchase order or contractual re- Most agencies require proof of continuing proficiency of indi-
quirements. viduals to weld with a process. This requirement is usually met by
When welding procedures are qualified in accordance with the use of a written record that indicates that a welder has satisfactorily
ASME B&PV Code Section IX, the qualifications are recognized as welded with the qualified process at least once in a stated period of
valid by ASTM A488 and MIL-STD-00248 (Ships). time (usually 90 days). The record is signed and dated by a welding
supervisor to ensure its validity.
Welder Qualification and Certification It is noteworthy that if an individual's qualifications are not
In addition to welding procedure qualification, customer purchase maintained, they all can be renewed by the successful welding of
orders may require qualification of welders or welding operators only one of the test joints (plate or pipe) previously welded. The
Fig. 17-17 Typical mechanical testing laboratory
essential elements used on the initial qualification must be used for

the requalification test joint.
Inspection Personnel Qualifications and

Certification
When the qualification and certification of non-destructive ex-
amination (NDE) personnel are required by customers, the qualifi-
cation and certification program outlined by the American Society
Fig. 17-18 An impact test being performed
of Non-Destructive Testing in its SNT-TC-1A document is generally
accepted by most customers and agencies as meeting their require-
ments. The SNT-TC-1A document is also recognized by the govern-
ment agencies and the ASME B&PV Code.
All NDE personnel records are kept current with renewal dates
and, where necessary, vision test results are recorded on their re- Corrective Action Controls
cords. The qualification and certification programs are written and Quality assurance programs should include a corrective action
all training courses are documented so that evidence is at hand to system. This establishes a system for corrective actions for defective
verify that the program has been carried out. Training and qualifica- purchased items and, most importantly, corrective actions to be
tion of non-destructive examination personnel are also available taken to prevent recurrence of defects.
through established commercial non-destructive examination com- In many steel foundries, a customer service representative is
panies. Certification of personnel must be done by the individual assigned the responsibility for the corrective action system. Cus-
foundry.
tomer contacts regarding quality problems are made through this
A recent trend set by some customers who purchase castings for individual whose function is to report to the customer what the
critical service applications is to have the foundry's visual inspec- corrective action is to be, and to follow up to make sure the correc-
tion personnel trained by formal schooling. The training course
tive action has solved the problem.
content and length of training sessions is recorded in a written
procedure.
Quality Assurance Audits
Control of Measuring and Test Equipment To confirm that quality assurance programs are being carried out,
When quality assurance controls of measuring and test equipment internal audits may be conducted. A written procedure determines
are required, these items are calibrated at stated frequencies using the elements from the process control or quality assurance proce-
standards that have been calibrated traceable to the National Bureau dures which are audited. This audit is usually conducted by the
of Standards. Procedures are written to describe the calibration quality assurance department. A report which includes deviations
program and records are maintained to verify the frequency of from program requirements and the appropriate corrective action is
calibration. issued to all levels of management.

CHAPTER 18
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels for

Pressure Containing and Structural Parts
Page
Introduction 18-2
Metallurgical Characteristics of Structural Carbon and Low Alloy Steels 18-2
Hardenability 18-4
Hardness and Strength 18-6
Toughness 18-6
Fatigue Strength (Endurance Limit) 18-9
Section Size, Mass Effects 18-9
Alloy and Heat Treatment Influence on Section Size Effects 18-10
Temper Embrittlement 18-11
Hydrogen Effects 18-11
Elevated-Temperature Properties 18-14
Corrosion Resistance 18-17
Summary 18-17
ASTM Product Specifications 18-17

References 18-20

18-2 Part 5A: Mechanical and Chemical Properties
Introduction Metallurgical Characteristics

The design stresses for most pressure containing and structural
of Structural Carbon and Low
application are based upon minimum mechanical properties desig- Alloy Cast Steels
nated in the specifications published by the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM). Those who use, or wish to use For the purpose of this chapter, carbon steels are considered to be
carbon and low alloy materials must become intimately knowledge- those steels in which carbon is the principal alloying element. Other
able of the ASTM specifications for these materials. ASTM is, of elements that are present and that, in general, are required to be
course, not the only standards body and other national or proprietary reported are manganese, silicon, phosphorous, and sulfur. In a sense,
standards may be used to specify materials property requirements. all of these elements are "residuals" from the raw materials used in
This chapter will review metallurgical characteristics and their the manufacture of the steel, although the addition of manganese is
influence on the properties and performance of carbon and low alloy often made during the steelmaking process to counter the deleteri-
steels and will contain a summary of the relevant features of the ous effect of sulfur, and silicon is added to aid in deoxidation.
ASTM specifications. The use of any standard or specification is The major source of sulfur is the coke used in the blast furnace, or
most effectively achieved when competent metallurgical and engi- cupola. The major sources of phosphorous, manganese, and silicon
neering advice is available. are the iron ore, the limestone used as a flux, and the additions used
to deoxidize the steel. A minimum amount of silicon is needed to
provide the necessary fluidity for the casting operation. Other ele-
ments, particularly those not easily oxidized, e.g., copper and nickel,
will be recovered from the scrap charge. The amounts of these two
elements and others, such as chromium, molybdenum, and vana-
dium, may or may not have to be reported by the manufacturer
YIELD STRENGTH - MPa depending upon the specification.
400 600 800 I000 I200 Alloy steels are considered to be those steels to which elements,
other than carbon, are added deliberately so as to improve mechani-
cal properties, physical properties, and/or corrosion resistance. (Me-
chanical properties are measured by plastically deforming or break-
ing the material. Physical properties are those in which the
measurement does not require that the metal be plastically de-
formed). The American Iron and Steel Institute has defined alloy
steels as containing one, or more, of the following elements in
Manganese above 1.65 percent

Silicon above 0.60 percent
Copper above 0.60 percent
Aluminum up to 3.99 percent
Chromium up to 3.99 percent
quantities as follows:
and cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vana-
dium, zirconium, and any other element added to obtain a desired
alloying effect.
The effectiveness of any alloying element is greatest when it is
completely soluble in the steel. If a particular element forms, or
tends to form, a compound with iron or another element present in
the steel, the effectiveness of both elements is decreased. For exam-
ple, if chromium is added to a carbon steel to increase hardenability,
the austenitizing heat treatment must be at a temperature high
enough to dissolve the chromium carbides, otherwise the presence
of chromium carbides diminishes the effect of both chromium and
carbon on increasing hardenability.
Mechanical Properties
For all alloy systems, the mechanical properties are controlled by
the chemical composition and the microstructure of the alloy. With
respect to the carbon and alloy steels, the influence of microstructure
is so great as to overshadow that of chemical composition and, for
> 60 80 I00 I20 I40 I60 I80 cast steels, the only practical method for changing the microstruc-
YIELD STRENGTH - ksi ture is by heat treatment (Figure 18.1 and Figure 18.2). With few
exceptions, the mechanical properties of the cast carbon and low
alloy steels are controlled by heat treatment. Among the exceptions
Fig. 18-1 Room-temperature properties of cast low-alloy steels. are the effect of carbon on increasing hardness (Figure 18.3 and
QT = quenched and tempered. NT = normalized
Copyrighted and tempered
content, 18.4),
(3) licensed forthethe
effect of nickel
sole on increasing toughness, and the effect of
use of:
Pressure Containing and Structural Parts 18-3
TEMPERATURE - C
-200 -I00 0 I00 200
T
60
40
•HEAT O . Q S T
UTS = I34 ksi (924 MPa ) 50
HEAT B, Q a T
* - 30 UTS = (49 ksi (I027 MP0)
• 40 >
«>
or
rr u
UJ z
30 UJ
UJ 20 HEAT G . Q 8 T
UTS = 141(972 MP 0 ) >
>
o
20
- HEAT 0, NST
10 - UTS = 90ksi (620 MPa)
- HEAT H, N 8 T - 10
UTS = 91 ksi (627 MPa)
HEAT C, N8T
UTS= 94 ksi (648 MPa)
I
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
TEMPERATURE - °F
Fig. 18-2 Charpy V-notch test results for various heats of cast 8630 steel in the quenched and tempered and normalized and tempered
condition (5)
280 I i i i — i — i — i — i — i —
/ /
260 -
z
240 - ' / -' L
x
m
220 -
/ / ' / -
CO
^ 200 / / ' /
Q
ac / / /
< _
X I80 / / /
UJ
I60 -- ' / '
cc / / /
ffl / // / I - WATER QUENCHED AND
// / TEMPERED-I200°F (649 C)
' / 2 - NORMALIZED
3- NORMALIZED AND
I20 : # TEMPERED-I200 0 F(649 C)-
4 - ANNEALED
100 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.0 0.10 0.20 0.30 Q40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
CARBON - %
Fig. 18-3 Hardness vs. carbon content of cast carbon steels (6)
120 I40 160 180 200 220 240 260 280

BRINELL HARDNESS-BHN
Fig. 18-4 Tensile properties of cast carbon steels as a function of

hardness (6)
combinations of chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, and tungsten effectiveness is termed "hardenability," i.e., a steel with "low har-
on increasing elevated-temperature strength. denability" can only be strengthened by heat treatment in thin
sections whereas a steel with "high hardenability" can be strength-
Hardenability ened in thick sections. (See Alloy and Heat Treatment Influence on
The major reason for using alloying elements in steels, wrought Section Size Effects.)
as well as cast, is to make the role of heat treatment on increasing Hardenability, a subject discussed more completely in Chapter 24,
strength effective over a wide range of metal thicknesses. This is the retarding of the austenite formation during cooling and is
increased by all of the alloying elements, except cobalt. Hardenabil-
ity, or austenite retention, should not be confused with austenite
formation, which is the expansion of the austenite field at high
temperature. Only a few elements increase the austenite field; these
are carbon, cobalt, copper, manganese, nickel, and nitrogen.
A large number of elements, particularly those that have a ten-
60 dency to form carbides, delay the softening of steel that occurs
during the tempering operation. The carbide forming tendency need
not be strong; for example, silicon, not a particularly strong carbide
> former, will delay the softening during tempering, but its effect is
50 not as strong as that of chromium. Likewise, the effect of chromium
is not as strong as that of vanadium, etc. In addition to retarding
softening, some carbide forming elements will, during tempering,
§40 cause an increase in hardness due to the precipitation of the alloy
X carbides (precipitation hardening). Figure 18.5 illustrates the effect
-I
of molybdenum on both retarding softening at low amounts (0.5%
-1 Mo) and increasing hardness at higher amounts (2% Mo and 5%
HJ
*30 Mo).
u
4 The role of the alloying elements on increasing hardenability and
retarding softening during tempering was the subject of an exten-
sive, international research effort during the first half of the 20th
20 Century. One result is the many grades of alloy steel covered in the
0.35X CA RBON \ specifications reviewed later in this chapter. Another result is the
o.3ox cm10MIUM ability to estimate the hardenability of a given steel from calcula-
tions based upon the chemical composition of the steel. Multiplying
10 factors for each element as published by the American Iron and Steel
i
0 400 600 800 1000 1200
Institute are shown in Figure 18.6. Although these values were
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE, *F. developed for wrought steels, they probably can be used for cast
steels with some minor corrections. This figure does not illustrate
Fig. 18-5 The effect of molybdenum on tempering rate of 0.35% the effect of carbon, which is quite large, nor the effect of boron,
carbon, 0.30% chromium steel, tempered for 1 hour at the which is high for low carbon steels and is negative for high carbon
indicated temperatures (7) steels (about 0.9% C) because it forms carbides.
3.80
Fig. 18-6 Multiplying factors for a
3.60 flu f 8.40 variety of alloying elements.
3.40 k iu./
8.00
(American Iron and Steel Institute)
3.20 p
f*
k 13
7.60
3.00 Af & 7.20

2.80 r JL *
6.80
2.60 6.40
2.40 ¥ 6.00
2.20 k7 S\ w
5.60
2.00 5.20
&
I.BO 4.80
1.60 4.40
1.40 4.00
1 MANGANESE
'LINE EXTENSION
1.20 3.60
.80 1.20 1.60 ZOO
1 1 1 1
.40 .80 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80 3.20 3£0 4.00
PER CENT OF ELEMENT
In addition to alloying elements, the grain size of the austenite

before quenching affects hardenability. A steel having a fine austeni- 1
tic grain size has lower hardenability than a steel having a coarse ^L FINE
austenitic grain size (Figure 18.7). Most often, austenitic grain size
control is achieved through the practice used to deoxidize the steel
during the end of the steelmaking process. If silicon is used for
deoxidizing, a coarse austenitic grain size results (i.e., a silicon-
killed steel or coarse grain practice); if aluminum is used for deoxi-
dizing, a fine austenitic grain size results (i.e., aluminum killed, or
aluminum-killed fine-grain practice). One explanation for this fine
grain size is that at the austenitizing temperature used for heat
treatment, the aluminum combines with the nitrogen dissolved in PROLONGED-^^ LBRIEF
the steel to form aluminum nitrides. The aluminum nitride particles

inhibit the growth of the austenite grains.
Although a steel having a coarse austenitic grain size has higher
hardenability, a "fine" grain steel has better toughness, less distor-
in 3
tion on heat treatment, lower tendency to develop quench cracks,
and, probably, lower internal stresses. Of these characteristics, the MIXED G R A I N - ^ '
improved toughness is the most important and, for structural appli-
1
cations, the steel should be of the fine-austenitic-grain type. A word
of caution: The term "aluminum-killed fine-grain steel" often is
1
misinterpreted. The term describes the grain size of the austenite at
the heat-treating temperature before quenching, not the grain size of
the ferrite, tempered martensite, or martensite at room temperature.
Methods for determining and measuring the austenitic grain size are
described in ASTM Specification El 12.
When heat treating aluminum-killed (aluminum deoxidized) AL- COARSE ^ k
steels, caution must be taken to avoid the use of austenitizing
temperatures above about 1800 °F (982 °C), otherwise the alumi-
num nitrides will dissolve and a very coarse austenite grain size will
result (Figure 18.8).
1400 1600 1800 2000
HEATING TEMPERATURE-DEGREES FAHRENHEIT.
Fig. 18-8 Grain size as a function of austenitizing temperature for

.40 an inherently fine-grained steel (schematic). (After Bain) (7)
.38
.36
.34 IOOO £
900 I
6 32
z fe
>/ 800z
Q .30 UJ
I
a:
of 700 1-
<r <n
£ .28 eoo y
UJ
2 I - WATER QUENCHED AND -1 500 ~
< r TEMPERED- I200°F (649C)
.26
< / <?X *Z\ &r - 400
UJ
o
.24 /fJ/x 3 - NORMALIZED AND
TEMPERED -I200°F (649 C)
.22
.20
.18
.16 0.0 0.10 0.20 Q30 040 0.50 0.60 0.70 OBO 0.90 1.0
0 .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90
CARBON, PER CENT CARBON - %
Fig. 18-7 Effect of grain size on the hardenability of pure Fig. 18-9 Tensile strength and reduction of area vs. carbon
iron-carbon alloys, expressed as ideal critical diameter, Di (7) content of cast carbon steels (6)
o 280
- 600 5
260
500
- 400 240
- 300
220
I -WATER QUENCHED AND „
TEMPERED- I200°F(649^) 200 W z
2-NORMALIZED
I
™ 200
3-NORMALIZED AND (0
TEMPERED- I200°F(649°C) en
<D
4-ANNEALED c 180
CO
SZ
1 160
c 1 - Water quenched and
m tempered-1200 °F (649 °C)
140 2 - Normalized
3 - Normalized and
120 tempered-1200 °F (649 °C)
4 - Annealed
100 I I I I I
0.0 0.I0 0.20 Q30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 I.O
0.0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
CARBON - %
Carbon - %
Fig. 18-10 Yield strength and elongation vs. carbon content of cast
carbon steels (6) Fig. 18-11 Hardness vs. carbon content of cast carbon steels (6)
Hardness and Strength

All elements dissolved in steel increase its hardness and strength;
however, as compared with the increase obtained by heat treatment, alloying elements; and IC 8630 has about 1.3 percent total alloying
this effect is small. An exception is carbon, the effect of which is elements, yet all have the same minimum tensile strength. This
large (Figures 18.9, 18.10 and 18.11) (although not as large as the negligible effect of alloying elements on strength further empha-
effect of heat treatment). Referring to the ASTM specification,
sizes the previous statement that the most important role of the
A732/A732M, the effect of carbon on increasing the strength of
alloying elements in steel is their effect on hardenability.
annealed carbon steels is:
Because of the close relationship between hardness and tensile
strength of alloy steels, as shown in Figure 18.12, there could be a
tendency to use carbon, an inexpensive element, to achieve a high
strength steel. This tendency has some validity but entails some
Average Minimum penalties. For example, at a given strength level, the toughness
Type of carbon tensile strength (resistance to brittle fracture) of a steel decreases with increasing
steel content ksi MPa carbon (Figure 18.13). Consequently, a preferred plan is to select a
steel having a combination of the lowest possible carbon content and
IC 1020 0.20% 60 414 the required amount of alloying elements to achieve, in a tempered
IC 1030 0.30% 65 448
IC1040
martensite microstructure, the desired strength. Of course, the alloy
0.40% 75 517
content selected must be that required to achieve the hardenability
needed for the section size (thickness) being considered.
The carbon effect on the strength of quenched and tempered
martensite in low alloy steel is more dramatic: Toughness
Toughness, the ability of a steel to resist brittle, rapid fracture, is
an essential property for structural components subject to high
loading rates. All of the test methods used to measure toughness
Average Minimum involve the use of a sample containing a sharp notch or a crack. The
Type of carbon tensile strength reason for employing such samples is that for every service failure
steel content ksi MPa caused by brittle fracture, the source of the fracture has been found
IC4130
to be a discontinuity in the metal, and every engineering structure
0.30% 150 1030
IC4330 0.30% 150 1030 will contain some sort of one or more discontinuities (notches).
IC8630 0.30% 150 1030 Consequently, the test procedures used for toughness evaluations
IC4140 0.40% 180 1241 are aimed at determining the resistance of the metal to the rapid
IC4340 0.40% 180 1241 propagation of a discontinuity. One such test is the Charpy V-notch
impact test described in ASTM Specification E23, "Standard Test
Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials," and
With respect to elements other than carbon, IC 4130 has about 1.2 is further discussed in ASTM Specification A370, "Standard Test
percent total alloying elements; IC 4330 has about 3.0 percent total Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products."
For structural carbon and low alloy cast steels, the following austenitizing temperature, not to the grain size of the steel at room
specifications either contain a toughness requirement or provide for temperature.
a toughness test in the supplementary requirement: With respect to chemical composition, toughness decreases with
increasing carbon, hydrogen, phosphorous, and/or sulfur, and in-
A148/A148M
A352/A352M
A487/A487M
A703/A703M
A757/A757M
A781/A781M TENSILE STRENGTH-MPa
For those specifications not mentioned, namely A216, A217, 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
500
A389, and A487, the toughness (impact test) requirement of A703
may be used based upon agreement between the producer and the
user. 460 -
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code requires impact
testing for almost all pressure vessel applications in their Section 420
VIII "Pressure Vessel" category. However, based upon information
I
obtained regarding the fracture toughness characteristics of steel, CO 3 8 0
the ASME has constructed a set of exemption curves (Figure 18.14).
If, for a given application, the combination of nominal thickness of to
CO
340
the metal and minimum design temperature of the vessel falls below UJ
2
the curve assigned to the metal (i.e., A, B, C or D), impact testing is Q
required. If this combination falls above the curve, impact testing is rr
< 300
not required. For castings, impact exemption curves have been X
assigned as follows: -j
-i 260
UJ
2
rr 220
m
A216,GradeWCA,C-Si Use Curve B
A216, Grade WCB.C-Si Use Curve A 180
A216, Grade WCC, C-Mn-Si Use Curve A
140 -
All of the structural carbon and alloy steels, whether wrought or

100
cast, indeed all of the ferritic and/or martensitic steels irrespective
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
of their chemical composition, display a variation of toughness with
TENSILE STRENGTH- ksi
temperature; such that at some relatively low temperature, the
toughness value is low (brittle fracture is likely), and at some higher
temperature the toughness value is high (ductile fracture occurs). Fig. 18-12 Hardness vs. tensile strength of low alloy cast steels
regardless of heat treatment (6)
This behavior is observed in every method used for measuring
toughness, Charpy V-notch, energy value, lateral expansion value,
etc. The change in toughness from a low to a high value occurs over
a relatively narrow temperature range, which is called the "transition
temperature range." Figure 18.15 illustrates this behavior and also
demonstrates that the behavior is observed when toughness is meas- 80
- no
\
ured by either M b , lateral expansion, or fracture appearance. NORMALIZED - I00
Steels considered to have adequate toughness have transition 70
\
90
temperatures below their lowest expected service temperatures. \ —_ —QUENCHED
TEMPERED
AND -
Many of the product specifications designate a minimum toughness £ 60 - 80 7

\
requirement at a specified test temperature. Most often, this test
NER G Y - f
temperature is at, or below, the minimum expected service tempera- V \ - 70 S

50 -
ture, and the specified minimum toughness value ensures that the \ \ 60 UJ
Z
test temperature (i.e., expected minimum service temperature) is 40 UJ
above the transition temperature for the material being evaluated. \ 50 |
UJ
For the structural carbon and low alloy steels, several generaliza- \ >
I 40 O
tions can be made. The reader should be cautioned that these are o
> ™_
generalizations; exceptions always are possible. ?0
30
For a given chemical composition and microstructure, the resis- \ \ 20

tance to the propagation of a given size of crack will decrease as the ^\.
10
yield strength of steel increases. For this reason, some specifications 10
require higher minimum toughness values for steels with higher I I I I I I I I

yield (or tensile) strengths. 0.0 0. 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
For steels having the same chemical composition, microstructure, CARBON - %
and strength, those classified as "aluminum-killed, fine-grain" will
have better toughness than those classified as "silicon-killed, coarse Fig. 18-13 Room-temperature Charpy V-notch values vs. carbon
grain." Again, the terms "fine-grain" and "coarse-grain" apply to the content of cast carbon steel in the normalized and tempered
grain size of the austenite prior to quenching (or cooling) from the condition [tempering temperature 1200 °F (650 °C)] (6)
| I Fig. 18-14 Impact test exemption

i curves
140 — i
120 — i ^_^__
100 — ! A ^ " " "

u. | « ^ ^
| 80 — | / ^ — " " " ^
E Ô — | / ;S ^
-50 i-f- 1
-60 — | \
i Impact testing required
-SO I LI 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.394 1 2 3 4 5
Nominal thickness, in.
(limited to 4 in. for welded construction)
Table 18-1 Fatigue Properties of Cast Steels (12)

Class(l)
and Tensile Yield Red. in Endurance
heat strength strength area Elong. Hardness limit Endurance
treatment ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) % % BHN ksi (MPa) ratio
Carbon Steels
60 A 63 (434) 35 (241) 54 30 131 30 (207) 0.48
65 N 68 (469) 38 (262) 48 28 131 30 (207) 0.44
70 N 75 (517) 42 (290) 45 27 143 35 (241) 0.47
80 NT 82 (565) 48 (331) 40 23 163 37 (255) 0.45
85 NT 90 (621) 55 (379) 38 20 179 39 (269) 0.43
100 QT 105 (724) 75 (517) 41 19 212 45 (310) 0.47
Alloy Steels(2)
65 NT 68 (469) 38 (262) 55 32 137 32 (221) 0.47
70 NT 74 (510) 44 (303) 50 28 143 35 (241) 0.47
80 NT 86 (593) 54 (372) 46 24 170 39 (269) 0.45
90 NT 95 (655) 64 (441) 44 20 192 42 (290) 0.44
105 NT 110 (758) 91 (627) 48 21 217 53 (365) 0.48
120 QT 128 (883) 112 (772) 38 16 262 62 (427) 0.48
150 QT 158 (1089) 142 (979) 30 13 311 74 (510) 0.47
175 QT 179 (1234) 160 (1103) 25 11 352 84 (579) 0.47
200 QT 205 (1413) 170 (1172) 21 8 401 88 (607) 0.43
(1) Class of steel based on tensile strength, ksi (MPa). A=Annealed, N = Normalized, NT = Normalized and tempered, QT = Quenched and tempered. (2) Below 8%
total alloy content
Pressure Containina and Structural Parts 18-9
TENSILE YIELD
STRENGTH STRENGTH ELONG HARDNESS
ksi (MPo) ksi (MPo) % BHN
CAST
8630 138 (952) 126 (869) 15 266
WROUGHT
8640 138 (952) 124(855) 22 286
85
_ 550
8U •^.^^^WROUGHT ^
o
75 OL
NO 500 2
*NOTCH i
70
V)
V) 450 UJ
W 65 OC
UJ 4
t-
(0
ac 60 400 z
t»
2 55 2
D
2 350*
x 50
2
<
2
45 300
V / C A S T
40 : WROUGHT
NOTCHED.
250
35 1 i 1 L
10 I0a 10° 10' 10°
CYCLES TO FAILURE
Fig. 18-16 Fatigue characteristics (S-N curves) for cast and

0 50 wrought 8600 series steels, quenched and tempered to the same
TEMPERATURE,°F
hardness, both notched and unnotched. R.R. Moore rotating beam
tests, Kt = 2.2
Fig. 18-15 Charpy V-notch impact test results for ABS Class C
steel (7)
Curve 1 - Energy absorbed
Curve 2 - Lateral expansion
Curve 3 - Fracture appearance
about 0.015 in. the endurance limit increases with the tensile
strength of the steel. For sharper notches, the endurance limit will
decrease at high tensile strengths. Notwithstanding, cast steels suffer
creases with increasing nickel. The beneficial effect of nickel is a smaller decrease in endurance limit due to notches than wrought
demonstrated by the requirements of Specification A757. Compare steels. As shown in Figures 18-16 and 18-17, when no notches are
types Cr-Mn, 2V2 Ni, 3V2 Ni, and4!/2 Ni. All are at the same tensile present (smooth surface) the endurance limit of the wrought steel is
and yield strength as the nickel increases from zero in the C-Mn steel higher than that of the cast steel, but when notches are present, the
to 4!/2% in the 4V2 Ni steel, but the required test temperature for the endurance limits of both the cast and wrought steels are essentially
same energy requirement of 15 ft/lb (20 Joules) decreases from -50 the same. A notched condition such as a rough surface, discontinui-
°F (-46 °C) to -175 °F (-115 °C). ties, etc. represents a more realistic service condition so that in
practical applications, where fatigue (alternating stresses) are ex-
Fatigue Strength (Endurance Limit) pected, cast steels will perform at least as well as wrought steels.
Fatigue strength values are affected by the mass effect in a manner
For cast steels, the fatigue strength, or endurance limit, as deter- similar to tensile strength. (See Alloy and Heat Treatment Influence
mined by tests on smooth bars is generally in the range of 40% to on Section Size Effects.)
50% of the tensile strength. In nonpercentage terms, this relation-
ship is expressed as 0.40 to 0.50 and is termed the endurance ratio.
As illustrated by Table (18.1) the endurance ratio is largely inde-
Section Size, Mass Effects
pendent of the tensile strength, chemical composition, and heat Mass effects are common to steels, whether rolled, forged, or cast,
treatment of the steel. because the cooling rate during the heat treating operation varies
Under conditions of rough surfaces, i.e., as cast, machined (not with section size, and because the microstructure components, grain
polished), notches, and cracks, both the endurance limit and the size, and nonmetallic inclusions increase in size from surface to
endurance ratio decreases. In Table (18.2) the effect of a notch on center. These changes in microstructure are illustrated in Figures
the endurance limit of several cast steels having tensile strength 24-67 and 24-68 of Chapter 24 on Hardenability and Heat Treat-
from 83.5 ksi to 168.2 ksi (576 MPa to 1160 MPa) is shown. Also ment. Mass effects are metallurgical in nature, distinct from the
shown are the unnotched and notched endurance ratios and the effect of discontinuities. An example of how the mass of component
fatigue notch sensitivities of these steels. lowers strength properties for wrought AISI8630 and for AISI8650
Although the notch sensitivity generally appears to increase with steel plate is shown in Figures 18-18a and 18-b. Properties are
increasing strength and the quenched and tempered condition ap- plotted for the 1/4 T location, halfway between surface and center
pears to be less notch sensitive than the normalized condition, the of the plate. Comparison of Figures 18-18a and 18-b indicates that
endurance ratio (in the notched condition) is in the narrow range of toughness is proportional to strength only in a limited way and that
0.27 to 0.32. Consequently, for the somewhat mild notch radius of a major loss in toughness may occur in heavier sections.
The section size, or mass effect, is of particular importance to steel denability of this steel prevents the 6 in. (152 mm) section from
castings because the mechanical properties are typically assessed through hardening and forming a sufficient amount of martensite at
from test bars machined from standardized coupons which have distances of 1 in. (25 mm) or more below the surface of the 6 in. (152
fixed dimensions and are cast separately from or attached to the mm) thick section.
castings (Figure 18-19). To remove test bars from the casting is Fatigue strength values are affeced by the mass effect in a manner
impractical because removal of material for testing would destroy similar to tensile strength. When the endurance limit is "normalized"
the usefulness of the component or require costly weld repairs to for tensile strength by dividing the endurance limit by the tensile
replace the material for testing purposes. strength, the resulting endurance ratio reveals only minor effects of
It cannot be routinely expected that test specimens removed from section size as illustrated in Figure 18-23.
a casting will exhibit the same properties as test specimens ma- Early studies of the section size effect (1,2,3) evaluated mechani-
chined from the standard test coupon designs for which minimum cal properties extensively as a function of location in a given casting
properties are established in specifications. The mass effect dis- to determine the rate of change with distance from the surface to the
cussed above, i.e., the differences in cooling rate between that of test center of the casting.
coupons and of the part being produced, is the fundamental reason
for this situation. Several specifications provide for the mass effect
by permitting the testing of coupons which are larger than the basic
keel block in Figure 18-19, and whose cooling rate is therefore more
representative of that experienced by the part being produced.
Among these specifications are ASTM specifications E208, A356, TENSILE STRENGTH- MP a
andA757. 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
100
Alloy and Heat Treatment Influence on Section 600
WROUGHT
S i z e Effects. The tensile properties of normalized and tempered UNN0TCHED o
cast carbon steel with 0.3% C (cast 1030) and Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy 500 a.
steel (cast 8635) in Figures 18-20a and 18-20b reveal the largest
effect of section size to be on reduction of area. The higher strength - 400 2
of the low alloy steel is relatively uniform in the 1.25 and 3-in. (32
and 76 mm) sections. For the 6-in. (152 mm) section a distinct drop
in yield and tensile strength is evident. These section size effects on - 300
tensile properties are more pronounced upon quenching and temper- <
a:
ing to higher strength values as evident from data illustrated in WROUGHT AND n_ ?on
W o
Figure 18-21 for Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy cast 8635 steel. CAST NOTCHED z
UJ
Toughness, because of its sensitivity to the changes in metallurgi-
R.R. MOORE ROTATING BEAM FATIGUE TESTS - 100
cal structure, i.e. heat treatment, may reveal major effects of section THEORET. STRESS CONC. FACTOR = 2.2
size. Figure 18-22 shows the differences in Charppy V-notch impact
energy due to section size as well as the variation of impact energy J L _L _!_
60 80 100 120 140 160 180
with location in a given section. These data show only minor effects
for the normalized and tempered steels. Comparable and uniform TENSILE STRENGTH - ksi
properties are also shown for the higher strengsth, quenched and
tempered cast 8630 steel up to a 3-in. (76 mm) section thickness. For Fig. 18-17 Relation between fatigue endurance limit (both notched
the 6 in. (152 mm) thick 8630 steel a significant loss in toughness and unnotched) and unnotched tensile strength for a number of cast
and wrought steels with various heat treatments (13)
occurs due to insufficient hardenability of the steel. Lack of har-
Table 18-2 Fatigue Notch Sensitivity of Several Cast Steels(a) (13)

Tensile Endurance limit Fatigue notch
Steel strengttl Unnotched Sotched Endurance ratio sensitivity
grade ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) Unnotched Notched factor (q)(b)
Normalized and Tempered

1040 94.2 (648) 37.7 (260) 28 (193) 0.40 0.30 0.29
1330 99.3 (685) 48.4 (334) 31.7 (219) 0.49 0.32 0.44
1330 97 (669) 41.7 (288) 31.2 (215) 0.43 0.32 0.28
4135 112.7 (777) 51.2 (353) 33.3 (230) 0.45 0.30 0.45
4335 126.5 (872) 63 (434) 34.9 (241) 0.50 0.28 0.68
8630 110.5 (762) 54 (372) 33.1 (228) 0.49 0.30 0.53
Quenched and Tempered
1330 122.2 (843) 58.5 (403) 37.3 (257) 0.48 0.31 0.48
4135 146.4 (1009) 61.3 (423) 40.6 (280) 0.42 0.28 0.43
4335 168.2 (1160) 77.6 (535) 48.2 (332) 0.46 0.29 0.51
8630 137.5 (948) 64.9 (447) 38.6 (266) 0.47 0.27 0.57
Annealed
1040 83.5 (576) 33.2 (229) 26 (179) 0.40 0.31 0.23
(a) Notched tests run with theoretical stress concentration factor of 2.2. (b) q = (K f - 1)/(K, - 1), K{ = Notch fatigue factor = Endurance limit unnotched/Endurance
limit notched, K, = Theoretical stress concentration factor

Figure 18-24 illustrates one example of these studies and demon- enhance the action of these elements, and molybdenum retards the
strates the tendency of properties to level off at distances of approxi- effect. Obviously, the use of melting practices to achieve low phos-
mately 1/4 thickness, 1/4 T from the surface. Newer studies, there- phorous (the practice to lower phosphorous also will lower arsenic,
fore, tend to be limited to the 1/4 T location. Data of this type in antimony, and tin) is desirable, and such practices have been devel-
Table 18-3 illustrate the trends for property changes as a function of oped via ladle treatments. However, such practices are expensive,
section size. These data do not reflect minimum values to be ex- and for most applications the use of molybdenum and/or avoiding
pected for the grades listed. heating-in or slow cooling through the critical range 800-1100 °F
(475-593 °C) is sufficient. When these practices are impractical, the
Temper Embrittlement use of the special melting-refining should be considered.
When many alloy steels are heated in or slowly cooled through

the range 800 to 1100 °F (427 to 593 °C), a significant loss in
Hydrogen Effects
ductility and toughness occurs. This loss in toughness is believed to Hydrogen is an undesirable element in steel; none of the effects
be caused by a grain boundary precipitation of iron compounds rich of hydrogen are good. Among the sources of hydrogen in steel, the
in phosphorous, arsenic, antimony, and tin; manganese and silicon most important are the raw materials used in the melting and refin-
SECTION THICKNESS-mm.
SECTION THICKNESS-mm. 20 40 60 80 100
20 40 60 80 IOO I F
120
' 8650 '
1 1 1 r OIL QUENCHED 120
CO 8630 DIFFERENT SIZES
-IUJ
-12
WATER QUENCHED TEMPERED AT 1000°F
UJQ DIFFERENT SIZES (538 °C)
zrr TEMPERED AT 1000 ° F (538°C)
E <
m i
150 - 400 100 I
150
IMPARL
<
Q_ H
O
<
Q_
Q
80 O 80
M
Q
100 - 3 0 0 100 - 3 0 0 O
Nl
<
I
co UJ CO
CO
CO 60 < UJ 60
UJ Q UJ
tr RED. AREA
a: UJ
i-
co <
cr
50 - 2 0 0 50 - 2 0 0 Q
<fi UJ
C£
o
2 05
40
40 3 <S>
UJ
z
o
_l
UJ
-100 -100
20 : U 0NGAT1C>N_ 20
I
I 2 3 I 2 3
SECTION THICKNESS-in. SECTION THICKNESS-in.
(a) (b)
Fig. 18-18 (a) Section size effects on water quenched and tempered wrought AISI 8630 steel in sizes over 1 in. (25 mm). The properties reported
are those midway between surface and center (Conversion: 1 ksi = 6.8948 MPa, 1 ft • Ib = 1.356 J) (b) Section size effects on oil quenched and
tempered wrought AISI 8650 steel. In sizes over 1 in. (25 mm), the properties reported are those midway between surface and center (Conversion:
1 ksi = 6.8948 MPa, 1 ft • Ib = 1.356 J)
3 7/8 + 2T 8 3/8 + 2T
Fig. 18-19 Keel
block coupon
(ASTM A
370—Mechanical
testing of steel
products)
Alternate design for bend bar

Design for multiple keel block coupon (4 legs)
L + 2T L + 2T
T Padding if L (5 min)
* - - •
necessary
. 1 3/4
Optional
2 min

1 1/4
1 •
Design for attached coupon
L (5 min)
Side view keel block coupon

STRESS-MPQ STRESS- MP
I20 ._I60 1100 £

TENSILE STRENGTH 800 v> TENSILE STRENGTH1 2
•f IOO -OI25in.(32mm) Q 3in.(76mm) A 6inj(l52mm)
700
JC
> 140 0 I25in.(32mm) D 3in/76mm) A6in.(l52mm) " 1000
SECTION 1 , SECTION SECTION CO 900 «
OT
an 600
fl-^;4°°^-"4
CO 8 0 500 [2 120 -A A 800 UJ
Ul — i ! ! j 400 cc 700 £
DC 6 0 OT 100 G
CO
600
300
800 g.
40 t
YIELD POINT 1 500 '» | 0.2% YIELD STRENGTH
400 •f ioo 700 2
» 60
— A - -A-
1 bp-OD-OgLsn-i AA " 3 0 0 CO
V\ 80 r - A .
p°~DjV=CD--OulD-H ^ 600 CO
500 ft
STRES
m 40 —zfcfla-o 200 —A-

60 400 p£
o o o o
100
fc 300 «
RE DUCTION 0F AREA 40
REDUCTION OF AREA
i i :
RCENT
1- 4 0
A - -A ~ < v°: A--fl | 30 h

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ELONGATION 1N 2in (E>lmm) ELONGATION IN 2in.(5lmm)

PER CENT
4
ot
o
z ° —A_ -A.
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t a,cn=t A-A
to
o
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—
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U—*\ m) 1.25 in. (32mm)
1.25 in. ( 3 2 rr
3 in. (76 mm)
3 in.(76 mm)
6 in. (152 mm)
6 in. (152 mm)
SECTION SI ZE SECTION SIZE
(a) (b)
Fig. 18-20 (a) Distribution of tensile properties of cast 1030 steel. Normalized from 1600 °F (871 °C) and tempered at 1200 °F (649 °C)
(b) Distribution of tensile properties of cast 8635 steel. Normalized from 1600 °F (871 °C) and tempered at 1200 °F (649 °C)
180 25
at I TENSILE STRENGTH 1200 £ 0 l.25rn.(32mm) SECTION I030 STEEL
J£ NORMALIZED a 30
l 160 0 l.25inj(32mm) D 3in.(76mm)SECTION A6in(l52mm) 1100? 2 0 | - 0 3in.(76mm) |_0-C0-0—| TEMPERED
co
CO 140 - T l
1000$ A 6 in. 052 mm) i
— A - — — *"-i£~,.
rjw-^fr/-3'
.TA— 20
u
tr
V. / 900 £ • — • & -
H lifO - a - J| AA A LL -_/A - - A
A 800 fe
CO I
100 700 0 IO
(0 Q. '8635 STEEL '
0.2 % YIELD STRENGTH
J£ 140 1000 2 NORMALIZED 8 TEMPERED - 30
CO ^0
CO 9 0 0 CO
120 I ho-CO-o- |
UJ
800 W _fl._A__A_^:D|AD==ir=[Ajp._ADr=A._i_fl.^ 20 I
ec 100
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700 1 - >-
I
C5
80 600 " IO QL
REDUCTION OF AREA >- UI
o 8635 STEEL
1- 40 QUENCHED 8 TEMPERED 50 UI
UJ 35
zUJ "V I
V) UI >
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or X, I N :9o-.?--oD- ^H 4 0 o
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ELOGATION IN 2 in. (51mm)
A—A-
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z 30 ! i i
UI 20
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0
l.25in. (32 mm)
1.25 in. (32 mm)
3 in. (76 mm)
3 in. (76 mm) 6 in.(l52mm)
6in.052mm) SECTION SIZE
SECTION SIZE
Fig. 18-22 Distribution of Charpy V-notch impact properties at 74
Fig. 18-21 Distribution of tensile properties of cast 8635 steel. °F (23 °C) for various section sizes of cast steels
Water quenched from 1500 °F (816 °C) a n d tempered at 1100 °F
(593 °C)
0.60
0 1.25 in. (32 mm)l SECTION 1 1030 STEEL
— D 3 in. (76 mm) SECTION NORMALIZED 8
0.55 I TEMPERED
ing process and traces of moisture in the molds used for casting. — A 6 in. (152 mm) | , .
Care should be taken to dry all steelmaking and refining additions 0.50
: X- D A n^fjar-o^jc^s :
as well as molds. 1
A A *—bT*<g A - fl
: A T
0.45
When present in amounts as low as 3 parts per million, hydrogen
in steel significantly reduces toughness and ductility. The hydrogen 0.40 8 6 3 5 STEEL
can be removed by heating the steel at about 400 °F (204 °C). NORMALIZED 9 TEMPERED
0.45
However, the removal from heavy sections, e.g., above 8 inches
(203.2 mm), requires a very long heating time at 400 °F (204 °C), 0.40 -D-J~°N /°"i.-D-|
and because resistance to crack propagation decreases as the section
0.35 A~^
size increases, hydrogen removal from heavy castings intended for
severe structural applications is essential. Fortunately, the attain- < 0.30 J_
8635 STEEL ]
ment of the low amounts (less than 3 parts per millon) of hydrogen UJ QUENCHED a TEMPERED
0.45 I ' |
in steel can be achieved by the use of ladle vacuum treatments. Of O
Z
course, the benefit of achieving a low hydrogen content must be < 0.40
sufficient to justify the high cost of the vacuum treatment. rr "A— ^ . -a--a-o-co-o-Jo--DH .A — A —
Q
0.35 -A_,rft=rJh!_A—/^'
Also, hydrogen can enter solid steel as a result of a corrosion
Z
reaction at the surface of the steel. When this occurs in steels having
a hardness above 23 HRC, cracking may occur and the susceptibility
UJ 0.30
hr^
1.25 in. (32 m m )
of a steel to cracking increases rapidly as the hardness increases -* >•
3in. (76mm)
above 23 HRC. For this reason, the petroleum industry has imposed
a maximum hardness restriction of Re 23 on steels intended for 6 i n . (152mm)
SECTION SIZE
service where corrosion will generate hydrogen absorption in the
steel. One example is in sour crude wells.
Fig. 18-23 Distribution of endurance ratio for various section sizes
Another form of hydrogen cracking of steel occurs when the steel of cast steels
is exposed to hydrogen at high pressure and high temperature. The
steel does not need to have high values of hardness or strength. The
physical mechanism at work is that hydrogen, at the high pressure
and temperature, diffuses into the steel and reacts with the carbides lybdenum, and, occasionally, vanadium. The beneficial effects of
to form methane gases, the pressure of which becomes high enough chromium and molybdenum are illustrated by the "Nelson" curves
to rupture the steel. The solution to the problem is to add alloying which define the safe limits of temperature and pressure for carbon
elements that form "stable" carbides which will not react with the steel, carbon molybdenum steel, and three chromium-molybdenum
hydrogen. The elements most commonly used are chromium, mosteels (Figure 18-25).
Elevated-Temperature Properties
2I00
300 Two temperature regions categorize the effect of service tempera-
TRUE BREAKING STRENGTH ture on the strength of carbon and low alloy steels. In the lower
2000 region, the strength of the metal is independent of time and can be
measured by normal tensile testing made at the elevated tempera-
I 280 ture. The breaking strength will not change with the time that the
t- I900 I steel is under load. In the higher temperature region, the breaking
C5
Z I- strength of the metal is dependent upon the time at which the metal
w Z is under load at the elevated temperature, i.e., the breaking strength
a: UJ
<" 260 I800 {J; decreases with time. For service at temperatures within the time
CO independent region, the design strength is based upon the tensile
properties determined at the service temperature. Of importance is
I700 that, in the time independent zone, a higher strength at room tem-
240 perature results in a higher strength at elevated temperature. The
functions of the alloying to impart strength in the time independent
ENGINEERING TENSILE STRENGTH zone are multifaceted. These include:
I600
0
20 • The hardenability effect that enables the steel to be heat treated to
I higher strengths in thicker sections without the need of a drastic
REDUCTION IN AREA
>- quench.
• The function of the alloying elements to retard the softening
O
10 -
during tempering. This ability results in an extension of the time
Q independent zone to higher temperatures as well as a strengthen-
ing effect.
• The function of chromium, in addition to its hardenability effect
and tempering effect, to increase resistance to oxidation.
0.5(13) 1.5(38) 2.5(64) 3.5(89) • The function of molybdenum to retard temper embrittlement as
well as its hardenability and tempering effect.
DISTANCE FROM COUPON SURFACE-in(mm)
_i_ _L In the time dependent region, the so-called "creep region," higher
16 36 64
tensile properties at room temperature do not always result in higher
strength at the service temperature, nor is the design stress based
APPROXIMATE SOLIDIFICATION TIME -MINUTES upon the tensile strength at the service temperature. Because the
Fig. 18-24 Effect of mass on tensile properties in 8-in. (203-mm) breaking stress, or stress to cause a given amount of deformation, is
coupon of cast Ni-Cr-Mo, 4330 steel in the quenched and dependent upon the time that the material is under stress, the design
tempered condition (2) stresses are based upon properties determined from time-related
HYDROGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE - Kg / c m ** abs

50 I00 I50 200 400 600 800
800
SURFACE DECARBURIZATION
INTERNAL DECARBURIZATION ( HYDROGEN ATTACK )
700
600
500
400
300
200
300 _l_ I I I I
500 1000 I500 2000 2500 3000 7000 11000
2 l*. SCALE CHANGE
HYDROGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE-lb/in. abs
Fig. 18-25 Operating limits for steels in hydrogen service (10)

Table 18-3 Trends of Property Changes with Section Size of Several Cast Steel Grades
Section
Grade and size NDTT C v -Energy-ft lb (J) Cv - Lat. expansion
heat treatment(a) in. (mm) op- (°C) -20F (-29C) -50F (-46C) -60F (-51C) -20F (-29C) -50F (-46C)
A216-WWC: 0.20C, 0.91Mn, 0.35 Si, 0.010 P, 0.007 S, 0.056 Al, 0.010 Ti, 0.03 Ni, 0.06 Cr, 0.01 Mo, 0.05 Cu, 0.011 0 2 , 0.0098 N2,3.5 ppm H2 (Riser)
N1650.T1150AC, 1 (25) 55 (75) 46 (1.17)
WQ1650, 2 (51) -60 (-51) 53 (72) 29 (39) 40 (1.02)
T1150AC 3 (76) -60 (-51) 55 (75) 31 (42) 41 (1.04)
5 (127) -50 (-46) 45 (61) 31 (42) 34 (0.86) 26 (0.66)
N1650,N1600,T1150AC, 1 (25) 61 (83) 44 (1.12)
WQ1650.T1150AC 2 (51) -60 (-51) 59 (80) 43 (58) 47 (1.19)
3 (76) -60 (-51) 58 (79) 32 (43) 45 (1.14)
5 (127) -50 (-46) 56 (76) 47 (64) 43 (1.09) 38 (0.97)
N1650,N1600,T1150AC, 1 (25) 51 (69) 42 (1.07)
WQ1650,T1150AC,SR 2 (51) (-51) 63 (85) 26 (35) 48 (1.22)
1125/15 3 (76)
-m
-60 (-51) 50 (68) 18 (24) 46 (1.17)
5 (127) -50 (-46) 57 (77) 27 (37) 44 (1.12) 10 (0.25)
N1650,N1600,T1150AAC, 1 (25) 73 (99) 47 (1.19)
WQ1650,T1150AC,SR 2 (51) -60 (-51) 59 (80) 29 (40) 42 (1.07)
1125/40 3 (76) -50 M6) 58 (79) 30 (41) 40 (1.02) 22 (0.56)
5 (127) -50 (-46) 58 (79) 21 (28) 44 (1.12) 14 (0.36)
N1650,N1600,T1150AC, 1 (25) 55 (75) 42 (1.07)
WQ1650,T1150AC,SR 2 (51) -60 (-51) 49 (66) 22 (30) 34 (0.86)
1125/15, SR 1125/40 3 (76) -50 (-46) 49 (66) 29 (39) 32 (0.81) 24 (0.61)
5 (127) -50 (-46) 43 (58) 25 (34) 39 (0.99) 19 (0.48)
A352-LCB: 0.18 C, 0.75 Mn, 0.38 Si, 0.007 P, 0.014 S, 0.051 Al, 0.002 Ti, 0.03 Ni, 0.03 Cr, 0.015 Mo, 0.04 Cu, 0.016 N2
WQ1650.T1200WQ, 1 (25) 47 (64) 33 (45) 24 (33) 38 (0.97) 27 (0.69)
AGE800/40,SR 1100/40 2 (51) -A0 M0) 36 (49) 13 (18) 8 (11) 25 (0.64) 7 (0.18)
3 (76) -40 M0) 37 (50) 12 (16) 8 (11) 20 (0.51) 5 (0.13)
5 (127) ^10 (-40) 21 (28) 6 (8) 6 (8) 14 (0.36) 1 (0.025)
A352-LCC (Ni Mod.): 0.205 C, 0.95 Mn, 0.35 Si, 0.010 P, 0.010 S, 0.045 Al, 0.013 Ti, 1.82 Ni, 0.14 Cr, 0.012 Mo, 0.04 Cu, 0.008 N2
N1750.WQ1650, 1 (25) 58 (79) 48 (65) 45 (61) 39 (0.99) 31 (0.79)
T1226WQ, 2 (51) -100 (-73) 55 (75) 43 (58) 39 (53) 40 (1.02) 25 (0.64)
AGE 750/48 3 (76) -90 (-68) 46 (62) 35 (47) 31 (42) 42 (1.07) 32 (0.81)
5 (127) -90 (-68) 55 (75) 42 (56) 37 (50) 34 (0.86) 26 (0.66)
A352-LCC-(Ni-Mo-Mod): 0.18 C, 0.92 Mn, 0.38 Si, 0.010 P, 0.008 S, 0.041 Al, 0.019 Ti, 1.76 Ni, 0.04 Cr, 0.22 Mo, 0.04 Cu, 0.009 N2,6.88 ppm H,;(Riser)
N1750.WQ1650, 1 (25) 60 (81) 47 (64) 43 (58) 44 (1.12) 35 (0.89)
T1225WQ, 2 (51) -100 (-73) 56 (76) 43 (58) 39 (53) 41 (1.04) 29 (0.74)
AGE 750/48 3 (76) -90 (-<58) 61 (83) 47 (64) 43 (58) 41 (1.04) 34 (0.86)
5 (127) -80 (-62) 54 (73) 40 (54) 35 (47) 39 (0.99) 27 (0.69)
A487-Class 12Q120-95:0.275 C, 1.02 Mn, 0.40 Si, 0.010 P, 0.010 S, 0.042 Al, 0.009 Ti, 1.60 Ni, 0.06 Cr, 0.28 Mo, 0.035 Cu, 7.79 ppm H, (Riser)
WQ1750,T1075WQ,AGE 1 (25) 55 (75) 53 (72) 51 (69) 33 (0.84) 31 (0.79)
700/48 2 (51) -140 (-96) 48 (65) 39 (53) 37 (50) 26 (0.66) 22 (0.56)
3 (76) -100 (-73) 50 (68) 39 (53) 35 (47) 29 (0.74) 20 (0.51)
5 (127) -50 (-^6) 35 (47) 26 (35) 23 (31) 25 (0.64) 16 (0.41)
A148-Gr 150-125:0.295 C, 0.90 Mn, 0.27 Si, 0.009 P, 0.010 S,0.048 Al, 0.008 Ti, 1.58 Ni, 0.42 Cr, 0.33 Mo, 0.03 Cu, 6.38 ppmiH 2 (Riser)
WQ1750, T980WQ, AGE 1 (25) 35 (47) 34 (46) 33 (45) 19 (0.48) 16 (0.41)
700/48 2 (51) -80 (-62) 29 (40) 25 (34) 23 (31) 10 (0.25) 7 (0.18)
3 (76) -60 (-51) 22 (30) 18 (24) 18 (24) 5 (0.13) 3 (0.076)
5 (127) -10 (-23) 18 (24) 17 (23) 17 (23) 10 (0.25) 10 (0.25)
A487-Class 11Q, 105-85: 0.26 C, 1.03 Mn, 0.49 Si, 0.007 P, 0.011 S, 0.055 Al, 0.012 Ti, 1.63Ni,0.13Cr,0.34Mo,0.04Cu
WQ1750,T1150WQ,AGE 1 (25) 63 (85) 59 (80) 56 (76) 43 (1.09) 40 (1.02)
700/48 2 (51) -150 (-101) 55 (75) 46 (62) 42 (57) 33 (0.84) 29 (0.74)
3 (76) -120 (-89) 54 (73) 43 (58) 39 (53) 35 (0.89) 27 (0.69)
5 (127) -80 (-62) 42 (56) 32 (43) 27 (37) 26 (0.66) 19 (0.48)
A487-Class UN, 90-60:0.25 C, 1.08 Mn, 0.43 Si, 0.010 P, 0.010 S, 0.044 Al, 0.012 Ti, 1.70 Ni, 0.075 Cr, 0.31 Mo, 0.035 Cu, 7.11 ppm 2H(Riser)
N1750,T1200-1225AC, 1 (25) 23 (31) 16 (22) 14 (19) 20 (0.51) 15 (0.38)
AGE 700/48 2 (51) -20 (-29) 19 (26) 16 (22) 15 (20) 8 (0.20)
3 (76) -20 (-29) 13 (18) 12 (16) 12 (16) 4 (0.10)
5 (127) 0 (-18) 17 (23) 11 (15) 10 (14) 5 (0.13)
Section
Grade and size NDTT Cv - Enerey-ft • lb (J) C\ - Lat. expansion-
heat treatment in. (mm) op (°C) -60F (-S1C) -100F (-73C) -1S0F (-101C) -60F (-51C) -100F (-73C)
A352-LC2:0.06 C, 0.68 Mn, 0.36 Si, 0.010 P, 0.013 S, 0.049 Al, 0.019 Ti, 2.44 Ni, 0.10 Cr, 0.01 Mo, 0.03 Cu, 0.006N2,4.87 ppm H2 (Riser)
N1650, 1 (25) 78 (106) 51 (69) 25 (34) 42 (1.07) 40 (1.02)
WQ1650, 2 (51) -140 (-96) 67 (91) 45 (61) 20 (27) 55 (1.40) 43 (1.09)
T1150WQ 3 (76) -140 (-96) 68 (92) 47 (64) 18 (24) 49 (1.24) 34 (0.86)
5 (127) -110 (-79) 57 (77) 32 (43) 46 (1.17) 25 (0.64)
(continued)

Table 18-3 Trends of Property Changes with Section Size of Several Cast Steel Grades (continued)
Section
Grade and size NDTT C,-- Energy-ft lb
• (J) C v - Lat expansion-
heat treatment in. (mm) °F (°C) -60F (-51C) --100F (-73C) -150F (-101C) -60F (-51C) -100F (-73C)
Ni-Cr-Mo Type: 0.09 C, 0.64 Mn, 0.39 Si, 0.009 P, 0.013 S, 0.038 Al, 0.005 Ti, 2.80 Ni, 1.29 Cr, 0.46 Mo, 0.04 Cu, 0.010 N 2
N1750, 1 (25) 82 (111) 61 (83) 34 (46) 53 (1.35) 36 (0.91)
WQ1650, 2 (51) -150 (-101) 89 (121) 65 (88) 35 (47) 52 (1.32) 38 (0.97)
T1200WQ, 3 (76) -140 (-96) 68 (92) 46 (62) 25 (34) 47 (1.19) 24 (0.61)
A G E 800/64 5 (127) -90 (-68) 58 (79) 32 (43) 22 (30) 35 (0.89) 20 (0.51)
Mils ( m m ) C\,-Shear area - % U.T.S. Y.S. El. R.A. FATT-50

-60F (-51C) -20F(-29C) -50F(-46C) -60F(-51C) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) % % BHN op CO
18 74 (510) 53 (365) 33 69 149
22 (0.56) 15 1 73 (503) 53 (365) 33 69 146
25 (0.64) 13 1 72 (496) 50 (345) 34 69 146
8 1 70 (483) 50 (345) 32 62 146
28 74 (510) 54 (372) 32 72 149
25 (0.64) 25 1 73 (503) 53 (365) 33 69 146
25 (0.64) 18 1 72 (496) 51 (352) 32 67 146
19 1 72 (496) 52 (359) 30 56 143
20 75 (517) 55 (379) 34 74 146
17 (0.43) 22 1 73 (503) 53 (365) 34 67
13 (0.33) 15 1 72 (496) 52 (359) 32 63 146
21 1 71 (490) 48 (331) 33 61 143
20 75 (517) 54 (372) 35 69
14 (0.36) 38 10 73 (503) 52 (359) 36 70
35 10 70 (483) 53 (365) 35 70
30 10 69 (476) 48 (331) 36 68
20 77 (531) 57 (393) 34 65
16 (0.41) 28 10 69 (476) 50 (345) 32 69
28 10 69 (476) 48 (331) 35 71
25 10 67 (462) 46 (317) 34 71
19 (0.48) 29 12 10 70 (483) 46 (317) 35 73 156 +20 (-7)
4 (0.10) 21 8 2 66 (455) 46 (317) 36 69 143 445 (+7)
1 (0.025) 25 5 3 65 (448) 43 (296) 39 72 143 +60 (16)
0 (0) 15 3 1 66 (455) 43 (296) 35 60 143 +60 (16)
27 (0.69) 62 45 40 87 (600) 69 (476) 30 67 163 -40 M0)
20 (0.51) 56 38 32 80 (552) 64 (441) 35 62 166 -30 (-34)
28 (0.71) 50 34 27 82 (565) 63 (434) 35 66 159 -20 (-29)
22 (0.56) 49 32 27 82 (565) 65 (448) 31 54 163 -20 (-29)
30 (0.76) 62 45 40 95 (655) 72 (496) 27
27 (0.69) 53 38 32 88 (607) 68 (469) 28
33 (0.84) 49 33 28 92 (634) 69 (476) 32
19 (0.48) 39 21 14 78 (538) 61 (421) 25
29 (0.74) 100 100 99 130 (896) 116 (800) 20
20 (0.51) 70 53 47 119 (820) 96 (662) 21
19 (0.48) 64 43 36 HI (765) 88 (607) 22
13 (0.33) 40 23 18 107 (738) 85 (586) 20
15 (0.38) 100 100 157 157 (1082) 148 (1020) 15
6 (0.16) 68 26 24 151 (1041) 132 (910) 14
3 (0.076) 35 18 16 140 (965) 109 (752) 11
10 (0.25) 6 132 (910) 104 (717) 12
36 (0.91) 100 94 84 112 (772) 98 (676) 18
27 (0.69) 90 70 64 118 (814) 100 (689) 28
23 (0.58) 82 60 50 110 (758) 89 (614) 20
18 (0.46) 43 27 21 105 (724) 83 (572) 16
10 (0.25) 11 8 7 91 (627) 70 (483) 24
5 4 3 91 (648) 71 (490) 22
5 2 1 91 (648) 70 (483) 23
5 91 (648) 69 (476) 24
Mils ( m m ) C'•v -Shear area -

• % U.T.S. Y.S. El. R.A. FATT-50
-150F (-101C) -60F(-51C) -100F(-73C) -150F(-101C) ksi ( M P a ) ksi ( M P a ) % % BHN op (°C)
16 (0.41) 50 32 10 73 (503) 61 (421) 34 75 -65 (-53)

5 (0.13) 43 23 6 72 (496) 59 (407) 35 69 143 -45 (-43)
13 (0.33) 42 24 7 71 (490) 57 (393) 33 70 143 -40 (-40)
30 10 70 (483) 54 (372) 34 54 137 -20 (-29)
(continued)

Table 18-3 Trends of Property Changes with Section Size of Several Cast Steel Grades (continued)
Mils (mm) C v - Shear area - U.T.S. Y.S. El. R.A. FATT-50

-150F (-101C) -60F(-51C) -100F(-73C) -150F(-101C) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) % % BHN of <°Q
17 (0.43) 79 52 18 -105 (-76)
21 (0.53) 100 78 22 92 (634) 75 (517) 29 68 196 -125 (-87)
12 (0.30) 86 43 14 90 (621) 71 (490) 31 69 196 -90 (-68)
9 (0.23) 50 21 13 91 (627) 70 (483) 26 67 196 -60 (-51)
(a) Abbreviations: N = normalize (air cool), T = temper, WQ = water quench, AC = air cool, SR = stress relief, Temperatures are listed in °F, the number following the
stress relief or aging temperature indicates time (hours) at temperature. Property values for T = 2,3, and 5 in. sections were obtained at 1/4 T distance below the plate
surface.
tests at elevated temperatures; such properties as the stress to cause increase resistance to oxidation and, as already stated, low alloy
rupture in 10,000 or 100,000 hours (rupture strength), or the stress steels for elevated temperature service contain chromium. Additions
to cause a prescribed rate of metal elongation (creep strength). These of aluminum and/or silicon are at least as effective as those of
special tests are described in ASTM Specification El39, "Standard chromium; however, the amount of either of these elements required
Practice for Conducting Creep, Creep-Rupture, and Stress-Rupture to impart the necessary oxidation resistance may cause a serious loss
Tests on Metallic Materials." in ductility and toughness.
The carbon and low alloy steels derive their creep and creep-rup- The role of the alloying elements in cast steel may be summarized
ture (or stress-rupture) strength from those elements that are in as follows:
solution (not present as carbides, nitrides, etc.) in the metal. This is
termed the solid-solution hardening effect. In other words, the role • All elements, except cobalt, increase hardenability.
of the alloying elements in strengthening steel at elevated tempera- • All carbide forming elements retard softening during tempering.
tures (in the time dependent region) is one of solid solution harden- • Nickel improves toughness.
ing and not that of increasing hardenability or resistance to temper- • Chromium improves oxidation resistance.
ing. • Molybdenum retards temper embrittlement and increases ele-
Of all the elements, the role of molybdenum in increasing strength vated-temperature strength.
at elevated temperatures is so great as to be almost outstanding, and • Vanadium and tungsten improve elevated-temperature strength.
all of the low alloy steels used for service in the time dependent • Manganese plus sulfur improve machinability.
region contain molybdenum in amounts of 0.5% or 1.0%. Also • Sulfur causes hot cracks.
important is the role of chromium to increase resistance to oxidation. • Carbon increases strength but decreases toughness.
Consequently, the low alloy steels used for elevated-temperature • Phosphorous, arsenic, antimony, and tin accelerate temper em-
service are of the chromium-molybdenum type and have a carbon brittlement.
content of about 0.20%.
An illustration of the importance of alloying elements in steels
used for elevated-temperature service is the comparison of allow- Summary
able working stresses assigned by the ASME Boiler and Pressure Structural carbon and low alloy cast steels enjoy a wide applica-
Vessel Code. Table 18-4 shows the allowable stresses for cast steels tion for load bearing applications. The optimum utilization of these
which were taken from Table UCS-23, ASME Boiler and Pressure steels can be obtained best from a thorough understanding of the
Vessel Code, Section VIII. specifications covering these steels, and the metallurgical charac-
Note that all of the steels contain molybdenum because of its teristics of the steel. Both the manufacturer and the user have an
four-fold role in increasing elevated-temperature strength, retarding obligation to cooperate in the preparation of specifications that
temper embrittlement, increasing hardenability, and increasing re- reflect and combine both the needs of the users and the capabilities
sistance to softening during tempering. Also to be noted is that the of the manufacturers. This obligation requires a sound under-
major role of chromium is to increase oxidation resistance although standing of the metallurgical characteristics of the steel, and a
its effect on hardenability and resistance to tempering is reflected in continuous communication between the two groups on the pertinent
the higher strength of the 5 Cr-V2 Mo steel in the time independent problems encountered in manufacture, fabrication, and service per-
zone. One interesting and as yet unexplained role of the combination formance.
of chromium and molybdenum is that a 2-1/4% Cr-1% Mo steel has
significantly higher strength in the time dependent zone than either
a 1-1/4% Cr-1/2% Mo steel or a 5% Cr-1/2% Mo steel; not shown ASTM Product Specifications
is that the 2-1/4% Cr-1% Mo steel is stronger than a 5% Cr-1% Mo
steel. Specification A27/27M
Corrosion Resistance Steel Castings, Carbon for General Applications
Seven grades of carbon steel castings are covered. Five grades
The cast-carbon and low alloy steels are not considered to be have designated mechanical properties that vary from 30 ksi (205
corrosion-resistant materials. As is true for the wrought steels, minor MPa) to 40 ksi (275 MPa) yield strength and from 60 ksi (415 MPa)
additions of nickel, chromium, phosphorous, copper, and silicon to 70 ksi (485 MPa) tensile strength; specific minimum properties
will increase resistance of cast steels to atmospheric corrosion to the are assigned to each grade.
extent that for some applications no protection such as paint is This specification is not included in the ASME Boiler and Pres-
required. At elevated temperatures increasing amounts of chromium sure Vessel Code.
Specification A148/A148M-89 C-1/2M0, Ni-Cr-Mo (two steels), l-l/4Cr-l/2Mo (two steels), 2-

l/4Cr-lMo, 5Cr-l/2Mo and 9Cr-lMo.
Steel Castings, High Strength, for Structural Appli- With the exception of grade WC11 (Cr-Mo), all grades have been
cations approved for pressure vessel applications, including nuclear, by the
This specification covers 15 grades of carbon and alloy steel ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and, for pressure vessel
castings having minimum tensile strengths ranging from 80 ksi to
260 ksi, and minimum yield strengths ranging from 40 ksi to 210
ksi. Each of the grades is designated by its minimum tensile and
yield strength, for example, Grade 80-40 has a minimum specified
Temperature
tensile strength of 80 ksi (550 MPa) and a minimum specified yield op
Grade °c
strength of 40 ksi (275 MPa) as follows:
Three grades: 165-150L, 210-180L, and 260-210L must be WCl(C-l/2Mo), 1000 538
Charpy impact tested. WC4(Ni-Cr-Mo)
Except for maximum limits of phosphorous and sulfur content, WC5(Ni-Cr-Mo), 1100 593
the specification, per se, does not have limits on other elements that WC6(l-l/4Cr-l/2Mo)
WC9(2-l/4Cr-lMo) 1200 649
may, or may not, be desirable. The amounts, and limits, for these
other elements as well as the heat treatment (full annealing, normal-
izing, normalizing and tempering, or quenching and tempering)
needed to achieve the properties specified for each grade, if not applications, allowable stresses have been assigned, up to, and
specified by the user in his inquiry, may be selected by the manufac- including, the following temperature:
turer. Obviously, both the user and the manufacturer must have, or
have access to, knowledge of the metallurgical characteristics of Specification A352/A352M-89
these steels. Steel Castings, Ferritic and Martensitic, for Pres-
Specification A216/A216M-89 sure Containing Parts, Suitable for Low-Tempera-
ture Service
Steel Castings, Carbon, Suitable for Fusion Weld- The following nine grades of carbon and low alloy steels are
ing, for High-Temperature Service covered: C steel (two steels), C-Mn, C-l/2Mo, 2-l/2Ni, 3 Ni-Cr-
Three grades of carbon steel, two carbon silicon steels and one Mo, 3-l/2Ni, 4-l/2Ni, and 9Ni.
carbon manganese silicon steel, having minimum yield strengths of In addition to required tensile properties at room temperature, the
30 ksi (205 MPa), 36 ksi (250 MPa), and 40 ksi (275 MPa) are specification requires a minimum Charpy V-notch impact strength
covered by this specification. at a temperature designated for each grade.
This specification designates the detailed chemical composition Although all grades are covered by ASME in Specification
and mandates that the castings be heat treated by one of the follow- SA352/SA352M, allowable stresses for ASME Code Pressure Ves-
ing: annealing, normalizing, normalizing and tempering unless a sels are given only to grades LCB (0.30 C steel), LCI (C-l/2 Mo),
supplementary requirement for quenching and tempering is speci- LC2 (2-1/2 Ni) and LC3 (3- l/2Ni). In addition, the minimum impact
fied by the user. strength requirement at the test (design) temperature for the ASME
Each grade is suitable for assembly with other castings or wrought Code Pressure Vessels varies with the yield strength and thickness
steel parts by fusion welding and each has been approved for of the material as shown in Figure 18-26 taken from paragraph
pressure vessel applications, including nuclear, by the ASME Boiler UG-84.1, Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessels, ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code, and have been assigned allowable work- and Pressure Vessel Code.
ing stresses up to, and including, 1000 °R Allowable stresses for all grades except LC2-1, LC4, and LC9
have been established for ASME nuclear applications. Toughness
Specification A217/A217M-89 requirements for the nuclear applications are more detailed than
Steel Castings, Martensitic Stainless and Alloy, those designated by either this ASTM specification (A352/A352M)
for Pressure Containing Parts, Suitable for High- or Section VIII, Pressure Vessels, of the ASME Code. If nuclear
Temperature Service applications are anticipated, the reader is advised to read that part
One grade of martensitic stainless steel and eight grades of heat- (Section III) of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code pertain-
treatable ferritic alloy steels are covered. The alloy grades are ing to regulations for nuclear applications.
Table 18-4 Maximum Allowable Stresses for Cast Steels According to Table UCS-23, ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII
Maximum allowable stress, ksi
for metal temperature
ASTM up to
Specification Grade Type 650 °F 700 °F 800 °F 900 °F 1000°F 1100 °F
SA372 LF2 C Steel 17.5 16.6 12.0 5.0 1.5

SA217 WC1 C-'/ 2 Mo 16.3 16.3 15.8 13.7 4.8
SA217 WC6 l'/tCr-'^Mo 17.5 17.5 17.5 15.9 6.9 2.8
SA217 WC9 2 1 / 4 Cr-lMo 16.6 15.7 14.2 7.6 4.4
SA217 C5 5Cr-'/ 2 Mo 20.5 19.1 10.9 5.8 2.9

Fig. 18-26 Charpy v-notch impact test

requirements for full size and specimens for
carbon and low alloy steels (11)
50
Minimum
specified
yield
c strength
<u 40
E
65ksi
'8
Q.
55 ksi
£ 30
"5
50ksi
2
a) 45 ksi
>
CB
20
I
£ 38 ksi
> 15
o
10
-80 I I _L J_
0.394 in. 1.0 2.0 »3.0
Maximum nominal thickness of material or weld, in.
Specification A356/A356M-90 This specification is included in the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code. Allowable stresses and/or stress intensity values have
Heavy Walled, Carbon, Low Alloy, and Stainless been assigned as follows:
Steel Castings for Steam Turbines
Seven grades of carbon and low alloy steel are covered: 0.35max
C steel, l/2Mo, l/2Cr-l/2Mo, 1-1/4 C-l/2Mo, lCr-lMo-V (two
steels) and 2-l/4Cr-lMo. Grade and class Application
This specification is not included in the ASME Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code. 1A(C-V) Nuclear, Pressure Vessels
1B(C-V) Pressure Vessels
Specification A389/A389M-89 2A(Mn-Mo) Nuclear, Pressure Vessels
2B(Mn-Mo) Pressure Vessels
Steel Castings, Alloy, Specially Heat Treated for 4A(Ni-Cr-Mo-V) Nuclear, Pressure Vessels
Pressure Containing Parts, Suitable for High-Tem- 4B Pressure Vessels
perature Service 4E Pressure Vessels
Two grades of low alloy steel (Cr-Mo-V) are covered. Heat 8A Nuclear, Pressure Vessels
treatment is designated as normalizing and tempering. Surprisingly, 16A Nuclear
in view of its title, this specification is not included in the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Specification A487/A487M Specification A703/A703M-90

Standard Specification for Steel Castings Suitable
for Pressure Service Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Gen-
Nine grades of low alloy steel and three grades of martensitic eral Requirements for Pressure Containing Parts
stainless steel are covered: C-V, Mn-Mo, Ni-Cr-Mo, Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo, No specific grades are covered, however, as noted in its scope, the
Ni-Cr-Mo-V, Cr-Mo (two steels, Ni-Cr-Mo (three steels), Ni-Mo specification covers a group of common requirements which, unless
(two steels) and Mn-Ni. otherwise specified in an individual specification, shall apply to
All of the grades and classes are heat treated by quenching (air or steel castings intended for pressure containing parts. Consequently,
liquid) and tempering, the minimum temperature of which is desig- this specification must be read and understood by those manufactur-
nated for each grade. Also designated are the minimum temperatures ing, supplying, purchasing, and using castings for pressure contain-
for pre-heat and post-heat weld heat treatments. ing applications.
This specification is included in the ASME Boiler and Pressure The specification is not included in the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code. Vessel Code.
Specification A732/A732M-90 Specification A915/A915M

Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Car-
Standard Specification for Castings, Investment, bon, and Alloy, Chemical Requirements Similar to
Carbon and Low Alloy Steel for General Applica- Standard Wrought Grades
tions, and Cobalt Alloy for High Strength at Ele- This specification was developed to help purchasers and suppliers
vated Temperatures to order products based on the more familiar AISI/SAE designa-
Fifteen grades of carbon and low alloy steels are covered, and the
tions. While the cast grades are similar they are not identical to the
grade and types employ the same numbers as the counterpart AISI
wrought materials particularly in the instances of Si and Mn content.
wrought products (i.e., Type IC 1020 casting is similar to AISI 1020
wrought). Included are one or more steels in the 1000, 4000,4300,
4600, 6100, and 8600 series as well as 52100. Heat treatment is REFERENCES
either annealing, normalizing and tempering, or quenching and
tempering. The mechanical properties listed are designated in the 1. E.B. Evans, L.J. Ebert, and C.W. Briggs, Pmc, American Society
supplementary requirements of the specification, which means that for Testing and Materials, Vol 56, p 1
these requirements shall be agreed upon, in writing, by the manufac- 3. P.J. Ahearn, W.G. Form, and J.F. Wallace, "Mass Effect on Tensile
turer and the purchaser. Furthermore, the supplementary require- Properties of High Strength Cast Steel Castings," Modem Castings,
ments permit mechanical properties, other than those listed, subject Feb, 1959, p 45
to agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser. 3. C.W. Briggs and R.A. Gezelius, "The Effect of Mass upon the
This specification is not included in the ASME Boiler and Pres- Mechanical Properties of Cast Steel," ASM, Vol 26,1938, p 367
sure Vessel Code. 4. P.F Wieser, "Carbon and Low Alloy Steels," Machine Design, Feb
14,1974, p 8
Specification A757/A757M-90 5. B.S. Breznyak and J.F. Wallace, "Impact Properties of Cast Steel
Sections with Surface Discontinuities," Steel Foundry Research
Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Ferritic Foundation, Sept, 1967
and Martensitic, for Pressure Containing and 6. SFSA Research Results
Other Applications for Low-Temperature Service 7. H.E. McGannon, Ed., The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel,
This specification covers nine types of carbon and low alloy steel U.S. Steel Corp., 10th ed., 1970, p 1241,1292,1293,1294
castings for pressure containing and other applications intended for 8. ASME, Figure UCS-66, p 171
petroleum and gas pipelines in areas subject to low ambient tem- 9. Nickel Alloy Steel Data Book, Section 2, Bulletin A
peratures. The alloy steels included 0.30C, C-Mn, 2-l/2Ni, 3-l/2Ni, 10. API publication 941, American Petroleum Institute, Revised 1976
4-l/2Ni, Ni-Mo, Cr-Mo and Ni-Cr-Mo (two steels). 11. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIU, Division 1,
The impact requirements include those obtained on the base 1989
metal, heat affected zone, and weld metal. 12. L.J. Ebert. "A Critical Review of Recent Literature on the Fatigue
This specification also designates the chemical composition of Properties of Cast Steel," MPC—2, ASME, 1976, p 135
each type, heat treatments, test coupons and specimen location, and 13. E.B. Evans, L.J. Ebert, and C.W. Briggs, Pmc, American Society
hydrostatic tests. for Testing and Materials, Vol 56,1956, p 1

CHAPTER 19
Wear-Resistant Steels
Page
Introduction and Definitions 19-2
Fundamental Wear Mechanisms 19-2
Materials Used for Wear Resistance 19-3

Manganese Steels 19-3
Low Alloy Steels 19-5
Pearlitic Chrome Moly Steels 19-7
Quenched and Tempered Steels 19-9
High Chromium White Irons 19-11
Pearlitic Irons 19-11
Screening Test for Wear Resistance 19-11

Gouging Abrasion Test 19-12
Wet Sand Abrasion Factor Test 19-13
Pin Test 19-13
Rubber Wheel Test 19-14
Correlation of Screening Tests With Full Scale Applications 19-15

Practical Application of Wear-Resistant Principles 19-17
References 19-20

19-2 Part 5A: Mechanical and Physical Properties
Abrasion is said to occur. This type of Abrasive Wear occurs in the

crushing of rock and/or various ores where particle sizes range from
several inches down to the order of 1/4 inch (0.6 cm). Gyratory
Introduction and Definitions crushers, cone crushers, jaw crushers, and horizontal and vertical
impact crushers generally experience wear from Gouging Abrasion.
Abrasive Wear rate decreases with increasing hardness (i.e., single
phase materials or matrix of two phase materials) and increasing
Fundamental Wear Mechanisms volume percent of a hard second phase (i.e., carbides in high chro-
Wear occurs whenever two materials make contact and experi- mium white iron). The reduction in Abrasive Wear rate is limited
ence relative motion. Wear is here defined as the deterioration of only by the material's fracture toughness or the ability of the wear-
contacting areas through elastic and plastic displacements of surface resistant part to resist fracture. Generally speaking, the toughness of
and near surface material to the extent that detachment of the abrasion-resistant materials decreases as their wear resistance in-
plastically worked material occurs and produces wear debris. The creases.
operative mechanisms or methods of material detachment are con- Corrosive wear occurs when chemical or electrochemical corro-
ventionally described as Frictional Wear (adhesion or cohesion), sion assists Frictional, Abrasive, or Deformation Wear. In practical
Abrasive Wear, Corrosive Wear, and Deformation Wear. These ferrous materials, the corrosion product is nearly always an oxide,
terms are intended to describe the primary or most important mecha- thus alloying elements that impart oxidation resistance generally
nism of a given wear situation, although it is recognized that other reduce the rate of Corrosive Wear for a particular situation. Chro-
mechanisms are nearly always operative to some degree also. mium and nickel are alloying elements very effective in accomplish-
Frictional wear, often called scoring, galling, or seizing, occurs ing this. With increasing concentrations of these elements, corrosion
when two metallic surfaces with no lubrication or other material diminishes and eventually passivation, or the formation of a con-
between them make intimate contact and undergo relative motion. tinuous corrosion layer with structural integrity, is reached. Corro-
The nut of a bolted joint turning with respect to its washer, or an sive Wear can be recognized in various pieces of equipment which
unlubncated hinge on a door or gate, are but two examples of transfer slurries in coal and ore processing, for instance, and in
Frictional Wear. The asperities (high points) of each surface make grinding media used for size reduction. Combating Corrosive Wear
contact and, because of local pressure, bond or weld together even- requires considerable knowledge about the base material being
tually causing metal transfer when relative motion of the surfaces corroded and the environment within which it must operate.
continue. The repeated action of metal transfer leads to surface
Deformation wear is a mechanism in which the wear surface
deterioration and the formation of wear debris. The force to shear
undergoes enough deformation from repeated contacts that it suffers
welded asperities depends on the true contact area, which itself is a
minute fractures and expels a particle of wear debris from the
function of the force perpendicular to the surfaces in contact, and the
surface. Repeated contacts normal to a surface progressively work
yield stress of the softer metal. It has been shown experimentally
that Frictional Wear is directly proportional to the normal force and harden the surface layer until eventually failure occurs. The amount
magnitude of relative motion between surfaces, but inversely proof work hardening which occurs can be measured by micro-hard-
portional to hardness or yield strength of the softer metal. When the ness techniques and therefore the relative Deformation Wear can be
two metals in contact are identical, Frictional Wear is called adhe- assessed. Deformation Wear can be resisted by materials which have
sive wear. When the two metals in contact are dissimilar, Frictional both high hardness and high ductility. This wear mechanism is
Wear is called cohesive wear. present to some degree in all wear situations.
Regardless of mechanism, wear can occur under a variety of
Abrasive wear occurs when material is displaced from a surface
physical conditions. All wear can be described by either two body
by contact with harder constituents that are sliding or rolling under
wear or three body wear. Two body wear is a system comprised of
pressure with respect to the surface, and accounts for more metal
only two components in contact. It may be metal against metal,
loss than any of the other mechanisms. Agricultural equipment
involved in tillage, blades used on various types of earth moving abrasive against metal, or fluid against metal. Fluid against metal
equipment, and ball or rod mill liners used in the processing of ores implies liquid or gas which carries abrasive in its stream and is called
are examples of castings which experience Abrasive Wear. To mini- erosive wear. With the presence of fluid, it is possible to have
mize Abrasive Wear, phases and/or microstructures of the metal corrosion assist the metal removal, referred to as erosion-corrosion.
must have higher hardnesses than the compounds and minerals Three body wear is a system where an abrasive is "wearing away"
acting on them. Figure 1 compares vickers hardnesses (VPH) of two metals which are keeping it under pressure. Surface deforma-
phases and/or microstructures present in metal to the mohs hard- tion is occurring, followed by metal removal, but in three body wear
nesses of compounds and minerals normally associated with Abra- the abrasive itself generally fragments. The pressure to cause frag-
sive Wear. The correlation between vickers and mohs hardness was mentation depends on the properties of the abrasive, which will in
established from data in the literature (1,2,3»4,5)- Abrasive Wear of turn affect the observed wear rate. Three body wear describes
metal will be higher per unit of measure, for instance, if martensitic situations ranging from ball milling ore to railroad couplers operat-
steel is used for processing hematite or magnetite than if martensitic ing in a "dusty" environment. The difference between the two
steel were used in the processing of anthracite coal. Three funda- situations is in the properties and quantities of abrasive.
mental types of Abrasive Wear are recognized. In Low Stress Abra- Component replacement from wear includes situations ranging
sion, the abrasive particle is not fragmented during its interaction from material loss of less than 0.1% of the total material weight to
with a surface and leaves that surface with only minute "scratches". material loss of about 75% by weight. Thus, it is often economically
Polishing is a form of Low Stress Abrasion using very small abrasive advantageous to provide wear resistance only to that part of the
particles. When the abrasive is fragmented, one has High Stress component which will be worn away. In situations where loss of a
Grinding Abrasion with considerably more surface damage evident thin surface layer requires component replacement, induction or
both visually and in terms of wear rate. High Stress Grinding flame hardening can be used on a relatively inexpensive steel to
Abrasion is the operative mechanism in rod and ball milling of provide a hard wear-resistant surface. A properly surface hardened
limestone and various ores where particle size reduction [1/4 inch component cannot only be economical, but will reduce the risk of
(0.6 cm) down to 325 mesh] is the most important event in the catastrophic fracture due to the tough core supporting the harder
process. When severity of abrasion is so bad that large pieces of wear-resistant surface. Typical applications using this process are
surface are removed as evidenced by visual grooving, then Gouging pinned joints of cast crawler links and open gearing or sprockets.
Wear-Resistant Steels 19-3
Fig. 19-1 Suggested 10000

correlation between Vickers
and mohs hardness for
phases and microstructures
in ferrous abrasion-resistant
alloys and abrasive
compounds (1,2,3,4,5)
1000
GC
LU
CO
C/5
en
LU
a
<
X
in
cc
LU
CJ
100
4 5 6 10
MOHS HARDNESS NUMBER
of cast ferrous wear-resistant metals (1). Fracture toughness values,

Materials Used for Wear Kic, are given whenever available (6).
Resistance
Manganese Steels
All cast ferrous metals in practical use display "wear resistance"
The wear-resistant cast steel referred to as Hadfield manganese
to one degree or another. In most applications, wearing away of
steel has been in existence for over 100 years. Although 10 grades
metal is the primary reason for a component's replacement. The of austenitic manganese steel are identified in ASTM A128 and
numerous applications demand varying degrees of structural integ- listed in Table 19-2, a large portion of the total tonnage produced
rity, thus the ferrous metals specified necessarily encompass a wide today is very close to Hadfield's original composition. Its primary
range of conventional mechanical properties and consequently a reason for existence is the assurance it provides the user from
wide range of microstructures. unexpected fracture in demanding applications where downtime
Six types of cast ferrous wear-resistant materials are described cannot be tolerated (7).
below and are categorized in terms of their unique chemical, metal- Manganese steel is a low-strength, high-ductility material as de-
lurgical, and mechanical properties. Avoiding unexpected fracture is termined by the uniaxial tensile test before it is put into service.
paramount in wear-resistant applications. Thus, the metals to be Properly heat treated by austenitizing followed by water quenching,
discussed are listed in Table 19-1 in order of decreasing toughness the 12% Mn steel ASTM A128 grade A, consists of a metastable
as determined by experience in the mining industry, the largest user austenite phase having a face centered cubic lattice with strengthen-
Table 19-1 Toughness of Abrasion-Resistant Material

Hardness Fracture
Material Rank Composition BHN Rc toughness, A"t
Rubber 1 durometer unmeas.

Aust. steel 2 1.25C 12Mn 200 (18) 120 est.
ASTMA128 1.2C6Mn5CrlMo 325 35 35 est.
Pearlitic steel 3 0.63CCr-Mo 265 27 38
0.88CCr-Mo 345 37 31
Martensitic steel 4 0.34CSiCrMo 530 53 40
0.55CMnSiNi 610 58 32
0.55CMnSiNi 320 34 90
ASTM A532 (Alloy cast iron)
II-E HT 5 2.9C20Cr2MolCu 745 63 28
II-B HT 2.5C15Cr3Mo 710 62 24
As cast
II-E 2.7C27Cr 495 50 27
II-B 2.4C17Crl.6Mo 458 47 24
II-B 3.6C17Crl.6Mo 530 53 16
NiHard
I-A 6 3.2C2.2Cr3.9Ni 550 53 22
ID 3.4C8Cr6Ni 505 50 23
Pearlitic iron 7 2.8/3.5 C 370 40 <20
530 52 «20
Ceramic 8 >75 0.6-1.2
Table 19-2 Austenitic Manganese Steel Castings

Typprop-
Identification Chemistry HDN CVN(ft-lb)
Spec. Grade Mn Si Ni Cr Mo BHN Rm temp.
A 1.05-1.35 ll.Omin 1.00 max 0.07 max 160 114
Bl 0.90-1.05 11.5-14.0 1.00 max 0.07 max
B2 1.05-1.20 11.5-14.0 1.00 max 0.07 max
ASTM B3 1.12-1.28 11.5-14.0 1.00 max 0.07 max
A128 B4 1.20-1.35 11.5-14.0 1.00 max 0.07 max 190 31
C 1.05-1.35 11.5-14.0 1.00 max 1.5-2.5 0.07 max
D 0.70-1.30 11.5-14.0 1.00 max 3.0-4.0 0.07 max
El 0.70-1.30 11.5-14.0 1.00 max 0.9-1.2 0.07 max 185 74
E2 1.05-1.45 11.5-14.0 1.00 max 1.8-2.1 0.07 max
F 1.05-1.35 6.0-8.0 1.00 max 0.9-1.2 0.07 max 160 38
ing from interstitial carbon and substitutional manganese. A photo- their most efficient manner when external conditions cause exten-
micrograph of manganese steel properly heat treated is shown in sive work hardening of the wear component's surface. If cracking of
Figure 19-2a. Its 0.2% offset yield strength is typically 40 to 50 ksi the work hardened layer occurred, the crack would rapidly be
(276 MPa to 345 MPa) with a measured Brinell Hardness Number contained by the tougher unworked hardened core. Thus, in de-
(BHN) on the order of 240 (23 Re). Elongation typically varies from manding applications such as primary rock crushing (i.e., gyratory
40% down to 20% as original section size from which tensile crushers and jaw crushers), manganese steels have distinguished
specimens were taken increases. The high ductility results in man- themselves. Figure 19-2c shows two work hardening profiles from
ganese steel having the greatest toughness, over 100 ft-lb (136 J) manganese steel castings. The curve from the large apron liner used
CVN at ambient temperature, of any practical cast ferrous material in a primary rock crusher [rocks the order of 30 inches (76 cm) in
used in wear-resistant applications, and this is one of its two impor- diameter] shows hardening with depth from the working surface
tant assets. similar to that from a much smaller hammer used in secondary
The second feature of manganese steel which is of extreme impor- crushers where rock the order of 2.0 inches (5 cm) diameter is fed to
tance is its ability to work harden from an initial hardness of 240 the hammermill. In both examples, hardening from an initial value
BHN (23 Re) to well over 500 BHN (51 Rc). The face centered cubic of 270 BHN (28 Rc) up to greater than 500 BHN (51 Rc) occurred.
lattice has 12 equivalent slip systems and deformation, which is Manganese steels other than the unalloyed 12% grade exist and
equally probable on all systems, rapidly causes dislocation pile-ups find use in specialized applications. Chromium (grade C), nickel
and entanglement. Figure 2b illustrates slip on at least three different (grade D), and molybdenum (grades El and E2) are offered as
slip systems in several of the grains at the heavily work hardened attempts to increase wear life. There is considerable confusion over
surface of a manganese steel casting. As this process continues, the whether these alloying elements "improve" performance even
accompanying increase in hardness of the affected metal produces though they do improve initial yield strength. Like other steels,
increasing abrasion resistance. Thus, manganese steels perform in increases in initial yield strength generally cause a loss of toughness,
t •
>,./-•.
(a) (b)
which is not a desirable feature in manganese steels. A 7% manga- 60

nese steel (grade F) is also given in ASTM A128. This "Lean
Manganese Steel" was developed to have higher yield strengths o Curtain liner in horizontal
than the other grades and hence better abrasion resistance. This was shaft impact crusher
55
accomplished, but at the expense of toughness, so the "Lean Man- & A Secondary hammermill
ganese Steel" is used only in light to medium impact applications.
hammer
The "Lean Manganese Steel" work hardens by the same mechanism
described above as long as its Ms temperature is suppressed suffi- 50 -A
ciently well to prevent strain induced martensite formation. <9
Manganese steels use inexpensive raw materials and require no o
expensive consumables during manufacture. Thus, the economics tr 45
of using manganese steels is attractive whenever low strengths are z
acceptable and the application work hardens the wear surface to 500 Q
BHN(51 Re) or higher. I
40
Low Alloy Steels o
Low alloy steels are the least expensive cast steels to manufacture A A O
and account for the largest tonnage of steel castings produced. Their 35 O
A A
use as wear-resistant materials generally is limited to structural
castings where one or more surfaces are hardened by a separate
process. Low alloy cast steels fall within the ASTM A27 specifica- 30
tions as given in Table 19-3. The heat treatment can be either a 2 4
normalize and temper or a liquid quench and temper depending on Distance, mm
the specific application.
Normalized low alloy steels have a microstructure that is pre-
dominantly ferrite with up to 30% pearlite, and their strength is
derived primarily from refined grain size (finer grain size gives (c)
higher yield strength) with a small contribution from substantial
Fig. 19-2 Characteristics of manganese steel, (a) Properly heat
hardening. The photomicrograph of a typical low alloy steel casting treated and before use. (b) Slip lines near the surface of a work
is shown in Figure 19-3a. They generally have yield strengths of 40 hardened Mn-steel casting. Slip is evident on at least 3 slip
ksi (276 MPa) min, tensile strengths of 70 ksi (483 MPa) min, and systems in several of the grains.(c) Hardness profiles from
elongations up to 24%. Since ferrite is body centered cubic, slip does Mn-steel castings illustrating their ability to work harden. Distance
not proceed with the ease it does in a face center cubic lattice and is measured from work hardened surface.
(a) n^/tojr*' V* _ * • * *.- » . t M«KI.

(b) -itLJif^lSiS,!,
cleavage of the grains can occur. Consequently, the toughness of low

alloy steel castings is on the order of 30 ft-lb (41 J) CVN at room
temperature.
Low alloy steel castings used for wear-resistant applications usu-
ally are specified to have a treatment that leaves the wear surface
itself harder and with much more abrasion resistance than the
tougher core. Technically, surface treatments include diffusing an
element such as carbon or nitrogen into the surface (carburizing
and/or nitriding), depositing another composition onto the surface
(hardfacing), or locally heat treating the surface by flame or induc-
tion heating (differential hardening). Carburizing and/or nitriding is
used in closed cast steel gearing. This process results in a hard
Q
second phase at the surface on the order of 0.05 inch (0.12 cm) deep.
X Measured hardness in excess of 600 BHN (58 Rc) is typically
achieved after the quenching cycle. Hardfacing is popular for nor-
malized steel castings exposed directly to abrasive conditions.
Depositions by weld rod of material with alloy carbides leaves a
surface whose hardness is well in excess of 650 BHN (60 Rc) with
the carbides themselves having much higher measured hardnesses.
This method of treating plain carbon steel castings can be repeated
as long as the casting itself is not cracked or otherwise damaged.
Considerable data is available on hardfacing rods and methods of
application (8,9). Differential hardening is primarily performed on
low alloy steel castings to resist frictional wear. Castings specified
2 4 for this surface treatment are generally spheroidized or quenched
and tempered first. Both Induction Hardening and Flame Hardening
Distance, mm
are currently in use, but induction hardening is generally acknow-
ledged to be more controllable. Induction hardening produces wear-
resistant surfaces on the order of 0.1 inches (0.25 cm) deep as shown
(c) in Figure 19-3b, and flame hardening can extend to 0.15 inches
(0.38 cm) deep. Considerable information exists on both equipment
Fig. 19-3 Characteristics of low alloy steel castings used for wear
and methods used to accomplish induction hardening as well as
resistance, (a) Typical microstructure-quenched and tempered
medium carbon steel, (b) An induction hardened layer on a gear specifications which must be met (10,11)- Low alloy steel castings
tooth profile, (c) Hardness profile through the induction hardened with a hardened surface often result in the most economical solution
layer of (b) above to wear situations where the loss of up to 0.15 inches (0.38 cm) of
(a) (b)
Fig. 19-4 Microstructure of a) low carbon peariitic chrome moly steel showing well defined lamellae of ferrite and iron carbide and b) high
carbon peariitic chrome moly steel showing nearly unresolvable lamellae and hypereutectoid carbides
Table 19-3 Low Alloy Cast Steels

Type. prop.(b)
Identification Chemistry HDN CVN(ft-lb)
Spec. Grade C Mn Si Ni(a) Cr(a) Mo(a) S P BHN Rmtemp.
60-30 0.30 0.60 0.80 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.06 0.05 131-187 15-30
ASTM 65-35 0.30 0.70 0.80 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.06 0.05 131-187 15-30
A27(a) 70-36 0.35 0.70 0.80 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.06 0.05 131-187 15-30
70-40 0.25 1.20 0.80 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.06 0.05 131-187 15-30
(a) Typical spec, for low alloy carbon cast steel. Other spec, such as MIL-S-15083B, SAE J435 grades 0022,0025,0030 and some grades of ASTM A148 may apply
also. Total of Ni, Cr, Mo, and Cu cannot exceed 1.00. (b) CVN values depend on grain size in steel.
surface dictates component replacement. Figure 19-3c illustrates the carbides and extremely fine unresolvable pearlite resulting in a
hardness profile range on an induction hardened gear tooth. brinell hardness range of 352-401 (38-43 Rc). However, measured
values of fracture toughness decrease with increasing carbon con-
Peariitic Chrome Moly Steels tent (6). It is necessary to control the cooling of this class of
abrasion-resistant steels to produce the microstructure pearlite since
Low alloyed steels whose carbon content is at cr slightly greater high hardness, low toughness bainite, and martensite can form if
than the eutectoid composition on the IRON-CARBON Phase Dia- cooling is too rapid. The presence of lower transformation micro-
gram are generally referred to as peariitic chrome moly steels. structures is frequently the reason for premature failure of peariitic
Available data from numerous ferrous casting producers indicate chrome moly steel castings. No ASTM or other public specification
that at least three grades of peariitic chrome moly steels are common currently exists to describe cast peariitic steel.
and are listed in Table 19-4. Figure 19-4 shows microstructures of The peariitic microstructure consists of alternate lamellae of fer-
two of those grades. The low carbon grade has a carbon content rite and cementite, Fe3C. Under equilibrium conditions, the carbide
around 0.6% and, after austenitization and air cooling, shows a phase makes up only 11 % of the volume of the microstructure, but
completely peariitic microstructure with a Brinell hardness range of its effects are far reaching. Compared to low alloy steel, the presence
275-325 (29-35 Rc). The high carbon grade has a carbon content of 11 % Fe3C increases both yield and tensile strength to 90 and 150
around 0.8% and, after heat treatment, does show hypereutectoid ksi (620 and 1030 MPa), respectively, but does reduce tensile
•
• •
48
(c)
46 _ •
44 -
42 -
•
£ 40 — •
z~
o -
x 38 (b)
•
36 —
34 •
32
I I I I
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Dist. mm
(a)
Fig. 19-5 Characteristics of pearlitic chrome moly steel, (a) Hardness profile from cement mill grate illustrating work hardening potential of
pearlitic chrome moly steel, (b) Microstructure at low magnification (50x) showing progressive deformation as working surface of grate is
approached, (c) High magnification (1000x) of work hardened microstructure showing deformation so severe that prior microstructure (right
photo) is not recognizable.
Table 19-4 Pearlitic Chrome Moly Cast Steel

Typ.prop.
Identification Cbemistry(a) HDN CVN(ft-lb)
Spec. Grade C Mn Si Ni Cr Mo s P BHN Rm temp.
None LowC 0.55 0.60 0.30 0 2.00 0.30 0 0 275

0.65 0.90 0.70 0.20 2.50 0.40 0.03 0.03 325 7-10
None MedC 0.65 0.60 0.30 0 2.00 0.30 0 0 321
0.75 0.90 0.70 0.20 2.50 0.40 0.03 0.03 363 6-9
None HiC 0.75 0.60 0.30 0 2.00 0.30 0 0 350
0.85 0.90 0.70 0.20 2.50 0.40 0.03 0.03 400 5-8
(a) Typical published specification ranges--For production purposes ranges should be much tighter
elongation below 5%. As a consequence, conventionally measured given in Figure 19-5 along with photomicrographs showing the
toughness is relatively low as listed in Table 19-1. The carbide phase differing appearance of undeformed and deformed pearlite. Large
does improve abrasion resistance. It has been demonstrated that ductilities can indeed be observed in conventionally low ductility
Pearlite has an equivalent abrasion resistance to a martensitic steel steels such as pearlitic chrome moly steel when the imposed stress
that is several points higher in hardness (6,12). state produces large shear stresses without the formation of large
A feature of pearlitic chrome moly steel generally not reported is tensile stresses. When this occurs, the result is unexpectedly high
its surprising ability to work harden. Castings called division head work hardening. This work hardening ability combined with the
grates separate compartments in ball mills used for the finish grind- presence of carbides are the reasons pearlitic chrome moly steel has
ing of cement and, as a consequence, act as a containment wall for been successful in the cement and minerals processing industry. The
one end of the cascading ball charge. In a particular case, the cast pearlitic chrome moly steels contain only small additions of
repeated action of 3.5 inch (9 cm) diameter balls against the grates inexpensive alloying elements and do not require sophisticated heat
resulted in work hardening from the original 310 BHN (33 Rc) up to treatments. Thus, they often result in an economical solution to
approximately 480 BHN (50 Rc). The actual hardness traverse is many abrasive wear problems.
60
F i g . 19-6 Tempering curves for
two cast steels
55
0.3%C 6%Cr
50
GO 45
oo
Q 0.3%C
<c 40 0.5%Cr
0.5%Ni
0.2%Mo
35
30
25
0.30 0.50 070
(Thousands)
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE DEG.F
Table 19-5 Wear-Resistant Cast Steels and Their Normal Quenchants
Total Normal quenchant used(a)
Element range Water Oil Air
c 0.1-0.6% 0.4% max 0.6% max 0.3% max

Cr 12% max 3% max 3-12% max 12% max
Mn 0.3-1.5% Added as needed for hardenability
Ni 2% max Added as needed for hardenability
Mo l%max Added as needed for hardenability
(a) Quenchant used depends on size, shape, and hardness required in the finished casting.
Quenched and Tempered Steels depth to which hardening must occur. Table 19-5 categorizes in
general the composition ranges of carbon and chromium according
A useful combination of strength, toughness, and wear resistance to the type of quench used in their heat treatment. The physical size
is realized in quenched and tempered cast steels. This class of steels and shape of the casting heavily influence the quench medium also.
derives nearly all their abrasion resistance from the final hardness Manganese and molybdenum are added primarily as hardenability
achieved in the finished castings. The heat treatment used to produce agents in thicker sectioned castings, whereas nickel not only con-
the required properties is an austenitizing treatment, generally be- tributes to hardenability but also imparts toughness. The reader is
tween 1600 and 1900 °F (870 and 1040 °C), followed by a quench referred to the general literature on hardenability to determine the
in either water, oil, or forced air to produce martensite and/or bainite. quantities of alloying elements needed for various section sizes.
Finally, a tempering treatment anywhere between 350 and 1200 °F Thus, the exact cast steel composition should be tailored for its
(175 and 650 °C) is performed depending on the final hardness specific use to realize optimum cost and performance.
required for the given application. The versatility in producing The strengthening mechanisms of quenched and tempered steels
tempered martensite and some bainites having hardnesses ranging are fine particle size, both interstitial and substitutional solid solu-
from as high as 615 BHN (58 Re) to as low as 285 BHN (30 Re) is tion, dislocation density, and precipitation hardening. In a steel
the greatest asset of quenched and tempered cast steels. quenched to martensite and not tempered, crystallographic slip in
The literature describes numerous compositions of cast steels the highly strained body centered tetragonal lattice is very difficult.
used for wear-resistant applications. The variety of compositions Toughness is low but abrasion resistance is at its maximum. Only
exist because of complexity of casting shape and its susceptibility to after tempering or the precipitation of carbides from the lattice does
cracking during quenching, the thickness of the casting, and the measurable slip or lattice plastic deformation occur. Progressively
rt I^
35%
•
1 1 1 < 1
tt
-1
^ >.
•v. >
*.
t / ^30%
• >
* •«.
*>.
^
s.
^
•^. 's.
?s% s "^
"«^ -^
^ "V
^
- AUST.+M3C
*•»
A U S T . + M-7C1
%C
r AU5>1.
AUSI ,
FERRITE
- AL ST f +
M23C6
RATNUII »_ir
— 1 1—L J J J
0 E 10 15 20 25 30
%CR
Fig. 19-7 Isothermal section of the Fe-Cr-C ternary phase diagram at 1922 °F
Table 19-6 Composition of High Chromium White Irons

Material Specification Chemistry Hardness
type No. Grade C Mn Si Ni Cr Mo Other (1) BHN(2)
High chro- A532 I-A 2.8-3.6 2.0 max 0.08 max 3.3-5.0 1.4-4.0 1.0 max 550/650
mium white IB 2.4-3.0 2.0 max 0.08 max 3.3-5.0 1.4-4.0 1.0 max 550/650
irons per I-C 2.5-3.7 2.0 max 0.08 max 4.0 max 1.0-2.5 1.0 max 550/650
ASTM ID 2.5-3.6 2.0 max 2.0 max 4.5-7.0 7.0-11.0 1.5 max 550/650
n-A 2.0-3.3 2.0 max 1.5 max 2.5 max 11.0-14.0 3.0 max 550/650
n-B 2.0-3.3 2.0 max 1.5 max 2.5 max 14.0-18.0 3.0 max 550/650
n-D 2.0-3.3 2.0 max 1.0-2.2 18.0-23.0 3.0 max 550/650
ni-A 2.0-3.3 2.0 max 1.5 max 23.0-30.0 3.0 max 550/650
(1)-S <0.06;P<0.05,b-S<0.15;P<0.3,c-S<0.15;P<0.1,d-S<0.06;P<0.1;Cu< 1.2. (2) Hardness for A532 irons—As cast/heat treated

higher tempering temperatures lower hardness and increase tough- K ,c Fracture Toughness, M N / m "
ness. Figure 19-6 shows tempering curves for two different compo- 20 25 30
sitions of cast steels. Thus, composition does indeed allow one to
select mechanical properties for a given application while maintain-
ing an acceptable level of wear resistance.
Quenched and tempered steels compete with manganese steels for
use in severe applications. Indeed, quenched and tempered steels
have replaced manganese steels for concaves in some large gyratory
crushers. The successful use in replacing manganese steels has
depended on using a quenched and tempered steel whose hardness
is high enough to resist abrasion (i.e., 480 BHN (50 Rc)), and whose
toughness is high enough to resist unexpected fracture. Good steel-
making practice (i.e., arc furnace, O2 blowing, slag control, effective
deoxidation, or refining by AOD) is necessary in producing a
quenched and tempered cast steel for use in the wear-resistant
market.
High Chromium White Iron

The natural progression in cast ferrous wear-resistant materials
from the most conservative with respect to fracture (i.e., manganese
steel) to the most conservative with respect to abrasion resistance
necessitates the discussion of cast high chromium white irons. This
abrasion-resistant material contains iron and alloy carbides held
together by a matrix of martensite and austenite.
Table 19-6 taken from the ASTM A532 specification lists chem-
istry and hardnesses for eight classifications of abrasion-resistant
cast irons. The alloys of Class I, Type A, B, and C, are the Type I
NiHards which generally are used in the as-cast and stress relieved
condition. This alloy class produces iron carbides, Fe3C, with a
matrix of martensite, bainite, and austenite. The alloy of Class I,
Type D, is the Type 4 Ni-Hard and this alloy is used in either the
as-cast and stress relieved condition or supplied in the fully heat-
treated condition. The balance of the classes and types have the same
carbon range but primarily represent increasing chromium contents 1 I I L_
to as high as 30%. These alloys in their final heat-treated condition 20 25 30
produce measured hardnesses up to 750 BHN (66 Rc), and have K lc Fracture Toughness, ksi \Hn.
carbide contents ranging from 15 to 40%. Their microstructure
consists of alloy carbides, M7C3, with a matrix of martensite and Fig. 19-8 Fracture toughness versus hardness of various high
austenite. chromium irons (6). Consult original reference for identification of
coded points.
The high chromium white irons also provide corrosion resistance
which is dependent upon chromium content of the matrix. Figure
19-7 shows the iron rich corner of the Fe-Cr-C ternary phase dia-
gram at a typical heat treat temperature and illustrates the range of
matrix chromium available. In most high chromium white iron Pearlitic Irons
applications, abrasion is the dominant wear mechanism. However, One of the earliest attempts at producing abrasion-resistant irons
when strongly acidic slurries must be handled, for example, corro- was a low chromium, high carbon white iron which had 35-40%
sion wear can be significant and the alloy composition providing the eutectic iron carbides with a matrix of pearlite. By properly choos-
most corrosion-resistant matrix is advantageous. The relative impor-
ing the total carbon content and cooling rate, the intended final
tance of abrasive wear and corrosive wear has been discussed by
structure can be obtained in the as-cast condition. This, of course,
Dodd, et al. (13).
provides an economical solution for some abrasive wear problems,
The high chromium white irons are the most abrasion resistant of
but such a material is inherently brittle. Technically, the ASTM
the ferrous materials used, but they are low enough in fracture
A532, Class I, Type C, composition range with no nickel and 1%
toughness to be considered brittle. Available fracture toughness data
chromium can be used to describe pearlitic irons. The carbides in
(6) show several trends which are illustrated in Figure 8. The usual
pearlitic iron are Fe3C and have a vickers hardness considerably
trend of decreasing fracture toughness with increasing hardness is
lower than the M7C3 alloyed carbides of high chromium white irons.
present. For a given hardness level, there is a trend of increasing
fracture toughness with increasing total chromium content up to This reduced abrasion resistance compounded with their low tough-
20% chromium. This reinforces the popularity of the high Cr irons ness have nearly eliminated pearlitic irons from use except in rela-
as being safer than lower chromium abrasion-resistant iron. Again tively small grinding media.
referring to the Fe-Cr-C phase diagram, it can be seen that higher
chromium irons generally have the lowest matrix carbon content of
all the heat-treated grades in practical use today. The largest use of Screening Tests for Wear
these abrasion-resistant irons is in the processing of various kinds of Resistance
raw material used in the cement and mining industry. Generally,
high chromium white irons are used in chute liners, rod and ball mill Wear resistance is not a unique property of any given metal or
liners to resist abrasive wear, and in grinding balls to resist both material because the properties of the metal or material causing
abrasive and corrosive wear. "wear" are equally important. Wear resistance then is a property of
Fig. 19-9 Illustration of the

jaw crusher test apparatus
PROTECTIVE (15)
PLATE
END OF
ADJUSTING
WEDGE SCREW
WEAR INSERT
IN TOGGLE PLATE
BEARING WEDGE
1/8-INCH THICK
GAUGE PLATE
*2
(T)STATIONARY JAW PLATE ( i ) TOGGLE PLATE WITH ADJUSTABLE

^ LENGTH
0 FRAME
( J ) TOGGLE PLATE BEARING WEDGE
@CHEEK PLATE
( 7 ) MOVABLE JAW PLATE @ ADJUSTING WEDGE

@ PITMAN © ADJUSTING HANDWHEEL
(£) PITMAN KEY WEDGE @ FLYWHEELS (TWO)
QECCENTRIC SHAFT
the total system involved whether it be two body or three body wear 3. Pin test
When laboratory wear testing is considered, it must simulate actual
4. Rubber wheel test
wear conditions and, in particular, it must simulate the primary wear
mechanism that is operative if correlation with actual service is to
Each test is described in terms of its geometrical configuration and the
be expected. Following these guidelines, literally hundreds of differ-
primary wear mechanism which it evaluates.
ent wear test apparatus have been described in the literature (14) A
large number of wear tests reported simulate frictional wear under
Gouging Abrasion Test (15)
both lubncated and unlubricated conditions (refer to studies under
the general subject of tribology) and, because of their applications This test uses a modified small jaw crusher shown schematically
apply more to wrought and forged materials than to castings Addi- rn Figure 19-9 as the primary wear testing equipment. This three
tionally, frictional wear, while no less important, does not account body test simulates the primary wear mechanisms of gouging abra-
for as large a volume loss of material as abrasion and deformation sion wear and deformation wear. The stationary plate (No 1 in
wear. A similar claim can be made about corrosion wear. Thus, only Figure 19-9) is made of the material to be tested and the moveable
those laboratory screening tests evaluating abrasion wear and to a plate is made of a reference material. The moveable plate opens and
lesser extent deformation wear are described below. closes according to the motion of an eccentric shaft (No. 7 in Figure
Four laboratory tests were chosen for description that have spe- 19-9). The opening and closing of the moveable plate crushes
cific written procedures, and where considerable data exist correlat- material between it and the stationary plate until it is small enough
ing the tests to each other and to full scale applications. The screen- to pass through the opening at the bottom of the plates. One ton (908
ing tests are: kg) of rock 1.5 to 2.0 in. (3.8 to 5.1 cm) is crushed in four 500 lb
(227 kg) batches. Both the stationary test plate and the moveable
1. Gouging abrasion test reference plate are cleaned and weighed to the nearest 0.1 gm before
2. Wet sand abrasion factor test the test is started and after the fourth batch of rock is crushed.
Between batches the jaws are reset to have a width at the bottom of
I.4 1.4
• STAINLESS, ALLOY STEELS
• Mn STEELS
(Stainless Steel) • HIGH Cr WHITE IRONS
\2 AUSTEN ITE
FERRITE
(Alloy Steels)
(High Cr Irons)
AUST.+CARB.
MARTENSITE
MART.+CARB.
0 1 %C 2 3 300 500SURFACEBHN 700 900

Fig. 19-10 Effect of carbon content, micrastructure, and hardness on gouging wear ratio (15)
0.125 ± 0.010 in. (0.32 ± 0.03 cm). One test consists of duplicate in a circular trough containing a sand slurry. One specimen is the test
runs. The results are reported as wear ratio, the ratio of weight loss material and the other is 1020 reference steel. Normal test parame-
of the test plate to weight loss of the reference plate. Results from ters are 54 psi (0.4 n-m/m ) stress on the wearing face, linear
the duplicate tests are averaged. velocity of 119 ft/min (0.6 m/sec), and a slurry composition of 40%
Numerous ferrous metals were evaluated after the gouging abra- sand (grain fineness of 50) 60% water (by weight). An initial
sion test procedure had been established. Results are shown in two break-in period of 60 minutes is used to conform the wear surface
ways: the effect of micrastructure on gouging abrasion resistance, of the specimen to the copper track. Both the specimen and the AISI
and the effect of hardness on gouging abrasion resistance. Figure 1020 steel reference are removed, carefully weighed, then rein-
19-10a illustrates that microstructural changes which accompany stalled and the test run for another 60 minutes. The weight loss of
increasing carbon content generally lower the wear ratio or produce the test piece divided by the weight loss of the reference piece gives
less wear. The band describing the data is further delineated by the wet sand abrasion factor (WSAF). Lower values are synony-
matrix microstructures of ferrite and austenite describing the upper mous with greater wear resistance of the test material. Table 19-7
boundary of the curve, and matrix microstructures of martensite (17) shows results of tests run on several steels and irons normally
describing the lower boundary of the curve. Figure 19-10b illus- used in the mining industry where abrasion resistance is given
trates the effect of matrix hardness on wear ratio. There appears to considerable attention. There is a general trend of decreasing WSAF
be little, if any, correlation of wear ratio and original or bulk with increasing hardness, but other factors such as work hardening,
hardness, but obvious correlation exists between wear ratio and carbide content, and microstructure must be used to explain the
work-hardened hardness. This particular result is well accepted results in full. The credibility of this laboratory screening test for
today and supports previous supposition that the work-hardened ranking materials has been established (17). Full scale tests were run
in both a ball mill and a rod mill of materials No. 7 and No. 18 from
surface hardness rather than bulk hardness is the important property
Table 19-7. In both mill tests, the material having the lowest WSAF
for abrasive wear. The surface hardening referred to occurs over a
had the longest life.
very thin layer and must be measured by microhardness techniques.
The magnitude of work-hardening characterizes one aspect of the
wear mechanism referred to as deformation wear. Pin Test (18)
The equipment utilized in this test is illustrated in Figure 19-12. It
Wet Sand Abrasion Factor Test (16) is a dry two body test where the wear mechanism is high stress
Although variations of this test have existed since 1935, it is the grinding abrasion. A 0.25 inch diameter (6.35 mm diam) pin under
1961 article which states a detailed procedure for conducting the a 15 lb (6.8 kg) load is simultaneously rotated (20 rpm) about its axis
test. A schematic of the equipment required is shown in Figure and moved back and forth across a fresh abrasive paper without
19-11. This wet three body test simulates the primary wear mecha- overlapping a previous path. The test takes about seven minutes and
nism of high stress grinding abrasion. Two specimens diametrically the pin travels 504 in. (12.8 cm). After the test, weight loss of the
opposite each other are made to travel along a copper track situated specimen is determined and the test is repeated twice using fresh
abrasive cloth. Results of the three tests are averaged, then reported Many metallic materials have been evaluated by this testing
as the weight loss for a given material. The test apparatus utilizes the method (6). Results are shown in Figure 19-13 for four cast ferrous
frame of a vertical milling machine with the spindle or head holding metals tested with 180 mesh AI2O3 abrasive. The test is sensitive
the test specimen and associated equipment. The abrasive cloth is enough to adequately separate abrasion-resistant materials on the
held to the bed of the vertical milling machine by adhesive. basis of microstructure as well as hardness.
Rubber Wheel Test

Two standards exist for running this low stress abrasion test. It can
be run using either dry sand or a sand-water slurry as the abrasive.
In both tests, a rubber rimmed metal wheel rotates at a predeter-
mined speed and has the test material coupon forced against it by a
known load. After a specified length of time or number of revolu-
tions of the wheel, the volume loss of the specimen is determined
and used as a relative measure of wear resistance.
The ASTM standard G65 describes the procedure for "Conduct-
ing Dry Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test." A controlled amount of
sand (250/350 gm/min) is admitted to the specimen-rubber wheel
interface during the 30 minute test. The specimen is loaded or forced
against the rotating (200 rpm) rubber wheel with a normal force of
30 lb (13.6 kg). Weight loss of the specimen is determined first, then
the final results are converted to volume loss in cubic millimeters.
Another test similar in nature that has been published is the "Wet
Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test-SAE Recommended Practice."
Figure 19-14 shows the equipment used in this test. A rubber wheel
of approximately 50 durometer hardness rubs against a test speci-
men for 1000 revolutions in a specified composition of sand slurry.
The test is repeated for two additional hardness levels of rubber
wheels (approximately 60 and 70 durometer). The volume loss for
each rubber wheel hardness is calculated and used to determine,
through mathematical formulas, the volume loss for a rubber wheel
hardness of exactly 60 durometer. When the density of the material
tested is constant, results can be presented as weight loss in grams.
Figure 19-15 shows typical results from this low stress abrasion test
using weight loss as the dependent variable. Results show a decreas-
ing weight loss with increasing hardness as one might expect. As
long as the steel matrix is uniform and of a single constituent, results
tend to follow a given curve. However, when a carbide phase is
introduced as either pearlite or a hypereutectoid composition, the
resistance to low stress abrasion is obviously enhanced by the
presence of the harder phase.
Each of the laboratory screening tests for wear resistance de-
scribed above produces wear by one of the recognized abrasive wear
mechanisms. The primary differences between the tests are the
Fig. 19-11 Schematic diagram of wet sand abrasion factor test normal force which the abrasive applies to the metal and the size of
apparatus (17) the abrasive particles themselves. It is not surprising, therefore, that
Table 19-7 Results of Wet Sand Abrasion Factor Test on Mill Liner Alloys (17)
A532 Composit on, % Results
Type of alloy Grade c Mn Si Cr Mo Ni H.T. HRc WSAF
2 Pearlitic Cr-Mo 0.83 0.90 0.25 2.33 0.42 AHT 36 0.64

3 Pearlitic Cr-Mo 0.90 1.00 0.55 2.25 0.37 AHT 36 0.62
5 Ni-Hard IA 3.18 0.58 0.51 2.32 3.93 SR 59 0.56
6 Ni-Hard IA 3.02 0.90 0.43 3.68 4.02 SR 49 0.69
7 Ni-Hard IA 3.00 0.73 0.77 2.25 4.70 SR 56 0.67
8 HC-250 IIIA 2.91 1.12 0.62 25.70 0.49 0.25 ASCAST 50 0.80
9 HC-250 mA 2.91 1.12 0.62 25.70 0.49 0.25 AH2 62 0.64
10 15-3 IIB 3.17 0.94 0.90 16.00 3.17 ASCAST 46 0.87
11 15-3 IIB 3.17 0.94 0.90 16.00 3.17 AHSR 60 0.77
12 Paraboloy IID 2.95 0.73 0.73 19.10 1.14 0.77 AH2 61 0.42
13 Paraboloy IID 3.15 0.76 0.65 19.70 1.25 0.71 AH2 63 0.49
18 Paraboloy IID 2.89 0.72 0.50 17.90 1.14 0.80 AH2 62 0.46
Heat treatment codes: AH = Air hardened, T = Tempered, SR = Stressrelieved,Z = Quenchedfrom2000 °F

Fig. 19-12 Schematic illustration of pin test

equipment. Reference 18 describes the DIRECTIONS OF
equipment in detail. TABLE AND
L - Specimen SPECIMEN MOVEMENT
K - Spindle to ;:
hold specimen
U - Abrasive carrying
platform
•
/
D N
^TT"
data from one test may qualitatively correlate with data from a collected and have allowed us to proceed with development work
different test. The article of Diesburg and Borik (6), which is an with a degree of assurance that would have been otherwise impos-
excellent collection and analysis of data from various laboratory sible". The material and application was low alloy cast steel used for
wear tests, shows for instance a straight line correlation between bucket teeth and tooth point adapters on large dragline and mining
gouging wear ratio and weight loss in the pin test for several steels. shovel buckets. Figure 19-16 shows their test data using as the
Two data points for high chromium white iron exist, and they too reference material the cast steel listed as "standard" in the figure.
follow the correlation. Although, for screening purposes, it may be The deep visual grooves caused by large pieces of abrasive material
possible to reduce the number of pieces of laboratory test equipment flowing over or around the various front end castings on dragline
required in a given facility, it is necessary that the test chosen need and shovel buckets can be characterized by gouging wear even
duplicate as closely as possible all aspects of the wear mechanisms though it is a two body wear situation whereas the gouging abrasion
present in the full scale or actual situation. test is three body wear.
Avery has demonstrated a correlation between the Wet Sand
Abrasion Factor Test and wear of 5 inch grinding balls used in a 9
Correlation of Screening Tests foot diameter ball mill processing highly siliceous molybdenum ore
with Full Scale Applications (20). Different ferrous materials were tested and the effects of
microstructure can be readily noted in Figure 19-17. In this situ-
Laboratory screening tests for wear resistance must show good ation, both the laboratory test and the full scale application produce
correlation with full scale applications if confidence is to be experi- three body wear with the mechanism primarily high stress grinding
enced in their usage. Fortunately, this can be realized after an abrasion. The non-linear upward sweeping curve probably occurs
objective evaluation is made and the primary wear mechanism of the from more deformation wear in the 5 inch grinding balls compared
application is matched to a laboratory test which produces that wear to the wet sand abrasion factor test specimens. Avery has also
mechanism. Below is listed each of the screening tests described reported on a qualitative correlation between the wet sand abrasion
previously and at least one example where that screening test factor test and the ball and rod mill liner wear (17).
showed good correlation to a full scale application. Albright and Dunn have shown a good correlation between
Venne (19) states that the Gouging Abrasion Test results collected weight loss in the Pin Test and weight loss of ball mill liners (21).
in the laboratory "have been reasonably consistent with field data The ball mill liners were used in a 9.5 foot diameter by 8 foot long
0.15
0.14 ^
D \ WROUGHT STEELS
OS. n
0.11 \ D.
\
E 0.1
0 PEARLITIC^
m STEEL
• CAST STEEL
§ 0.08 0
jjj 0.07
Heat Treated
I 0.06 HIGH Cr *
WHITE A—
* 0.05 IRON
XX
Stress Relieved
0.04
0.02
0.01
J I I I I I 1 I I I L
0
20 30 40 50 60 70
HON, Re
(a)
Fig. 19-13 Pin test results for various ferrous abrasion-resistant
materials tested with 180 mesh alumina (6)
•\
0.8 \
\ V
V
\«
\
\ *"•. • 0.2-0.4% CARBON
« \ LOW ALLOY STEEL
5 0.6
\
<o
(0
0
^-«
• \ « v\ (b)
PEARUTE • \ Fig. 19-14 The rubber wheel test apparatus (SAE test method
§0.4 0.6-0.9% CARBON \ • model)
u \
\
HYPEREUTECTOID
t \\ mill with 3 inch diameter forged steel grinding balls. Wear was
#
0.9-1.0% CARBON A \ « described in terms of lb/h loss as determined from initial weight
02 minus final weight divided by total operating hours. Samples for the
pin test were extracted from the worn liners after they had been
removed from the mill. The correlations are shown in Figure 19-18
for both cast steels and for high chromium white irons that were
tested. The pin test is a two body test whereas the ball mill liners
i i i i i i
operated under the three body configuration with each producing the
25 35 HON. Re « 55 mechanism of high stress grinding abrasion.
Stolk has demonstrated a linear correlation between the three
Fig. 19-15 Rubber wheel test results (SAE test method) (6) body Rubber Wheel Test and a two body soil tilling test (22). Tilling
1.10-
180
1.00- STANDARD 1 White Cast Iron-
170
0.90-
\ Cr-Ni White Cast Iron
~ 160
0.80- o
STRUCTURAL ALLOYS V
o
150
0.70-
\ z Steel With Coarse Pearlite
UJ >.
\ • a ">
WEAR 0.60- m "
RATE
>5140
0.50-
ADAPTER ALLOYS \
§1 Austenitic Mn-Steels
5 130
0.40-
\
s
o 120
a:
0.30- NORMAL TOOTH ALLOY J, o Steel With
NEW TOOTH ALLOY • * o 110 Fine Pearlite
<
0.20-
" \ ^ 0.85C-0.30MO
2 S 100
Martensitic Steel
0.10- 25
0. ^ 90
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Martensitic Ni-Cr White Cast Iron
BRINELL HARDNESS
80 J_ -L
0 . 3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fig. 19-16 Jaw crusher test results for various cast martensitic
alloy steel used in buckets (19) •« Less Wear More Wear *•
ABRASION FACTOR (AMERICAN BRAKE SHOE CO.)
Fig. 19-17 Comparison of ball mill test results with result from the
wet sand abrasion factor test (20)
of soil produces a low stress abrasive wear (crushing of any abrasive

in the soil is not required), so the rubber wheel test should indeed
duplicate the wear mechanism that is operative. Figure 19-19 shows
the correlation that was determined for three different ferrous mate-
rials. 1 1 1 1 1 1
100 -
These examples demonstrate that it is possible to select a labora-
tory wear test that will correctly rank candidate materials being en o 2-o"
considered for an abrasive wear application, and that it is more £ 0 -^
important to duplicate the wear mechanism than it is to simulate the - 80 0o o^-cP o -
CO ° -.^S o
geometrical configuration of the process. CO
o ---oo
_1 60 -
h-
Practical Application of Wear- X
e>
Resistant Principles j£ 40 - -
The complicated nature of the wear process illustrates that both h- •

co
metal and abrasive variables affect wear rate and that quantitative £ 20 -
information from one wear system generally cannot be extrapolated ^ ^ • ^ o-STEELS
to a different wear system. Consequently, it is often that only a z ^•"* * "-IRONS
qualitative understanding of the wear mechanism is realized. Fur- *• O i i i i i i
thermore, in the crushing and grinding of ore or rock, it is a fact that 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
absolute wear rates may change significantly due to location in the MILL WEIGHT LOSS, LBS/H
pit or quarry from which the ore or rock came. Thus, it is popular
when running wear tests on ferrous materials to describe results in Fig. 19-18 Relationship between weight losses of liners in
relative terms using a standard ferrous material as the reference. laboratory and service conditions (21)
Dunn (23) has summarized results of full scale tests conducted on
different pieces of mining equipment in terms of relative wear rates.
Table 19-8 lists six comparisons which show how the variables of
impact velocity, geometry, hardness, and material composition can
Impact velocity was investigated for the same material, austenitic
affect wear rate. Each comparison is unique and the relative wear
manganese steel, in two different crushing machines: the gyratory
rates from one comparison cannot be used with the relative wear crusher and a conventional hammermill. The individual parts tested
rates from another comparison. were the high wear components: the concaves of the gyratory
120
OMAKE A STEEL (SAE 1 0 9 0 ) Fig. 19-19 Correlation of
A MAKE B STEEL (SAE 1085) results from the rubber wheel
110 OMAKE C STEEL (SAE 1 0 9 0 ) abrasion test and the soil-tilling
tests (22)
A 1% Cr CAST I RON
z • 12% Cr- 1% Mo WHITE CAST IRON
o 100
<
OH I
03 1 90
<, i
i
UJ
UJ
X QJ 80
$ <
Of X
UJ or 70
CO
03 UJ
z> UJ 60
z o
o cc
UJ Q 50
-IU">
< in
40
oc <
<
30 -
UJ
=
UJ 20
>
10
X J_ JL JL ± J* I
TO 20 30 4 0 ~ 50 60 76 56" 56" iM" 116 tto
RELATIVE WEAR VALUE IN SOIL TILLING TESTS, R
crusher and hammers in the hammermill. Figure 19-20 shows sche- reducing slippage, the taller liners carry charge materials to higher
matic illustrations of the mining equipment and their high wear levels in the mill before cascading or cataracting begins and, hence,
components used in the full scale tests. The gyratory concaves act to reduce the normal force acting on the abrasive ore as it slides
encounter large rock, and loads are imposed on it very slowly as the off the lifter. The wear mechanism's operative are gouging abrasion
mantle turns on its eccentric center. This is a three body wear system. and high stress grinding abrasion.
Hammers in a hammermill, however, travel many hundreds of The third and fourth comparisons in Table 19-8 demonstrate the
revolutions per minute, and the outermost hammer tip strikes rock effect of hardness on wear rate. In one case, a relatively small ball
at least two orders of magnitude faster. This is a two body wear mill (2.9 meter or 9.5 ft diameter) was used to determine the wear
system. Relative wear rates show that, in this particular comparison, rate of balls of the same composition but at two hardness levels. In
the hammers in the hammermill wore at a rate 2.59 times faster than another case, a semi-autogeneous mill was used to compare the wear
the gyratory concaves. Wear surfaces show that gouging abrasion rate of balls of the same composition and at the same two hardness
as defined earlier is the primary wear mechanism with high stress levels used in the smaller ball mill. In both cases, the softer ball wore
grinding abrasion being important also. Although other differences 1.39 times faster than the harder ball. In both comparisons, the wear
in the two machines and applications surely affect wear rate, none mechanism is primarily high stress grinding abrasion with gouging
show as much variation as impact velocity. abrasion certainly present also. Figure 19-13, the Pin Test results,
The second comparison in Table 19-8 demonstrates how liner showed the trend for cast steels of decreasing wear rate with increas-
geometry can affect wear rate. The test was conducted in a semi- ing hardness, and that is die observation from this full scale test also.
autogeneous mill (a large diameter mill containing a small amount The relative comparisons being the same for both hardness levels do
of large balls) grinding siliceous ore. The liner material was a not imply that absolute wear rates are the same. In fact, the fifth
conventional pearlitic chromium molybdenum steel. In one case, the comparison in Table 19-8 shows that the wear rate of the 5 inch balls
liner thickness increased from a 3 inch base to 8 inches along a at 665 BHN (61 Rc) was 3.96 times greater when they were tested
straight incline, and was situated on the mill shell parallel to the in a 28 ft diameter semi-autogeneous mill with a 5 inch ball charge
rotational axial of the mill with the 8 inch dimension in the radial than when tested in a 9.5 ft diameter mill with a 3 inch ball charge.
direction. This liner geometry wore at a rate 4.14 times as fast as a The final comparison of Table 19-8 is one of material composi-
liner whose thickness increased from a 3 inch base to 13 inches tion. In this comparison two very different materials, a manganese
along a much steeper incline. The taller liner acted to reduce slip- steel and a high chromium white iron, were tested as concaves in a
page between the highly abrasive ore and the mill shell liners, which gyratory crusher. The manganese steel is austenitic and noted for its
is paramount to reducing wear in any type of milling operation. In ability to work harden on its surface into the 550 BHN (54 Rc) range.
Hammers
Concaves
(a)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 19-20 Four pieces of crushing and grinding equipment used in full scale wear tests, (a) Gyratory crusher, (b) Hammer mill, (c) 28 ft (8.5
m) diameter semi-autogeneous mill using 5 in. diameter balls, (d) conventional 9.5 ft (2.9 m) ball mill using maximum of 3 in. diameter balls

However, the high chromium white iron is usually heat treated to the replace less wear-resistant materials with more wear-resistant mate-
550 BHN (54 Rc) range initially and additionally has alloy carbides, rials. One material that was probably overspecified for various
M7C3, held together by a martensitic matrix as well as being noted mining and rock crushing applications was manganese steel. Thus,
for its abrasion resistance. Testing the two very different materials there is today a continuing effort to replace manganese steels in
showed that the conventional manganese steel wore at the rate of some applications with higher hardness martensitic steels in hopes
2.60 times as fast as the high chromium white iron. Gouging abra- of increasing wear life and lowering costs. In fact, this has been
sion wear makes up a significant part of the total wear mechanism reported for some applications of concaves in gyratory crushers
on gyratory concaves, and in the absence of breakage the high (24). In earlier sections of this chapter, it was demonstrated how
chromium white iron results in an improvement both technically and manganese steels work harden on their wear surface. Figure 19-21
economically. The results of this full scale test are qualitatively shows the work hardening profile for similar shaped hammers used
similar to results of the gouging abrasion test, Figure 19-10. in two different rock crushing applications. One hammer work
There is understandable emphasis on reducing costs not only in hardened up to 578 BHN (56 Rc) on its surface and one work
the metal casting industry but in all industries including mining. One hardened only up to 400 BHN (43 Rc) on its surface. It is concluded
avenue chosen to do this, when overall economics permitted, was to that the lower surface hardness hammer was being used in a more
highly abrasive situation than the higher surface hardness hammer.
In this situation, it is possible to improve the wear resistance of the
manganese steel hammer work hardening to 400 BHN (43 Rc) by
manufacturing it in a quenched and tempered martensitic steel
whose final hardness is on the order of 500 BHN (51 Rc). The higher
60 hardness will, of course, provide more abrasion resistance. At this
hardness level, fracture either at the rotor (attachment point) or the
impact point (head) can be avoided by proper selection of alloying
elements, steelmaking practice, and heat treat parameters. The ham-
60 LB. HAMMER mer work hardening up to 578 BHN (56 Rc) on its surface cannot be
improved by the same solution. Generally, quenched and tempered
34 LB. HAMMER
cast steel are not produced at final hardness levels above 550 BHN
(54 Rc) due to their low fracture toughness and subsequent difficul-
ties in processing through the foundry. Thus, there does exist situ-
ations where manganese steels excel. It is generally accepted prac-
tice to determine the work hardening level of manganese steel by
microhardness traverses from the working surface inward before
deciding if alternate materials could decrease the wear rate. Unless
cast martensitic steels can be produced economically to hardness
levels higher than the maximum measured on the work hardened
surface of the used manganese steel casting, there is no advantage
in supplying an alternate cast steel.
30 REFERENCES
1. W. Fairhurst and K. Rohrig, "Abrasion Resistant High Chromium
White Cast Irons" Foundry Trade Journal, May 30, 1974, p
25 685-698
DISTANCE (mm) 2. ASM Metals Handbook, 9th ed., Vol 1,1978, p 75-89
3. IBID, Vol 3,1980, p 448-465
Fig. 19-21 Work hardening profiles for two manganese steel 4. IBID, Vol 7,1984, p 823-836
hammers used in hammermills
Table 19-8 Summary of Full Scale Wear Tests

Equipment Materials) Hardness Impact Relative
Variable used—part tested in test BHN vel. m/sec wear rate
Impact Gyratory crusher-concaves 1.2C12MnlMo 340 0.357 1.00

velocity Hammermill-hammer 1.2C12MnlMo 340 63.8 2.59
Liner 8.5m SAG mill-liner 3 to 13 in. lifter 0.6CCrMo-Pearl. 325 9.14 1.00
geometry 8.5m SAG mill-liner 3 to 8 in. lifter 0.6CCrMo-Pearl. 325 9.14 4.14
Hardness 2.9m ball mill-balls 0.8CCrMo-Mart. 665 5.33 1.00
0.8CCrMo-Mart. 335 5.33 1.39
Hardness 8.5m SAG mill-balls 0.8CCrMo-Mart. 665 9.14 1.00
0.8C CrMo-Mart. 335 9.14 1.39
Impact 2.9m ball mill-balls 0.8C CrMo-Mart. 665 5.33 1.00
velocity 8.5m SAG mill-balls 0.8C CrMo-Mart. 665 9.14 3.96
Material Gyratory crusher-concave 2.7C20Cr2MolCu 550 0.357 1.00
1.2C 12Mn IMo 340 0.357 2.60

Metals, Vol 6,1971, p 576-605

5. Physics and Chemistry Handbook, 53rd ed., Chemical Rubber 16. H.S. Avery, Wear, Vol 4,1961, p 427
Company, 1972, p F l 8 17. H.S. Avery, "Work Hardening in Relation to Abrasion Resistance,"
6. D.E. Diesburg and F. Borik, "Optimizing Abrasion Resistance and Symposium: Materials for the Mining Industry, Climax Molybde-
Toughness in Steels and Irons for the Mining Industry," Sympo- num Company, 1974, p 43-77
sium: Materials for the Mining Industry, Climax Molybdenum 18. J. Muscara and M.J. Sinnott, "Construction and Evaluation of a
Company, 1974, p 15-42 Versatile Abrasive Wear Testing Apparatus," Metals Eng. Quar-
7. J. Tasler, "Austenitic Manganese Steel—Fact and Fallacy," Inter- terly, Vol 12,1972, p 21-32
mountain Materials Symposium, Climax Molybdenum Company, 19. L.J. Venne, "Improved Steel Castings for Earth Moving," lnter-
1982, p 3-20 mountain Materials Symposium, Climax Molybdenum Company,
8. AWS Welding Handbook, 7th ed., Vol 2,1978, p 517-562 1982, p 99-104
9. ASM Metals Handbook, 9th ed., Vol 6,1983, p 769-793 20. H.S. Avery, Discussion to Article in Trans. AIME, Vol 176,1948, p
10. IBID, Vol 4,1981, p 451-483 490-520
11. American Gear Manufacturers Association Standard AGMA 240.01 21. D.L. Albright and D.J. Dunn, "Wear Behavior of Iron and Steel
12. ASM Metals Handbook, 9th ed., Vol 1,1978, p 613-623 Castings for the Mining Industry," J. of Metals, Vol 18, 1983, p
13. J. Dodd, D.J. Dunn, J.L. Huiatt, and T.E. Norman, "Relative Impor- 23-29
tance of Abrasion and Corrosion in Metal Loss in Ball Milling," 22. D. A. Stolk, "Field and Laboratory Abrasion Tests on Plowshares,"
Minerals and Metallurgical Processing, Nov 1985, p 212 Presented at Combined National Farm, Construction, and Industrial
14. R. Bayer, Ed., Selection and Use of Wear Testsfor Metals, STP615 Machinery and Powerplant Meeting in Milwaukee, WI, Sept 14,
ASTM, Philadelphia, 1976 1970
15. F. Borik and D.L. Sponseller, "Gouging Abrasion Test for Materials 23. D. Dunn, Private Communication
Used in Ore and Rock Crushing: Part I—Descriptions of the Test, 24. J.L. Parks and D.M. Kjos, 64th Annual Minnesota Section AIME
Part II—Effect of Metallurgical Variables on Gouging Wear," I. of Meeting, Jan 16,1991, Duluth

a
% ' •
A^l

Chapter
Corrosion-Resistant High Alloy Steels

Page
Definitions and Alloy Designation 20-2
Stainless Steel Grades 20-2

Martensitic Grades 20-2
Ferritic Grades 20-3
Precipitation-Hardening Grades 20-3
Duplex Grades 20-4
Austenite with Ferrite Grades 20-4
Ferrite in Cast Stainless Steels 20-4
Significance of Ferrite 20-5
Limits of Ferrite Control 20-6
Austenitic Grades 20-7
Room-Temperature Properties 20-7

As-Heat Treated Condition 20-7
Strength, Hardness and Heat Treatment 20-7
Fatigue 20-8
Aged Condition 20-8
Elevated-Temperature Properties 20-11

Tensile Strength 20-11
Creep 20-11
Toughness 20-12
Fatigue 20-12
Corrosion Resistance 20-13

Corrosion Behavior 20-14
Oxidation 20-14
Sulfidation 20-15
Cast Corrosion-Resistant Alloys — General Corrosion Resistance 20-16

Martensitic Alloys 20-16
Ferritic Alloys 20-16
Austenitic with Ferrite 20-16
Duplex Alloys 20-16
Fully Austenitic Alloys 20-16
Intergranular Corrosion: Austenitic and Duplex Alloys 20-17
Intergranular Corrosion: Ferritic and Martensitic Alloys 20-19
Localized Corrosion 20-19
Corrosion Fatigue 20-19
Stress Corrosion Cracking 20-20
References 20-20

identified with a letter which is part of the ACI grade designation.

Definitions and Alloy The initial letter of the grade designation, C or H, indicates whether
Designations the alloy is intended primarily for aqueous corrosion service (C) or
elevated temperature, i.e. heat-resistant, service (H). The second
letter of the ACI designation denotes the nominal chromium-nickel
Corrosion-resistant, high alloy cast steels constitute a category of type as shown in Figure 20-1. As the nickel content of the grade
special steels which has grown steadily in technological and com- increases, the letter in the ACI designation increases from A Qowest)
mercial importance during the past 50 years. The principal end-use to Z (highest). Numerals following the letters relate to the maximum
applications for these steels are as materials of construction for carbon content of the corrosion-resistant (C) alloys. If additional
chemical processing and power generating equipment involving alloying elements are included in the grade, they are denoted by the
corrosion service in aqueous or liquid-vapor environments at tem- addition of a letter to the ACI designation. Thus, CF8M is an alloy
peratures normally below 600 °F (315 °C). These alloys are also for corrosion-resistant service of the 19% Cr-9% Ni type with a
used for special services at temperatures up to 1200 °F (649 °C). maximum carbon content of 0.08% and which contains molybde-
Corrosion-resistant, high alloy cast steels are more commonly num.
referred to as cast stainless steels. An appropriate definition for these
steels is the familiar one based upon the discovery made about 1910
that a minimum of 12% chromium will impart corrosion and oxida-
tion resistance to steel. Thus the definition: stainless steels are
Stainless Steel Grades
ferrous alloys which contain a minimum of 12% chromium for
corrosion resistance. Most cast stainless steels, of course, are con- Martensitic Grades
siderably more complex compositionally than this simple definition
implies. Stainless steels typically contain one or more alloying The alloys included are CA15, CA40, CA15M, and CA6NM.
elements in addition to chromium, e.g. nickel, molybdenum, copper, Type CA15 contains the minimum amount of chromium necessary
columbium, and nitrogen, to produce a specific metallurgical struc- to make it essentially rustproof. A typical CA15 microstructure is
ture (microstructure), corrosion resistance, or mechanical properties shown in Figure 20-2. Commonly used in steam boiler feed systems
for particular service requirements (Table 20-1). and oil field applications, CA15 also has good resistance to atmos-
Cast stainless steels are more often specified on the basis of pheric corrosion as well as to many organic media in relatively mild
composition using the alloy designation system adopted by the service. Type CA40 is a higher carbon modification of CA15 that
Alloy Casting Institute (ACI). These ACI alloy designations, e.g., can be heat treated to higher strength and hardness levels. Type
CF8M, have been adopted by ASTM and are preferred for cast CA15M is a molybdenum-containing modification of CA15 that
alloys over the corresponding wrought steel designation of the provides improved elevated-temperature strength properties. Type
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). CA6NM is an Fe-Cr-Ni-Mo alloy of low carbon content. The pres-
The ranges of iron, chromium, and nickel for the cast alloy ence of nickel offsets the ferritizing effect of the low carbon so that
compositions most widely used are shown in Figure 20-1 and strength and hardness properties are comparable to CA15 and the
Table 20-11 Chemical Composition and Microstructure of Corrosion-Resistant High Alloy Cast Steels
Wrought
alloy Most common end-use Composition-% (m denotes maximum)
Alloy type(l) casting microstructure Cr Ni Mo Si Mn P S C Other
CA-15 410 Martensitic 11.5-14.0 1.00m 0.50m 1.50m 1.00m 0.04m 0.04m 0.15m
CA-15M Martensitic 11.5-14.0 1.00m 0.15-1.0 0.65m 1.00m 0.04m 0.04m 0.15m
CA-40 420 Martensitic 11.5-14.0 1.00m 0.50m 1.50m 1.00m 0.04m 0.04m 0.20-0.40
CA-6NM Martensitic 11.5-14.0 3.5-4.5 0.40-1.0 1.00m 1.00m 0.04m 0.03m 0.06m
CB-30 431,442 Ferritic 18.0-21.0 2.00m 1.50m 1.00m 0.04m 0.04m 0.30m
CC-50 446 Ferritic 26.0-30.0 4.00m 1.50m 1.00m 0.04m 0.04m 0.50m
CB-7Cu 17-4PH Martensite-age hardenable 15.5-17.0 3.6-4.6 1.50m 1.00m 0.04m 0.04m 0.07m 2.3-3.3 Cu
CD-4MCu Duplex 25.0-26.5 4.75-6 1.75-2.25 1.00m 1.00m 0.04m 0.04m 0.04m 2.75-3.25 Cu
A890-4A 2205 Duplex 21.0-23.5 4.5-6.5 2.5-3.5 1.00m 1.00m 0.04m 0.02m 0.03m 0.10-0.30 N
CE-30 Austenitic with Ferrite 26.0-30.0 8.0-11 2.00m 1.50m 0.04m . 0.04m 0.30m
CF-3 304L Austenitic with Ferrite 17.0-21.0 8.0-12 2.00m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.03m
CF-8 304 Austenitic with Ferrite 18.0-21.0 8.0-11.0 2.00m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.08m
CF-20 302 Austenitic with Ferrite 18.0-21.0 8.0-11.0 2.00m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.20m
CF-3M 316L Austenitic with Ferrite 18.0-21.0 9.0-13.0 2.0-3.0 2.00m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.20m
CF3MNN 316LN Austenitic with Ferrite 17.0-22.0 9.0-13.0 2.0-3.0 1.50m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.03m 0.10-0.20N
CF-8M 316 Austenitic with Ferrite 18.0-21.0 9.0-12.0 2.0-3.0 1.50m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.08m
CF-8C 347 Austenitic with Ferrite 18.0-21.0 9.0-12.0 2.00m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.08m Cb = 8xC,1.0m
CF-16F 303 Austenitic with Ferrite 18.0-21.0 9.0-12.0 1.50m 2.00m 1.50m 0.17m 0.04m 0.16m 0.20-0.35 Se
CG-8M 317 Austenitic with Ferrite 18.0-21.0 9.0-13.0 3.0-4.0 1.50m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.08m
CH-20 309 Austenitic 22.0-26.0 12.0-15.0 2.00m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.20m
CK-20 310 Austenitic 23.0-27.0 19.0-22.0 1.75m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.20m
CN-7M 320 Austenitic 19.0-22.0 27.5-30.5 2.0-3.0 1.50m 1.50m 0.04m 0.04m 0.07m 3.0-4.0 Cu
CK3MCuN 254SMO Austenitic 6% Moly 19.5-20.5 17.5-19.5 6.0-7.0 1.00m 1.20m 0.045m 0.010m 0.025m 0.50-l.OOCu
0.18-0.24N
(1) Wrought alloy type numbers are AISI designations for grades most closely corresponding to casting alloys. (2) 254SMO is a trademark of Avesta.

Corrosion-Resistant High Alloy Steels 20-3
i i i i i
Fig. 20-1 Ranges of chromium and

nickel in standard grades of heat-
and corrosion-resistant castings
30
o©
I
© ©
£ 20
©
5
© ® © ©G
3
)MIU
©
X
i i i i i i i i ,
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
NICKEL CONTENT-%
impact strength is substantially improved. The molybdenum addi-

tion improves the resistance of the alloy to seawater corrosion.
A wide range of mechanical properties can be obtained in the
' •=-" •: if;
martensitic alloy group. The tensile strengths from 90 to 220 ksi ICSw
(621 to 1520 MPa) and hardness as high as 500 BHN are obtainable *., \i V - * .J Vr
through choice of heat treatment. Frequently used heat treatments
and resulting properties are set forth in Table 20-2. The alloys have
fair to good welding and machining properties if proper techniques
are employed (Chapters 25 and 26), with type CA40 considered the
poorest and CA6NM the best in this regard. The strong cavitation
and erosion-resistant microstructure of the martensitic alloys makes
> ; .-*'v»./r->-X,\srr ••••
them useful as castings for pumps, compressors, valves, hydraulic
turbines, propellers, and machinery components.
• ?r* r - V.. V
Ferritic Grades
These are designated CB30 and CC50. Type CB30 is a borderline
alloy that is practically nonhardenable by heat treatment. As nor-
mally made, the balance among the elements in the composition
results in a wholly ferritic structure similar to the wrought alloy Type
442. By balancing the composition toward the low end of the
*v: - % %
chromium and the high ends of the nickel and carbon ranges,
however, some martensite can be formed through heat treatment,
and the properties of the alloy approach those of the hardenable
wrought alloy Type 431. Type CB30 castings have greater resistance •v <•.,
to stress corrosion cracking than the CA grades and are used for
valve bodies and trim in general chemical production and food
processing. Because of its low impact strength the alloy has been
supplanted in many applications by the higher-nickel-containing
austenitic grades of the CF type. The high-chromium CC50 alloy
has good resistance to oxidizing corrosives, mixed nitric and sulfu-
ric acids, and alkaline liquors. It is used for castings in contact with
acid mine waters and in nitrocellulose production. For best impact 250X, Vilelia's
strength, the alloy is made with over 2.0% nickel and 0.15% mini-
mum nitrogen. Fig. 20-2 Tempered martensite with dispersed oxide inclusions in
CA-15. Condition: Normalized 1 h at 1800 °F (980 °C), tempered 2
h at 1300 °F (705 °C). Composition: 0.13% C, 0.56% Mn, 0.48%
Precipitation-Hardening Grades Si, 0.017% P, 0.014% S, 12.43% Cr, 0.78% Ni, 0.08% Mo, 0.08%
Cu
Type CB7Cu is a low-carbon, martensitic alloy which may con-
tain minor amounts of retained austenite or ferrite. The contained
copper precipitates submicroscopically in the martensite when the
alloy is heat treated to the hardened (aged) condition. Corrosion
resistance of CB7Cu lies between that of the CA types and the ened by a low-temperature aging treatment [900 to 1100 °F (482 to
nonhardenable CF alloys. It is used where both high strength and 593 °C)]. Because of this capability the CB7Cu grade has found
improved corrosion resistance are required. CB7Cu castings are wide application for highly stressed, machined castings in the air-
machined in the solution treated condition and then through hard- craft and food processing industries.
Duplex Grades
CD4MCu and the other alloys of ASTM-A890 typically have
40-60% ferrite. While the austenite with ferrite alloys are also dual
phase, duplex normally refers to the 24-26% Cr, 4-9% Ni alloys with
a roughly 50-50 microstructure because their wrought counterparts
are also dual phase unlike 304 and 316. These grades offer higher
mechanical properties than the CF grades while maintaining similar
or higher chrome and molybdenum levels. This gives the duplexes
similar corrosion resistance to the CF alloys in crevice and pitting
corrosion applications at low temperatures. The high ferrite contents
require the casting user to be aware of the possibilities of sigma
described below.
Austenite with Ferrite Grades

The alloys in this group include CE30, CF3, CF3MN, CF8, CF20,
CF3M, CF8M, CF8C, CF16F, and CG8M. The microstructure of
these alloys usually contains from 5 to 40% ferrite, depending on the
• • * • • ' • • - ' * \ \
particular grade and the balance among the ferrite-promoting and

austenite-promoting elements in the chemical composition.
- • •-%, --v- \rx
Ferrite in Cast Stainless Steels
The austenite with ferrite alloys are the most important and high-
est tonnage segment of corrosion-resistant casting production.
These alloys are the cast counterparts of the AISI300 series wrought
stainless steels (Table 20-1). In general, the cast and wrought alloys
possess equivalent resistance to corrosive media and they are fre-
quently used in conjunction with each other.
Important differences do exist, however, between the cast alloys
and their wrought AISI counterparts. Most significant among these
250X, Kalling's is the difference in alloy microstructure in the end-use condition.
The cast alloys are duplex ferrite-in-austenite (Table 20-1, Figure
Fig. 20-3 Microstructure: Austenite with ferrite. Condition: Solution 20-3) and usually contain from 5 to 60% ferrite, depending on the
treated 1 h at 2050 °F (1120 °C), water quenched. Ferrite Number: particular alloy, whereas some of their wrought counterparts are
12. Composition: 0.04% C, 0.23% Mn, 0.67% Si, 0.021% P, fully austenitic. The ferrite in cast stainless with duplex structures is
0.024% S, 20.10% Cr, 10.75% Ni, 2.11% Mo, 0.25% Cu magnetic, a point that is often confusing when cast stainless steels
Table 20-2 Representative Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties of Cast Corrosion-Resistant Alloys

Yield strength Elongation Reduction
Tensile strength (0.2% offset) in 2 in. (50 mm) in area Brinell Charpy impact energy
AUoy Heat treatment condition(l) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) % % hardness ft lb (J) Specimen
CA-6NM 1750AC1100-1150T 120 (827) 100 (689) 24 60 269 70 (94.9) V-notch

CA-15 1800 AC, 1200T 115 (793) 100 (689) 22 55 225 20 (27.1) Keyhole notch
CA-40 1800AC, HOOT 150 (1034) 125 (862) 10 30 310 2 (2.7) Keyhole notch
CB-7Cu 1900 OQ, 925 A 190 (1310) 170 (1172) 14 54 400 25 (33.9) V-notch
CB-30 1450 AC 95 (655) 60 (414) 15 195 2 (2.7) Keyhole notch
CC-50 1900AC 97 (669) 65 (448) 18 210
CD-4MCu 2050 FC to 1900 WQ 108 (745) 81 (558) 25 253 55 (74.6) V-notch
A890-4A 2050FCtol850WQ 95 (645) 66 (455)
CE-30 2000 WQ 97 (669) 63 (434) 18 190 7 (9.5) Keyhole notch
CF-3 1900 WQ 77 (531) 36 (248) 60 140 110 (149.2) V-notch
CF-8 1900 WQ 77 (531) 37 (255) 55 140 74 (110.3) Keyhole notch
CF-20 2000 WQ 77 (531) 36 (248) 50 163 60 (81.4) Keyhole notch
CF-3M 1900 WQ 80 (552) 38 (262) 55 150 120 (162.7) V-notch
CF3MN 1900 WQ 82 (565) 42 (289) 52 170
CF-8M 1950 WQ 80 (552) 42 (290) 50 170 70 (94.9) Keyhole notch
CF-8C 1950 WQ 77 (531) 38 (262) 39 149 30 (40.7) Keyhole notch
CF-16F 2000 WQ 77 (531) 40 (276) 52 150 75 (101.7) Keyhole notch
CG-8M 1900WQ 82 (565) 44 (303) 45 176 80 (108.5) V-notch
CH-20 2000 WQ 88 (607) 50 (345) 38 190 30 (40.7) Keyhole notch
CK-20 2100 WQ 76 (524) 38 (262) 37 144 50 (67.8) Izod V-notch
CN-7M 2050 WQ 69 (476) 31 (214) 48 130 70 (94.9) Keyhole notch
CK3MCuN 2100 WQ 85 (586) 40 (276) 50
(1) Numbers denote °F. AC = Air cool, OQ = Oil Quench, T=Temper, FC = Furnace Cool, WQ = Water Quench, A=Age

are compared to their wrought counterparts by checking their attrac- tized conditions, 2) ferrite improves resistance of these alloys to
tion to a magnet. This difference in microstructures is attributable to intergranular corrosion attack in the solution annealed condition and
the fact that the chemical compositions of the cast and wrought in the sensitized condition for the molybdenum-free grades, and 3)
alloys are not identical by intent. ferrite contents in excess of 10% afford greater operating safety for
the alloys with respect to both types of attack.
Significance of Ferrite
Ferrite is present by intent in many cast stainless steels for three
principal reasons: to provide strength (Figure 20-4), to improve
weldability (Figures 20-5a and 20-5b), and to maximize resistance
100 700
to corrosion in specific environments.
Strengthening in the cast CF grade alloys is limited essentially to
that which can be gained by incorporating ferrite phase into the TENSILE STRENGTH
600
austenite matrix phase. These alloys cannot be strengthened by
thermal treatment, as can the cast ferritic or martensitic alloys, nor 80
by hot or cold working, as can the wrought austenitic alloys.
- 500
The presence of ferrite in duplex alloys improves resistance to
o
stress corrosion cracking (1,4) and in general it also improves a.
resistance to intergranular corrosion (4,5,6). Although failures in 60
400 i
stainless high alloy castings, due to these two types of corrosion are
CO
not common, stress corrosion and intergranular attack are concerns to CO
CO UJ
because they can occur unexpectedly, particularly in castings which UJ YIELD STRENGTH
IT 300 {E
have been sensitized by welding in the field where post-weld heat I- 40 CO
treatment to restore corrosion resistance is impractical or impossi- co
ble. In the case of stress corrosion attack, the presence of ferrite
200
pools in the austenite matrix is thought to block or make more CURVES ARE MEAN VALUES
difficult the propagation of cracks (7). In the case of intergranular 20 CF-8 277 HEATS
corrosion, ferrite is helpful in sensitized castings because it pro- CF-8M 62 HEATS
100
motes preferential precipitation of carbides in the ferrite phase rather
than at the austenite grain boundary where they would increase
susceptibility to intergranular attack (6). The presence of ferrite also
places additional grain boundaries in the austenite matrix and there
10 20 30 40
is evidence that intergranular attack is arrested at austenite-ferrite
boundaries (4). The most comprehensive study (4) on the effect of
ferrite on cast stainless alloy corrosion resistance indicates that 1) Fig. 20-4 Yield strength (0.2% offset) and tensile strength at room
ferrite improves resistance of alloys to stress corrosion attack (hot temperature as a function of ferrite content for CF-8 and CF-8M
NaCl vapor environment) in both the solution annealed and sensi- alloys. (Adapted from Beck et al.)
15
30
2 % AUGMENTED E
STRAIN
E
E 500 T E
-HI
i
X
1000 E
H CD 10
CD
Z z E
UJ UJ 1
10 - 1
X X 20 UJ
o ^-
o 2
CD
Z
< o
_J
UJ
_l
O < *
250 - p o
500
p- IK
o
0 . 1 7 % FERRITE
5 UJ _J
UJ CD <
\ H
CD
< < O
\ cc
UJ 1-
rr \ >
UJ
\ <
3 \
_L
10 20
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
VOLUME PERCENT FERRITE AUGMENTED STRAIN-%
Fig. 20-5a (a) Relationship between average total crack length at augmented strain and volume percent ferrite in the as-cast microstructure of
19Cr-9Ni-2.5Mo cast CF type steels, (b) Varestraint results for a substantially austenitic and a 7.6% ferrite bearing Ni-Cr-Mo cast CF-type
steel
1.600 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 V
(10) and shown in Figure 20-6. This diagram was derived from an
earlier diagram developed by Schaeffler (11) for stainless weld
DASHED LINES DENOTE SCATTER ' /s
BAND DUE TO UNCERTAINTY OF , ' / / metal. Use of Figure 20-6 requires that all ferrite stabilizing ele-
1.500 - CHEMICAL ANALYSIS DETERMINA- • / ' _ ments in the composition be converted into "chromium equivalents"
TI0NS FOR INDIVIDUAL , ' / '
ELEMENTS ' / s
and that all austenite stabilizing elements be converted into "nickel
z equivalents" by means of empirically derived coefficients repre-
' / ' senting the ferritizing or austenitizing power of each element. A
1.400 - ' s ' _
o >'/'' "composition ratio" is then obtained from the total chromium
' // ''
' equivalent Cre and nickel equivalent Nie, calculated for the alloy
p 1.300 ' / ' _ composition according to the following:
< ' / '
/ / ' Cre=%Cr+1.5(%Si) + %Mo + %Cb-4.99 Equation 20.1
'//
1.200 - ' / '
t / '
' / ' Nie=% Ni + 30 (% C) + 0.5 (% Mn) + 26 (% N-0.02) + 2.77 Equation 20.2
CO f / '
o f / '
fL 1.100 / / f
, // Cre=(%Cr) + l.5(%Si)+(%Mo)+(%Cb)- 4.99 — where the elemental concentrations are percent by weight.
o
o / / / Ni e = (%Ni) + 30(%C) + 0.5(%Mn) + It should be noted that a ferrite number, not actual volume percent
/ / / 26 (%N - 0.02) + 2.77
ferrite present, is obtained from Figure 20-6. Ferrite numbers have
- /
// been adopted as the accepted index to quantify ferrite content based
'/ ' upon the calibration procedure for magnetic measurements of the
/' // l l 1 l I 1 l l l ferrite content.
0.900
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
FERRITE NUMBER Limits of Ferrite Control
Although ferrite content can be estimated and controlled on the
Fig. 20-6 Constitution diagram for estimation of ferrite content in
stainless steel castings within the composition range of 16-26Cr,
basis of alloy composition only, there are limits to the accuracy with
6-14Ni, 4 max Mo, 1 max Cb, 0.2 max C, 0.19 max N, 2 max Mn, 2 which this may be done. The reasons for this are many. First, there
max Si is an unavoidable degree of uncertainty in the chemical analysis of
an alloy (note scatter band in Figure 20-6). Secondly, the ferrite
content is dependent upon thermal history in addition to composi-
tion (8), although to a lesser extent. Ferrite contents at different
locations in individual castings can also vary considerably depend-
It is important to note, however, that not all studies have shown ing upon section size, ferrite orientation, presence of alloying ele-
ferrite to be unconditionally beneficial to general corrosion resis- ment segregation, etc. (8).
tance of cast stainless steels (21,1)- Whether or not corrosion resis- Measurements of ferrite content in stainless steel castings are
tance is improved by ferrite and by what magnitude depends impor- subject to significant limitations.
tantly on the specific alloy composition, heat-treatment condition ASTM-A799 and A800 give an extended discussion of the vari-
(solution annealed or sensitized) and the service conditions (corro- ous measuring techniques and their relationships. These specifica-
sion environment and state of stress). The reader is referred to the tions should be consulted before specifying ferrite controls.
findings (1,4,8,21) of research sponsored by SFSA/ACI on the The CF alloy types, as a group, constitute the major segment of
effect of ferrite on alloy corrosion resistance under specific condi- corrosion-resistant casting production. When properly heat-treated,
tions of interest. the alloys are resistant to a great variety of corrosives and are usually
considered the best general-purpose types. They have good castabil-
The presence of ferrite is not entirely beneficial. Ferrite tends to
ity, machinability, and wettability, and are tough and strong at
reduce toughness, although given the extremely high toughness of
temperatures down to -425 °F (-253 °C) (Chapter 23). Type CF8,
the austenite matrix, this is not of great concern. However, in those
with a nominal composition of 19Cr-9Ni-0.08C max. can be viewed
applications which require exposure to elevated temperatures, usu-
as the base grade and all the others as variants of this basic type.
ally greater than 600 °F (316 °C), metallurgical changes associated
Type CF3, CF3M, and CF3MN are specifically designed for use
with the ferrite can be severe and detrimental. In the low end of the
where castings are to be welded without subsequent heat treatment
range, reductions in toughness observed have been attributed to
as in field-welded construction. The molybdenum-containing
carbide precipitation or reactions associated with "885 °F (475 °C)
grades CF8M, CF3MN, and CF3M have improved resistance to
embrittlement." The "885 embritflement" is caused by precipitation
reducing chemicals and are used to handle dilute sulfuric and acetic
of an intermetallic phase with a composition of approximately 80%
acids, paper mill liquors, and a wide variety of industrial corrosives.
chromium and 20% iron. The name derives from the fact that this
The CF8M alloy has become the most frequently used grade for
embrittlement is most severe and rapid when it occurs in the vicinity
corrosion-resistant pumps and valves because of its versatility in
of 885 °F (475 °C). At 1000 °F (538 °C) and above, with extended
meeting many corrosive service demands. Type CF8C contains
exposure in service, the ferrite converts to a complex Fe-Cr-Ni
columbium (niobium) which, by suitable prior heat treatment, com-
intermetallic compound known as sigma phase which reduces
bines with carbon and helps the alloy to avoid intergranular corro-
toughness and creep ductility. The extent of the toughness reduction
sion if later exposed to chromium carbide formation temperatures.
increases with time and with temperature to about 1500 °F (816 °C)
Where field welding or service temperatures around 1200 °F (649
and may persist to 1700 °F (927 °C). In extreme cases, Charpy
°C) are involved, castings of type CF8C are used to resist the same
V-notch energy at room temperature may be reduced 95% from its
corrosives as CF8.
initial value (2,3).
The CF16F grade has an addition of selenium to improve ma-
The relationship between composition and microstructure in cast chinability of castings that require extensive drilling, threading, and
stainless steels permits the foundryman to predict and control the other machining operations. It is used in service similar to CF20.
ferrite content of an alloy, and its resultant properties, by adjusting Type CG8M has a higher molybdenum content than CF8M and is
the composition of the alloy. This is accomplished with a one-line preferred where improved resistance to corrosion by sulfuric and
constitution diagram for cast Cr-Ni alloys developed by Schoefer sulfurous acid solutions and the pitting action of halogen com-
pounds is needed. Unlike CF-8M, however, it is not suitable for use

in nitric acid or other strongly oxidizing environments.
Austenitic Grades
Included in this group are CH20, CK20, CK3MCuN, and CN7M.
The CH20 and CK20 alloys are high-chromium, high-carbon,
wholly austenitic compositions in which the chromium exceeds the
nickel content. They have better resistance to dilute sulfuric acid
than CF8 and have improved strength at elevated temperatures. For
handling hot sulfuric acid at various concentrations up to 185 °F and
150 ppm chloride the nickel-predominant CN-7M grade containing
•'«'
molybdenum and copper is widely used. Special care should be
taken to control charge materials and composition. Use of full range
of composition can lead to manufacturing and service problems.
CfGMCuN is one of the 6% molybdenum alloys for aggressive • • - 20 5
pitting situations.
In addition to the alloys previously discussed which are custom-
arily classed as stainless steels, there are a number of nickel-base J i
casting alloys produced by high-alloy foundries for corrosion-resis- 0 10 0 15 0 20
PERCENT NITROGEN
tant service. These include the standard grades CW6M, CY40,
CZ100, N12M, and M35, and several proprietary alloys. These
alloy s are discussed in Chapter 21. The cost of these alloys normally Fig. 20-7 Effect of nitrogen on the tensile strength, yield strength,
and elastic modulus in constant ferrite content CF-8 steels
confines their use to specific critical applications where their im-
proved corrosion resistance over that of the stainless steel grades
makes them economically justified.
°F (315-650 CC) to restore ductility and toughness at some sacrifice
in strength. It follows then that significant ranges of tensile proper-
Room-Temperature Properties ties, hardness, and impact toughness are possible with the martensi-
tic grades depending upon the choice of tempering temperature.
The importance which the user of corrosion-resistant, high alloy While CA6NM is balanced compositionally for martensitic harden-
castings attaches to mechanical properties in alloy selection is estab- ing response, it has improved impact toughness and weldability
lished by the casting application. For aqueous corrosion applica- when compared to CA15.
tions the corrosion-resistant alloys (C grades) are used and the usual CB7Cu, a basically martensitic alloy, contains copper and can be
criterion for alloy selection is normally the resistance of the alloy to strengthened by age hardening. This alloy is initially solution heat
the specific corrosive media or environment of interest. Mechanical treated, and then cooled rapidly (usually by quenching in oil or
properties of the alloy are usually, but not always, secondary con- water) so that phases which would normally precipitate at slower
siderations in these applications. cooling rates cannot form. The casting is then heated to an interme-
diate "aging" temperature at which the precipitation reaction can
As-Heat Treated Condition occur under controlled conditions until the desired combination of
Strength, H a r d n e s s , a n d Heat Treatment. Represen- strength and other properties is achieved.
tative room-temperature tensile properties, hardness properties, and The higher chromium CB30 and CC50 alloys, on the other hand,
Charpy impact properties for corrosion-resistant alloys are given in are fully ferritic alloys which are not hardenable by heat treatment.
Table 20-2. It is emphasized that these properties are representative These alloys are used normally in the annealed condition and exhibit
of the alloys rather than specification requirements. Minimum moderate tensile properties and hardness as shown in Table 20-2.
specified mechanical properties for these alloys are set forth in Ferritic alloys, CB30 and CC50, characteristically possess limited
ASTM standards and may be found in ASTM A351, A743, A744, impact toughness, especially at low temperatures.
A747, or A890. From the data presented it is apparent that a wide The CE, CF, CG, CH, CN, CK, and duplex alloys are essentially
range of mechanical properties are attainable in high alloy steel not hardenable by heat treatment. In order to ensure maximum
grades depending upon selection of alloy composition and heat corrosion resistance, however, it is necessary that castings of these
treatment. grades receive a high temperature "solution anneal." This treatment
Tensile strengths from 69 to 190 ksi (476 to 1310 MPa) and consists of holding the castings at a temperature sufficiently high to
Brinell hardnesses from 130 to 400 are available among the cast dissolve all chromium carbides which are damaging to intergranular
corrosion-resistant alloys. Similarly wide ranges exist in yield corrosion resistance, and then cooling them rapidly to avoid repre-
strengths, elongation, and impact toughness. Mechanical properties cipitation of the carbides. Although this can be accomplished
and heat treatments appropriate for these alloys are discussed best throughout the casting section in the lower carbon grades (less than
with the framework of the composition groups noted in Table 20-1. 0.08% C), heavy sections of alloys with higher carbon contents may
The martensitic alloys, CA15, CA40, CA6NM, and CB7Cu are have carbides present at some distance below the surface where the
hardenable through heat treatment by means of the martensite trans- cooling rate is slow. This situation should be recognized if machined
formation and often are selected as much or more for their high areas of such castings might be exposed to corrosives in service.
strength properties as for their comparatively modest corrosion These alloys generally exhibit excellent impact toughness at low
resistance. Castings of these alloys are heated to a temperature at temperatures, as indicated in Chapter 20, due to their fully austenitic
which the structure is fully austenitic and then cooled at a rate or duplex ferrite-in-austenite microstructures. The tensile strength
(usually in air) adapted to the casting composition so that the range represented by these alloys typically extends from 69 to 130
austenite transforms to martensite. In this condition strengths are ksi (476 to 896 MPa). As indicated in preceding parts of this chapter,
quite high, e.g. 150-200 ksi (1034-1379 MPa), but tensile, ductility, the alloys with duplex ferrite-in-austenite structures can be strength-
and impact toughness are limited. Consequently, the martensitic ened by balancing the composition for higher ferrite levels. Com-
castings are usually tempered at a temperature in the range 600-1200 pared to fully austenitic alloys the tensile and yield strengths of CF
alloys with a ferrite number of 35 are typically 22 ksi (150 MPa) and CA15 are currently used in high-pressure service at tempera-
higher. tures up to 1000 °F (538 °C) in sulfurous-acid type environments of
If ferrite is controlled to a given level, it has been found that the petrochemical industry (14). Other uses are in the power gener-
nitrogen additions will increase the yield strength of the CF alloys ating industry which has reported using CF8M at temperatures up to
1000 psi for each increase of 0.01% nitrogen up to 0.20% (Figure 1050 °F (566 °C) (15,18).
20-7). The alloy CF3MN (317LN) was developed to take advantage Room-temperature properties in the "aged" condition, i.e., after
of the improved strength and corrosion resistance by nitrogen alloy- exposure to elevated-service temperatures, may differ from those in
ing in combination with a low carbon content. CF3MN has a 7,000 the as-heat-treated condition due to microstructural changes that
psi higher minimum yield than CF3M in ASTM A351 and A743. may take place at the service temperature. Microstructural changes
in Fe-Ni-Cr-(Mo) alloys may involve the formation of carbides, and
Fatigue. Fatigue properties can become a design factor in appli-
such phases as sigma, chi, and Laves. The extent to which these
cations where the casting experiences cyclic loading conditions in
phases form depends on composition as well as the time at elevated
service. Under equivalent conditions of stress, stress concentration,
temperatures as shown in Figure 20-8 for M23C6 carbides in
and strength, evidence suggests that austenitic materials are less
wrought 18Cr-9Ni steel. Reference to detailed studies (14-18) and
notch sensitive than martensitic or ferritic materials.
discussion with foundry metallurgists are therefore required to en-
R. R. Moore fatigue data obtained in SFS A sponsored research on
sure proper alloy selection for components which are subject to
centrifugally cast CF-8M shown in Table 20-3 indicate endurance
elevated-temperature service and critical property requirements at
limits reasonably close to the yield strength values. The data do not
room temperature during equipment shutdown and start-up condi-
exhibit a significant notch effect which is ordinarily observed for
tions. The principal effects of exposure to elevated temperatures and
ferritic and martensitic steels.
some examples are presented in this chapter.
The martensitic alloys CA15 and CA6NM are subject to minor
Aged Condition changes in mechanical properties and stress corrosion cracking
Cast corrosion-resistant high alloy steels are used extensively at resistance in NaCl and polythionic acid environments upon expo-
moderately elevated temperatures [up to 1200 °F (649 °C)]. Ele- sure for 3000 hours at temperatures up to 1050 °F (566 °C). Test data
vated-temperature properties are important selection criteria for are shown in Figures 20-9 and 20-10 for alloy CA6NM (14).
these applications and are discussed in later parts of this chapter. In In CF type Cr-Ni-(Mo) steels only negligible changes in ferrite
addition, room-temperature properties after service at elevated-tem- content occur during 10,000 hour exposure at 752 °F (400 °C) and
peratures are increasingly considered due to the aging effect that during 3000 hour exposure at 800 °F (427 °C) (15,17). Charpy
these exposures may have. For example, cast alloys CF8C, CF8M, V-notch energy losses at these temperatures have been reported
2012
1832
u. 1652
e 1
I 1472 - UJ
UJ oc
3
1292 -
oc tc
Ul
II 12 0.
tc
Id
0. 932
2
Ul
I-
752
0.015 0.15 1.5 15
O.OI5 0.15 1.5 ' 15 150 1500
TIME - h TIME - h
(a) (b)
Fig. 20-8 Precipitation kinetics of M23C6 carbide in 18Cr-9Ni stainless steels (Type 304). (a) Alloy containing 0.05% carbon originally
quenched from 2282 °F (1250 °C). (b) Alloy containing 0.038% carbon originally quenched from 2300 °F (1260 °C) (grain size ASTM 1)
Table 20-3 R.R. Moore Fatigue Test Data for CF-8M Cast Stainless Steel
Endurance limit
Ferrite U.T.S 0.2% Y.S. Unnotched Notched(l) Enduran ce Ratio
No. ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) Unnotched Notched
0 68 (469) 32 (221) 28.7 (198) 31.1 (214) 0.480 0.430

2 70 (483) 32 (221) 32.7 (225) 32.6 (225) 0.469 0.468
4 79 (545) 34 (234) 32.5 (224) 31.5 (217) 0.409 0.397
10 80 (552) 40 (276) 32.1 (221) 37.9 (261) 0.417 0.487
30 84 (579) 38 (262) 40.2 (277) 36.1 (249) 0.480 0.430
(1) Notch diameter (0.220 ± 0.0010 in. (5.588 ± 0.025 mm), 60° angle, 0.015 in. (0.381 mm) notch radius
STATIC CENTRIFUGAL
Fig. 20-9 Effects of elevated-temperature exposure TEMPERATURE
and time on tensile properties of static and centrifugal 755 810 840 755 810 840
at JC
castings of CA-6NM 900 1000 1050 900 1000 1050
140
n
827 120 120 827 •
IS 100 nm 100 jE
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K 552 80 lh 80 552 5
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-HOURS•
STATIC CENTRIFUGAL
Fig. 20-10 Effects of elevated-temperature exposure TEMPERATURE
and time on room-temperature impact and stress 755 810 840 0K 755 810 840
J3
ft. 1
corrosion cracking resistance of CA-6NM 900 1000 1050 ° 900 1000 1050
-3
0 272 200 - -
| 216 160 j- 7
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| NO FAILURE-* SPECIMEN FAILED IN ONE TEST; IN SECOND TEST

THERE WAS LATER OR NO FAILURE. UNLESS OTHERWISE
INDICATED, BOTH SPECIMENS FAILED AT SAME TIME.
STATI c CENTRIFUGAL
TEMPERATURE Fig. 20-11 Effects of elevated-temperature exposure
0. and time on tensile properties of static and centrifugal
755 8I0 840 °K 755 8I0 840
s 900 1000 I050 °F 900 I000 I050 castings of CF-8 alloy with a ferrite number of 9-11 in
the solution annealed condition and higher nitrogen
I40
content (0.081%)
u 827 I20
TENS ILE STRENGTH
100
552 80
60
276 40
20
0 0
100
z
o
to
Z
STATIC CENTRIFUGAL
TEMPERATURE
755 8I0 840 "K 755 810 840 Fig. 20-12 Effects of elevated-temperature exposure
900 1000 1050 °F 900 1000 1050 and time on room-temperature impact, ferrite content,
and stress corrosion cracking resistance of CF-8 with
D 272 200 [j- a ferrite number of 9-11 and a higher nitrogen content
>- rr (0.081%)
£ 216 160 - UJ
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IS -HOURS- -HOURS-
f NO FAILURE-*SPECIMEN FAILED IN0NETEST;IN SECOND TEST

THERE WAS LATER OR NO FAILURE. UNLESS OTHERWISE
INDICATED, BOTH SPECIMENS FAILED AT SAME TIME.

(14,15,17). These effects are illustrated in Figures 20-11 and 20-12

for CF8 cast corrosion-resistant steel. J-integral tests show the effect Elevated-Temperature
on toughness of exposure at 800 °F (427 °C) to be not as severe as Properties
suggested by Charpy V-notch impact testing (Figure 20-13).
Above 800 °F (427 °C) microstructure changes in Cr-Ni-(Mo)
Tensile Strength. Short time tensile data at elevated tempera-
alloys take place at an increased rate. Carbides and sigma phase
tures are listed in Tables 20-4 and 20-5 for the martensitic stainless
form rapidly at 1200 °F (649 °C) at the expense of ferrite as shown
steels CA15 and CA6NM, duplex CD4MCu, and the CF type steel
in Figure 20-14. Tensile, ductility, and Charpy V-notch impact
grades CF8, CF8M, CF8C, and CE30. These elevated-temperature
energy are prone to significant losses under these conditions.
tensile data are listed as ratios, i.e. indicating the strength at tempera-
ture as a fraction of that at room temperature. An example of actual
tensile strength data and the resulting strength ratio trend curve is
shown in Figure 20-15. Strength ratio trend curves of this type have
CRACK EXTENSION A a mm
proven useful in setting allowable stresses under the ASME code for
temperatures below the creep range.
2 4 6 8 10 12
16500 ~i—i—r i—i—i—r "i i r Creep. Relatively few mechanical property test data are available
for cast corrosion-resistant alloys in the temperature range where
I5O0O - creep may control material behavior. The data presented here may
2.5
CM
-3
I200°F (649"C)
1.5 S
HEAT TREATED
0.5
EXPOSED 3000 h AT 0^
799°F (427°C)
OPEN POINTS VALID DATA _L _L
10 100 1000
_l_
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 EXPOSURE TIME-h
CRACK EXTENSION Aa in.
Fig. 20-14 Transformation of delta ferrite to austenite plus sigma
Fig. 20-13 Effect of elevated-temperature exposure on Ji c at room upon exposure of a solution treated CF-8 casting to elevated-tem-
temperature of CF-8M cast stainless steel peratures
Table 20-4 Ratio of Yield Strength at Elevated Temperature to Yield Strength at Room Temperature
CF-8 CF-8A CF-8M CE-30(1)
Temp Ferrite No. Ferrite No. Ferrite No.
°c (op) CA-15 CA-6NM CD-lMCu 2-4 18-23 53-38 3-10 16-20 CF-8C 6-8 40-52
21 (70) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
50 (122) 0.980 0.985 0.964 0.911 0.931 0.895 0.930 0.922 0.937 0.952
100 (212) 0.942 0.965 0.900 0.783 0.828 0.772 0.839 0.845 0.835 0.875
150 (302) 0.901 0.951 0.835 0.671 0.738 0.692 0.773 0.791 0.750 0.802
200 (392) 0.870 0.944 0.782 0.590 0.665 0.639 0.720 0.750 0.688 0.745
250 (482) 0.869 0.931 0.759 0.541 0.620 0.600 0.680 0.719 0.650 0.720
300 (572) 0.864 0.906 0.742 0.520 0.605 0.571 0.651 0.692 0.627 0.711
350 (662) 0.849 0.875 0.727 0.509 0.595 0.547 0.628 0.671 0.604 0.707
400 (752) 0.813 0.838 0.710 0.495 0.585 0.527 0.607 0.655 0.583 0.703
450 (842) 0.762 0.787 0.690 0.478 0.570 0.510 0.586 0.639 0.561 0.695
500 (932) 0.696 0.720 0.671 0.458 0.546 0.491 0.568 0.627 0.538 0.670
550 (1022) 0.607 0.620 0.620 0.430 0.512 0.475 0.548 0.614 0.511 0.597
600 (1112) 0.501 0.480 0.545 0.392 0.462 0.460 0.528 0.601 0.485 0.487
(1) The low ferrite lots were tested in the as-cast condition; the high ferrite lots in the solution-treated condition.

serve as indications of the principal trends. Creep properties at 900 T o u g h n e s s . The toughness of CF8M steels remains substan-
and 1000 °F (482 and 538 °C) of the martensitic grade CA6NM are tially unchanged at 600 °F (316 °C) compared to the room-tempera-
presented in Figures 20-16 through 20-18. Creep rupture properties ture value of Jic as indicated in Table 20-7. A distinct effect of
estimated from limited testing by the Alloy Casting Institute (ACI) exposure for 3000 hours at 800 °F (427 °C) is noticeable for the Jic
are presented in Table 20-6. The alloy grades included in this table value at 600 °F (316 °C).
are the martensitic grade CA15, CF alloys, and the austenitic CH
and CK grades. Fatigue. Fatigue crack growth data for the duplex structure CF-
8M steel at 550 °F (288 °C) are presented in Figure 20-19 for the
as-heat-treated condition and after exposure for 3000 hours at 800
°F (427 °C). Aging from this exposure leaves the fatigue crack
growth behavior essentially unaffected for the R-range values below
TEMPERATURE- 0.2. Comparisons of these data with those obtained in a simulated
pressurized water reactor (PWR) environment indicate little, if any,
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
1 .1 1 1 1 1
effect on the crack growth rate results at 550 °F (288 °C) (IS).
100
2
ksi
x 80 I 8
1
•
_ 600 '
X
z
& ! 1 1
' ' I
1 1 I I 11 1 r—TT
600 o
1 I "
0 UJ
U 60 w 60- 400 a.
0
- 400
•* 40 •o—o.
— A
-„_A A900°F(482°C>
0 OT
I 0"0
200 1
UJ
UJ 4 0 1 _)
to 20 T^°°-§co. 100 v>
to
1000 F (538°C)
to
60 UJ
NSI
1
- 200 Z DC
40
£ 20 0 LOW FERRITE 10
i I
100
_1_ _l_
1000
' • il
IQP00 100000 fc
k 1 0 / 2 0 % FERRITE
• > 2 0 % FERRITE TIME FOR RUPTURE - h
1.0 0
Fig. 20-16 Stress vs. time for rupture of CA-6NM. The
\ . superimposed trend lines were computed from the mean
parameter curve of Fig. 20-18.
RATIO
00
M- - f t -
• % ,
X 6 I00
1- 600
O 400 (f
z •
200
o-6 T
o—o-o-o"^?"" '00 g?
0
I000°F(538°C) UJ
rENSILE
60 tr
40
• • ' I i i i I CO
to 4
1 1 1 1 1 0.CH O.I I 10 I00
32 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
SECONDARY CREEP RATE - %/1000 h
TEMPERATURE-°F
Fig. 20-17 Stress vs. secondary creep rate for CA-6NM. The
Fig. 20-15 Variation of tensile strength of Grades CF-8 and CF-8A superimposed trend lines were computed from the mean
with temperature parameter trend line in Fig. 20-18.
Table 20-5 Ratio of Tensile Strength at Elevated Temperature to Tensile Strength at Room Temperature
1CF-8 CF-8A CF-8M CE-30(1)
Temp Ferrite No. Ferrite No. Ferrite No.
°c (op) CA-15 CA-6NM CD-4MCu 2-4 18-23 33-38 3-10 16-20 CF-8C 6-8 40-52
21 (70) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 1.0 1.0
50 (122) 0.978 0.965 0.970 0.945 0.945 0.945 0.932 0.968 0.924 0.965 0.965
100 (212) 0.943 0.925 0.926 0.865 0.865 0.865 0.867 0.920 0.851 0.908 0.908
150 (302) 0.911 0.903 0.900 0.812 0.812 0.812 0.831 0.880 0.811 0.859 0.878
200 (392) 0.887 0.888 0.885 0.790 0.790 0.790 0.812 0.855 0.788 0.824 0.863
250 (482) 0.867 0.870 0.880 0.787 0.787 0.787 0.809 0.849 0.772 0.800 0.860
300 (572) 0.855 0.852 0.879 0.782 0.782 0.782 0.807 0.845 0.762 0.781 0.858
350 (662) 0.838 0.830 0.878 0.778 0.778 0.778 0.802 0.842 0.752 0.766 0.853
400 (752) 0.807 0.803 0.871 0.772 0.772 0.772 0.797 0.839 0.742 0.752 0.840
450 (842) 0.733 0.762 0.853 0.733 0.746 0.762 0.785 0.830 0.731 0.731 0.813
500 (932) 0.640 0.695 0.810 0.675 0.705 0.735 0.765 0.795 0.713 0.702 0.745
550 (1022) 0.540 0.595 0.713 0.588 0.640 0.687 0.728 0.740 0.680 0.655 0.635
600 (1112) 0.440 0.450 0.520 0.490 0.550 0.620 0.663 0.663 0.630 0.580 0.500
(1) The low ferrite lots were tested in the as-cast condition; the high ferrite lots in the solution-treated condition.

Corrosion Resistance I I I I I I
400
50 0^0 0
i
Corrosion resistance is a relative term being dependent upon the \ \ RUPTURE
i
40 0>00 300
i
particular environment to which a specific alloy is exposed. Carbon
and low alloy steels are considered resistant only to very mild 30
°^N ® °MEAN - 200
corrosives while the various high alloy grades are applicable for \oo
varying situations from mild to severe services depending on the MINIMUM^Vp
I
20
particular conditions involved. o
It is often misleading to list the comparative corrosion rates of ^5. - I00 0.
STRESS - ksi
different alloys when exposed to the same corroding medium. Labo- 00 s
ratory tests can often miss critical factors. Practical experience 10 I I I I I I 1
STRESS
should be considered in alloy selection. No attempt will be made to ' T= "F + 460
recommend alloys for specific applications and the data supplied 70 t = TIME IN HOURS
r = SECOND. CREEP RATE 400
should be used as a guide only. Alloy casting users will find it 0 n . IN.% PER HOUR
50
helpful to consult with materials and corrosion specialists in selec- v U V
tion of alloys for a particular application. 40 0
O \ ° SECONDARY CREEP RATE
- 300
Among the factors that must be considered are:

30 \ ( b o 200
00\OD
The principle corrosive agent and its concentrations.
Known or suspected impurities, including abrasive materials and 20 - °O0° N MEAN
their concentration. MINIMUM N?\ 0 ICO
Average operating temperature, including variations even if en-
countered only for short periods. in I I I I X I
Presence (or absence) of oxygen or other gases in solution. 34 36 38 40 42 44
Continuous or intermittent operation. P = T(25-logr) x I0"3
Fluid velocity.
Each of these can have a significant effect on the service life of Fig. 20-18 Larson-Miller analyses of rupture and creep rate test
equipment whether cast or wrought and it is usually necessary that results for CA-6NM
Table 20-6 Estimated Creep Rupture Properties of Cast Corrosion-Resistant Steels

Estimated Estimated limiting
rupture stress creep stress
Temperat ure lOOh 1000 h 0.01 %/h 0 001 %/h
Of (°C) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)
CA-15 900 (482) 42.2 (291) 36.2 (250) 37.2 (256) 32 (221)
1050 (566) 23.4 (161) 16.1 (111) 17.5 (121) 16.6 (114)
CF-8 1000 (538) 38.4 (265) 31.3 (216) 36.4 (251) 31.6 (218)
1200 (649) 19.4 (134) 14.6 (101) 9.6 (66) (a)
CF-8C 1000 (538) 51.6 (356) 43.0 (296) 51.2 (353) 40.4 (279)
1200 (649) 27.0 (186) 19.5 (134) 22.0 (152) 18.0 (124)
CF-8M 1000 (538) 47.2 (325) 42.5 (293) 45.2 (312) 41.2 (284)
1200 (649) 24.6 (170) 18.2 (125) 13.0 (90) (a)
CF-20 1000 (538) 44.0 (303) 37.0 (255) 42.3 (292) 35.8 (247)
1200 (649) 23.6 (163) 17.1 (118) 17.9 (123) 13.2 (91)
CH-20 1200 (649) 24.2 (167) 18.1 (125) 14.0 (97) (a)
CK-20 1200 (649) 22.2 (153) 14.1 (97) 13.8 (95) 7.5 (52)
(a) Specimen exceeded this deformation upon loading
Table 20-7 Toughness of CF-8M Stainless Piping Material at Room Temperature and 600 °F (316 °C)
Test
temperature Tensile strength 'ic
Condition °F PC) ksi (MPa) lb/in. (MJ/m2)
Solution treated RT 60.7 (419) 2760 (0.483)

Solution treated 600 (316) 46.0 (317) 2868 (0.502)
Exposed(l) 3000 h at 800 °F (427 °C) RT 62.5 (431) 2012 (0.352)
Exposed( 1) 3000 h at 800 °F (427 °C) 600 (316) 48.2 (332) 1315 (0.230)
(1) Following standard solution heat treatment

-
STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR RANGE A K - M P a / m 1 1 1 1 1 - T 1 T
I I0 IOO IOOO
I0-2 ~1—I—I I I I I l| 1—I—I I I i i l | 1—r
40 V STEEL -
mr
6
4 -
lO" 1 \
2 h 6 i 30 -
UPPER BOUND CURVE in \\
3 FOR CF 8 AND CF-8M 4 \ V CHROMIUM STEELS
I0" CO V) -
BEFORE EXPOSURE
Hi O
6 F _l
4 _j
o -2 t- 20 -
5 E (9 V STAINLESS STEELS -
E
10
QIC
-gl-g 6 •ol-o 10 - >i
UJ 4 UJ
>!*
< a: CHROMIUM IRON
10 '
i N-t.— 1 4--.I
% 6
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
oc 4 CHROMIUM, X
<s
-4
o 2 -
10 o
<
Fig. 20-20 The effect of chromium on oxidation resistance at 1832
a. 6 QE
°F (1000 °C) (48 h exposure, 0.5-in. cubes)
10"' O
o - 4
6
- 2
4
- 10"
i* m l ' i mil
10
10" 2 4 6 8 10' 2 4 6 810' 2 4 6 810
STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR RANGE AK-ksi<rTn.
Fig. 20-19 Effect of 3000 h exposure at 800 °F (427 °C) of cast

CF-8M stainless steel on fatigue crack growth rate in air at 550 °F
(288 °C). Comparison of CF-8M data points (after exposure to solid
line representing CF-8 and CF-8M before exposure
such detailed information be provided. Many rapid failures are

traceable to overlooking these details. Selection of the most eco-
20 40 60 80
nomical alloy is often made by the judicious use of corrosion data.
However, discretion is suggested in evaluating the relative corrosion HN0 3 concentration, %
rates of various steels because of the uncertainties of the actual test
or service conditions. Corrosion rates determined in controlled labo- Fig. 20-21 Isocorrosion diagram for ACI CB-30 in HNO3. Castings
ratory tests should be applied cautiously when considering actual were annealed at 790 °C (1450 °F), furnace cooled to 540 °C
service. Best information is obtained from equipment used under (1000 °F), and then air cooled to room temperature.
similar operating conditions. However, exposing samples to service
conditions will also provide valuable information.
Corrosion Behavior Probably the most important metallurgical factor pertaining to

Corrosion is a broader subject than can be accommodated in a text corrosion behavior is chromium content. Chromium imparts resis-
of this type. Since high alloys must be corrosion resistant much tance to oxidation and sulfidation in high-temperature environ-
might be said with regard to the many environments in which they ments. In aqueous and oxidizing acids, it also offers significant
regularly serve. Here, an attempt will be made to present the general protection.
principles and important highlights as influenced by the metallurgy
of these materials. Topics include: Oxidation
Resistance to oxidation increases directly with chromium content
• Oxidation (Figure 20-20) (2). For the most severe service at temperatures
• Sulfidation above 2000 °F (1092 °C), 25% or more chromium is required.
• General Corrosion Additions of nickel, silicon, manganese, and aluminum promote the
• Intergranular Corrosion formation of relatively impermeable oxide films which retard fur-
• Localized Corrosion ther scaling. Thermal cycling is extremely damaging to oxidation
• Corrosion Fatigue resistance because it leads to oxide breakdown, cracking, or spall-
• Stress Corrosion ing. The best performance is obtained with austenitic alloys contain-
250 Fig. 20-22

Isocorrosion
diagrams for ACI
200 400 CF-8 in HNO3 (a),
H3PO4 (b and c), and
o NaOH solutions (d
e
of 150 300 and e). (b) and (d)
• B>2 Tests performed in a
3 closed container at
<5 «> equilibrium pressure,
"Boiling point c u r v e ' 200 a (c) and (e) Tested at
1100 E atmospheric pressure
01 01
50 " 1 - > 0 . 1 % Cu added to s o l u t i o n -

2 - 0.03% Cu added to solution 100
(Cu added as CuHP0 4 )
! I I I
20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 100
H N 0 3 concentration, % H3PO4 concentration, %
(a) (b)
250 250
1 1i ,
- 400 - 400
200 200
< T '' / '1
150 300 01 a> 150 01
L^*' > 3 3 " " <S k T" 3

(0 10 to
01 01 01
100 U 6 U L> a a inn a.
a *UU h
O 6 0 ( 0 t1 a o>
t-
01
Boili ng poin! curve E
l~ 1-
50 50
100 - 100
• 0 0 0 c 0 <>
0 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
H3PO4 concentration, % NaOH concentration, %
(c) Id)
250
[
200 1
curve
o
I 150 300 a
a w
3
13
i-
01
E 100
0 200 £
01 * 01
• i< 0 c 0
50
-
• <1 0 Ci 0
20 40 60 80 100
NaOH concentration, %
(e)
ing 40-50% combined nickel and chromium. Chapter 22 describes waste incineration have increased the need for alloys resistant to
the behavior of H grades (2). sulfidation attack in relatively weak oxidizing or reducing environ-
ments. High chromium and silicon contents are also beneficial with
Sulfidation sulfur. On the other hand, nickel has been found to be detrimental in
Sulfidation environments are growing in importance. Petroleum the most aggressive gases. The problem is attributable to the forma-
processing, coal conversion, utility and chemical applications, and tion of low melting temperature nickel-sulfur eutectics. These com-
and offers relatively high resistance to localized corrosion and high

resistance to many acids including dilute sulfuric acid and oxidizing
acids such as nitric acid.
Austenitic with Ferrite

CF8 typically contains near 19% Cr and 9% Ni and is essentially
the cast equivalent of 304 type wrought alloys. CF8 may be fully
austenitic but it more commonly contains some residual ferrite
(3-30%) in an austenite matrix. In the solution treated condition this
alloy has excellent resistance to a wide variety of acids. It is particu-
larly resistant to highly oxidizing acids such as boiling nitric acid
(Figure 20-22). The duplex nature of the microstructure of this alloy
<0.1 mm/yr gives additional resistance to stress corrosion cracking compared to
its wholly austenitic counterparts. CF3 is a reduced carbon version
0 20 40 60 80 100 of CF8 with essentially identical corrosion resistance except that
HN0 3 concentration, % CF3 is much less susceptible to sensitization (Figure 20-23). For
applications where the corrosion resistance of the weld heat-affected
Fig. 20-23 Isocorrosion diagram for solution-treated quenched and zone may be critical, CF3 is a common material selection.
sensitized ACI CF-3 in HNO3 CF8M and CF3M are molybdenum-bearing (2-3%) versions of
the CF8 and CF3 alloys. The addition of 2-3% molybdenum in-
creases resistance to corrosion by seawater and improves resistance
to many chloride-bearing environments. The presence of 2-3%
molybdenum also improves crevice corrosion and pitting resistance
positions produce highly destructive liquid phases at temperatures
compared to the CF8 and CF3 alloys. Molybdenum-bearing alloys
even below 1500 °F (816 °C). Once formed, the liquid may run onto
as a rule are not as resistant to highly oxidizing environments (this
adjacent surfaces and rapidly corrode other metals.
is particularly true for boiling nitric acid) but for weakly oxidizing
environments molybdenum-bearing alloys are generally superior.
CF3MN has nitrogen added to give it the best combination of
Cast Corrosion-Resistant properties in the austenite with ferrite group. It has the highest yield
Alloys—General Corrosion strength and greatest resistance to carbide precipitation due to the
Resistance low carbon content and nitrogen addition.
CF16F is a selenium-bearing free machining grade of cast stain-
less steel. Because it nominally contains 19% Cr and 10% Ni, it has
Martensitic Alloys adequate corrosion resistance to a wide range of corrodents but the
The martensitic grades include CA15, CA15M, CA6NM, large number of selenide inclusions makes surface deterioration and
CA6NM-B, CA40, CB7Cu-l, and CB7Cu-2. In general, these al- pitting definite possibilities.
loys are employed where high strength and some corrosion resis- CF20 is a fully austenitic, relatively high strength corrosion-resis-
tance are necessary. CA15 typically exhibits a microstructure of tant alloy. The 19% Cr content provides resistance to many types of
martensite and ferrite. This alloy contains the minimum amount of oxidizing acids but the high carbon content makes it imperative that
chromium to be considered a stainless steel (11-14% Cr) and as such this alloy be utilized in the solution treated condition for environ-
may not be used in aggressive environments. It does, however, ments known to cause intergranular corrosion.
exhibit good corrosion resistance to hot water, steam, atmospheric CG8M is slightly more highly alloyed than CF-8M type alloys
conditions, and resists staining in many organic environments. with the chief addition being increased molybdenum (to 3-4%). The
CA15NM may contain slightly more molybdenum than CA15, up increased amount of molybdenum provides superior corrosion resis-
to 1%, and thus may have improved general corrosion resistance in tance to halide-bearing media and reducing acids, in particular
relatively mild environments. CA6NM is similar to CA15M except sulfurous and sulfuric acid solutions. The high molybdenum con-
that it contains more Ni and Mo and a lower carbon which improves tent, however, renders CG8M generally unsuitable in highly oxidiz-
its general corrosion resistance and resistance to attack by seawater. ing environments.
CA6NM-B is a lower carbon version of this alloy. The lower
strength level promotes resistance to sulfide stress corrosion crack- Duplex Alloys
ing. CA40 is a higher strength version of CA15 and it also exhibits
excellent atmospheric corrosion resistance. CB7Cu alloys typically CD4MCu and the other alloys in ASTM-A890 have a microstruc-
have mixed martensite and ferrite microstructures and due to in- ture containing approximately equal amounts of ferrite and
creased Cr and Ni levels, compared to the other martensitic alloys, austenite. Its low carbon content and high chromium content render
offer improved corrosion resistance to some mild acids while main- the alloy relatively immune to intergranular corrosion. High chro-
taining good atmospheric corrosion resistance. The CB7Cu alloys mium and molybdenum provide a high degree of localized corrosion
are hardenable and offer the possibility of increased strength and (crevices and pitting) resistance and the duplex microstructure pro-
corrosion resistance among the martensitic alloys. vides stress corrosion cracking resistance in many environments.
Ferritic Alloys Fully Austenitic Alloys

CB30 and CC50 are higher carbon and higher chromium alloys CH10 and CH20 are fully austenitic alloys containing 22-26% Cr
than the CA alloys previously mentioned. Each alloy is predomi- and 12-15 % Ni. The high chromium content minimizes the tendency
nantly ferritic although a small amount of martensite may be found toward the formation of chromium-depleted zones due to sensitiza-
in CB30. CB30 contains 18-21% Cr and is used in chemical proc- tion and the high nickel content also increases the solubility of
essing and oil refining applications. The Cr content is sufficient to carbon in the austenite. CH10 and CH20 are used for handling paper
have good corrosion resistance to many acids including nitric acid pulp solutions and are known for good resistance to dilute sulfuric
(Figure 20-21). CC50 contains substantially more Cr (26-30% Cr) acid and also nitric acid.
250
200 4Df
A / "
0 9 9 /
300 I I 160 JUU
a a
E E 100
200 » £ 200
^Boiling point curve
100
0 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100

H J S O J concentration, % H N 0 3 concentration, % NaOH concentration, %
la) (b) (c)
250
|
Boiiin !
g point curve—^,
5 150 300 ;
,» 100 , | i •
200 '
•
~ 100
20 40 60 8 20 40 60 20 40
NaOH concentration, % H3PO4 c o n c e n t r a t i o n , % H3PO4 c o n c e n t r a t i o n , %
Id) (e) (f)
Fig. 20-24 Isocorrosion diagrams for solution-annealed and quenched ACI CN-7M in H2SO4, HNO3, NaOH, and H3PO4. (a), (b), (d), and (f)
Tested at atmospheric pressure, (c) and (e) Tested at equilibrium pressure in a closed container. See Fig. 20-22 for legend.
CK3MCuN and other 6% molybdenum alloys are more resistant tion treatment temperature. Water quenching from the solution an-
to chloride-bearing environments. These alloys have the highest nealing temperature normally completes the solution treatment.
molybdenum content of the stainless steels and thus have the great- Failure to solution treat a particular alloy or an improper solution
est resistance to pitting by high halide conditions. These alloys have treatment may seriously compromise the observed corrosion resis-
found particular acceptance in sea water and equipment where tance in service. Inadvertent or unavoidable (e.g., welding) heat
recirculation of process liquids concentrates chlorides and other treatment in the 900-1500 °F (480-820 °C) temperature range may
contaminants. destroy the intergranular corrosion (IGC) resistance of the alloy.
CN7M is nominally a 20Cr-29Ni-2.50Mo-3.5Cu alloy possessing When austenitic or duplex (ferrite in austenite matrix) stainless
excellent corrosion resistance in a wide variety of processes contain- steels are heated in or cooled slowly through this temperature range,
ing sulfuric acid (Figure 20-24). Excellent resistance to halide-bear- chromium rich carbides form at grain boundaries in austenitic alloys
ing environments (high crevice corrosion and pitting resistance) and and at ferrite-austenite interfaces in duplex alloys. These carbides
relatively high resistance to intergranular corrosion make this alloy can deplete the surrounding matrix of chromium thus diminishing
attractive for very many applications. Although relatively highly the corrosion resistance of the alloy. An alloy in this condition of
alloyed, the fully austenitic structure of CN7M may lead to stress reduced corrosion resistance due to the formation of chromium
corrosion cracking susceptibility for some environments and stress carbides is said to be sensitized. In small amounts, these carbides
states. may lead to localized pitting in the alloy but if the chromium
depleted zones are extensive throughout the alloy or HAZ of a weld,
Intergranular Corrosion: Austenitic and the alloy may disintegrate in an intergranular fashion in some
Duplex Alloys environments.
The optimum corrosion resistance for these alloys is developed by If solution treatment of the alloy following casting and/or welding
solution treatment. Depending on the specific alloy in question, is impractical or impossible, the metallurgist has several tools from
temperatures between 1900 and 2250 °F (1038 to 1204 °C) are which to choose to minimize potential IGC problems. The extra low
required to ensure complete solution of all carbides and phases such carbon grades CF3, CF3M, and CF3MN are commonly employed
as sigma and chi that sometimes form in highly alloyed stainless as a solution to sensitization incurred during welding. The low
steels. Frequently, alloys containing relatively high total alloy con- carbon content (0.03% C maximum) of these alloys precludes the
tent, particularly high molybdenum content, require the higher solu- formation of an extensive number of chromium carbides. In addi-
tion, these alloys normally contain 3-30% ferrite in an austenitic

matrix. By virtue of rapid carbide precipitation kinetics at ferrite-
austenite interfaces compared to austenite-austenite interfaces, car-
bide precipitation is confined to ferrite-austenite boundaries in the
alloys (5,6). If the ferrite network is discontinuous in the austenite
matrix (depends upon amount, size, and distribution of ferrite
pools), then extensive IGC will not be a problem in the vast majority
of environments to which these alloys would be subjected. The
attack at the ferrite austenite boundaries is shown in Figure 20-25.
These low carbon alloys need not sacrifice significant strength
compared to their high carbon counterparts because nitrogen may be
added to return strength. Fortuitously, nitrogen is also beneficial to
the corrosion resistance of austenitic and duplex stainless steels (7).
Nitrogen seems to retard sensitization and improve the resistance to
pitting and crevice corrosion of many stainless steels.
The Standard Practices of ASTM A262 are commonly employed
to predict and measure the IGC susceptibility of austenitic and
duplex stainless steels. Table 20-8 indicates some representative
results (6,8,9) for CF type alloys as tested by A262 Practices A, B,
and C as well as two electrochemical tests described in the literature
(10,11). Table 20-9 gives the composition of the alloys investigated.
The data indicate the superiority of the low carbon alloys in IGC
resistance. Table 20-8 also indicates that for highly oxidizing envi-
ronments (represented here by A262C - boiling nitric acid) that the
CF3 and CF3M alloys are equivalent in the solution treated condi-
tion but that subsequent heat treatment causes the corrosion resis-
tance of the CF3M alloys to deteriorate rapidly for service in oxidiz-
ing environments (9). Also note that the degree of chromium
depletion necessary to cause IGC susceptibility seems to increase in
the presence of molybdenum (CF8 and CF8M data for simulated
Fig. 20-25 Ferrite/austenite grain-boundary ditching in as-cast ACI weld repair) (6). The passive film stability imparted by molybdenum
CF-8. The specimen, which contained 3% ferrite, was EPR tested. may offset the loss of solid solution chromium for mild degrees of
SEM micrograph. 4550x sensitization.
Table 20-8 Intergranular Corrosion Test Results for Common Cast Stainless Steels (Ferrite Number in
Parentheses)
CF8(4) CF8(11) CF8(20) CF8M(5) CF8M(11)CF8M(20) CF3(2) CF3(5) CF3(8) CF3M(5) CF3M(9) CF3M(16)
Solution treated
A262A P P P P p p P P P P P P
A262B P P P P p p P P P P P P
A262C P P P P p p P P P P P P
EPR P P P P p p P(a) P(a) P(a) P P P
JEPR P P P P p p P P P P P P
Simulated weld repair
A262A X X X X X X P P P P P P
A262B X X X X X X P P P P P P
A262C X X X X X X P P P P P P
EPR X X X P p p P(a) P(a) P(a) P P P
JEPR X X X P p p P P P P P P
ST+lh650 °C
A262A X X X X X X X X X X X X
A262B X X X X X X P P P P P p
A262C X X X X X X P P P X X X
EPR X X X X X X X/P(b) X/P(b) X/P(b) X/P P p
JEPR X X X P X X P P P P P p
As cast
A262A X X X X X X X X X X X X
A262B X X X X X X P P P P X p
A262C X X X X X X P(c) P(c) P(c) X X X
EPR X X X X X X X/P(b) X/P(b) X/P(b) X/P X/P p
JEPR X X X X X X X/P P P P P p
Legend; P = Pass, X = Fail, Based on the following criteria: A262A ditching < 10% = pass; A262B weight loss < 25 mil/y = pass; JEPR ratio < 1% = pass; A262C
weight loss < 16 mil/y, not increasing = pass; EPR peak current density < 100 uamp/sq cm = pass, (a) Pass, matrix pitting complicates testresult,(b) Likely pass, small
EPR indication complicated by matrix pitting, (c) Pass, actual heat treatment 4 h at 650 °C after solution treatment rather than as-cast condition. X/P = near pass

Intergranular Corrosion: Ferritic and Corrosion Fatigue

Martensitic Alloys Corrosion fatigue is one of the most destructive and unpredictable
Ferritic alloys may also be sensitized by the formation of exten- phenomena. Behavior is highly specific to the environment and
sive chromium carbide networks but because of the high bulk alloy. The martensitic materials are degraded most, both in absolute
chromium content and rapid diffusion rates of chromium in ferrite, and relative terms. Left to freely corrode in seawater they have
the formation of some carbides may be tolerated. The slow cooling practically no endurance limit. This is remarkable in view of their
allows replenishment of the chromium adjacent to carbides. very high strength and fatigue resistance in air.
If suitable cathodic protection is applied, properties may be
Martensitic alloys do not normally contain sufficient bulk chro-
largely restored. However, since these materials are susceptible to
mium to be used in service where IGC is likely to be of concern.
hydrogen embrittlement, cathodic protection must be carefully ap-
plied. Too large a protective potential will lead to catastrophic
Localized Corrosion hydrogen stress cracking. Austenitic materials are also severely
Austenitic and martensitic alloys display a tendency for localized degraded in corrosion fatigue strength under conditions conducive
corrosion. The conditions conducive to this behavior may be any to pitting, such as in seawater. However, they are easily cathodically
situation in areas where an oxygen concentration cell may be estab- protected without fear of hydrogen embrittlement and perform well
lished. Duplex alloys have been found to be less susceptible. Behav- in fresh waters.
ior is particularly acute in chloride and acidic solutions. Duplex alloys have not been widely studied.
Increasing alloy content is beneficial. Molybdenum has long been
recognized to be an effective retardent of localized corrosion, al-
though it is not a total answer. Excellent results have been obtained
with CG8M and CK3MCuN, while CF3M or CN7M are readily
attacked. Nitrogen is also effective at retarding localized corrosion.
It has been suggested that resistance to pitting is good when a
crevice factor (Cr% + 3 x Mo% + 15 x N%) exceeds 35. The basis
for this may be seen in Figure 20-26 which depicts the shift in pitting
potential for a number of alloys. Other parameters have also been
proposed (12).
50
40
£ 30
£ 20
E
3
z
10
Crevice factor-ferric chloride room-temperature 5 day test

+ Nltronlc 6 0 * CF3M ° CF3MN
Ferrite c o n t e n t , %
x CN7M £> Nltronlc 5 0 * CK3MCUN
Fig. 20-26 Crevice corrosion resistance of various alloys (Cr + Fig. 20-27 Stress required to produce SCC in several ACI alloys
3M0 + 15N) with varying amounts of ferrite
Table 20-9 Composition of Research Alloys

Material %C %Mn %Si %P %S %Cr %Ni %Mo %N FN
CF8LO 0.058 0.60 1.52 0.012 0.013 18.53 9.98 0.02 0.02 4
CF8INT 0.086 0.84 1.10 0.031 0.012 19.90 8.73 0.50 0.02 11
CF8HI 0.066 0.79 1.25 0.031 0.011 20.81 8.85 0.45 0.02 20
CF8MLO 0.063 0.94 1.21 0.011 0.014 18.26 11.17 2.28 0.02 5
CF8MINT 0.083 1.20 1.20 0.030 0.013 19.78 9.53 2.21 0.02 12
CF8MHI 0.071 1.19 1.16 0.030 0.011 19.92 9.40 1.95 0.02 21
CF3LO 0.016 0.98 1.12 0.010 0.008 17.36 10.10 0.10 0.04 2
CF3INT 0.023 0.68 1.24 0.011 0.009 19.35 10.27 0.10 0.06 5
CF3HI 0.015 0.67 1.09 0.013 0.006 19.82 8.73 0.10 0.04 8
CF3MLO 0.027 0.96 0.85 0.011 0.010 17.55 12.00 2.18 0.04 5
CF3MINT 0.027 1.04 1.02 0.009 0.009 18.78 10.79 2.12 0.03 9
CF3MHI 0.022 0.94 1.14 0.012 0.007 19.85 10.08 2.26 0.02 16

XQ- : x 3. C.E. Bates and L.T. Tillery, Atlas of Cast Corrosion-Resistant Alloy
Microstructures, Steel Founders' Society of America, 1985
4. Metals Handbook-Volume 3, "Properties and Selection: Stainless
Steels, Tool Materials, and Special Purpose Metals," 9th ed., ASM,
1980, p 109-120
5. T.M. Devine, "Mechanism of Intergranular Corrosion and Pitting
Corrosion of Austenitic and Duplex 308 Stainless Steel," J. Elec-
trochem. Soc, Vol 126, No. 3,1979, p 374
6. E.E. Stansbury, CD. Lundin, and S.J. Pawel, "Sensitization Behav-
ior of Cast Stainless Steels Subjected to Simulated Weld Repair,"
. i Proceedings: 38th SFSA Technical and Operating Conference,
Chicago, IL, Nov 1983, p 223
. / :j
7. S.J. Pawel, "Literature Review on the Role of Nitrogen in Austenitic
Steels," Steel Founders' Research Journal, Issue 5, First Quarter
1984
8. S.J. Pawel, "The Sensitization Behavior of Cast Stainless Steels
Subjected to Weld Repair," University of Tennessee Masters The-
sis, June 1983
9. S.J. Pawel, E.E. Stansbury, and CD. Lundin, "Evaluation of Post
Weld Repair Requirements for CF3 and CF3M Alloys—Exposure
to Boiling Nitric Acid," 75/ International Steel Foundry Congress
Proceedings, Chicago, IL, Nov 1985, p 45
10. W.L. Clarke, R.L. Cowan, and W.L. Walker, "Comparative Meth-
ods for Measuring Degree of Sensitization in Stainless Steel,"
Fig. 20-28 Ferrite blocking the propagation of a stress corrosion Intergranular Corrosion of Stainless Alloys: ASTM STP 656, R.F
crack Steigerwald,Ed.,ASTM, 1978, p 99
11. M. Akashi, et al., "Evaluation of IGSCC Susceptibility of Austenitic
Stainless Steels Using Electrochemical Methods," translated from
Boshoku Gijutsu (Corrosion Engineering), Vol 29, 1980, pi 63
Stress Corrosion Cracking (Translation by BTSITS)
The SCC of cast stainless steels has been investigated for only a 12. J.A. Larson, "1984 SCRATA Exchange Lecture: New Develop-
limited number of environments, heat treatments, and test condi- ments in High Alloy Cast Steels," Proceedings: 39th SFSA
tions because of its rare occurrence in cast stainless steels. From the Technical and Operating Conference, 1984, p 229-239
limited information available, the following generalizations apply: 13. J.W. Flowers, F.H. Beck, and M.G. Fontana, "Corrosion and Age
Hardening Studies of Some Cast Stainless Alloys Containing Fer-
1. SCC resistance seems to improve as the composition is adjusted rite," Corrosion, Vol 19,1963, p 186
to provide increasingly greater amount of ferrite in an austenitic 14. F.H. Beck, J. Juppenlatz, and P.F. Wieser, "Effects of Ferrite and
matrix. This trend continues to a certain level, apparently near Sensitization on Intergranular and Stress Corrosion Behavior of
50% ferrite (Figures 20-27 and 20-28). Cast Stainless Steels," Stress Corrosion—New Approaches, ASTM
2. Lower nickel contents tend to improve SCC resistance in cast STP 610, ASTM, 1976, p 381-398
duplex alloys, possibly due to its effect on ferrite content (16). 15. N.R. Hughes, W.C. Clarke, and D.E. Delwiche, "Intergranular
3. Ferrite appears to be involved in a "keying" action in discourag- Stress Corrosion Cracking Resistance of Austenitic Stainless Steel
ing SCC. At low and medium stress levels, the ferrite tends to Castings," Stainless Steel Castings, ASTM STP 756, VG. Behal
block the propagation of stress corrosion cracks. This may be due and A.S. Melilli, Ed., ASTM, 1982, p 2647
to a change in composition and/or crystal structure across the 16. S. Shimodaira, et al., "Mechanisms of Transgranular Stress Corro-
austenite-ferrite boundary. See Figure 20-28. As the stress level sion Cracking of Duplex and Ferritic Stainless Steels," Proc. Int.
increases, crack propagation may change from austenite-ferrite Conf. on SCC and HE in Iron Base Alloys, NACE-5, France, 1973
boundaries to transgranular propagation (16,17)- 17. PL. Andresen, D.J. Duquette, "The Effect of Cl-Concentration and
4. Reducing the carbon content — thus reducing the susceptibility Applied Potential on the SCC Behavior of Type 304 Stainless Steel
to sensitization — improves SCC resistance. This is true inde- in Deaerated High Temperature Water," Corrosion, Vol 36, No.2,
pendent of cast or wrought fabrication (16,18,19,20) 1980
18. J.N. Kass, et al., "Stress Corrosion Cracking of Welded Type 304
and 304L Stainless Steel Under Cyclic Loading," Corrosion, Vol
REFERENCES 36, No. 6,1980
19. J.N. Kass, et al., "Comparative Stress Corrosion Behavior of
1. C. Briggs, Ed., Steel Casting Handbook: 4th Edition, Steel Foun- Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe in High Temperature High
ders' Society of America, 1970, p 662-667 Purity Oxygenated Water," Corrosion, Vol 36, No. 12,1980
2. M. Prager, "Cast High Alloy Metallurgy," Steel Casting Metallurgy, 20. Lin, et al., "Stress Corrosion Cracking of Sensitized Type 304
J. Svoboda, Ed., Steel Founders' Society of America, 1984, p Stainless Steel in Sulfate and Chloride Solutions at 250 and 100
145-221 °C," Corrosion, Vol 37, No. 6,1981

CHAPTER 21
Nickel-Base Castings
Page
Introduction 21-2
Alloy Compositions 21-2

Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum 21-2
Nickel-Copper 21-2
Nickel-Molybdenum 21-2
Individual Alloys 21-2
Heat Treatment 21-3

Welding 21-3
Applications 21-3

Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum
Introduction These alloys parallel Haynes' Hastelloy C Series. CW12MW is
similar to the original C grade (high carbon, tungsten addition). This
Nickel-base castings are produced from a group of alloys with alloy has lost favor in wrought products because of poor perform-
compositions which are typically greater than 50% Ni and less than ance in some applications, and is rarely produced. It is still common
10% iron (Table 21-1). Most of these alloys can be found in ASTM- in castings because of the habit of ordering "HasteDoy C" as a
A494 and are used for applications of very aggressive corrosive generic alloy. Hastelloy C-276 (low carbon with tungsten) replaced
media, mixtures of corrosives, or normal corrosives with high resid- "C" but has no cast counterpart in ASTM-A494. CW12MW ordered
ual contents (example: chlorines). It is not uncommon for these with a 0.02% maximum carbon is a good equivalent. CW2M and
alloys to be produced in foundries producing steels and stainless CW6M are nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys with no other
steels. The castability and ultimate corrosion performance of nickel- alloying elements and are similar to Hastelloy C-4. CX2MW is the
base castings is greatly influenced by foundry practices. The prac- most recent alloy addition to this group and is patterned after
tices needed to make nickel-base castings can be very different from Hastelloy C-22. This alloy has more chromium than CW12MW but
steel or even stainless steel. A potential supplier's experience and less molybdenum and tungsten.
technical capabilities in these alloys should be carefully considered
before buying castings. Nickel-Copper
The nickel-copper alloys in ASTM-A494 are the Mxxx grades
because of their similarity to the Monels. M35-1, M35-2, and M30-
C are the weldable grades. They typically have low silicon (less than
1.5%) and differ in strength levels and the use of niobium (M30-C)
Alloy Compositions instead of silicon for weldability and strength. These are normally
Most cast nickel alloys followed the development of a similar used when corrosion properties are the main concern. Alloys M35-
wrought alloy. Castings are often discussed and even ordered using B, M35-C, and M35-D, the so-called high silicon or non-weldable
the trademark names of wrought alloys. The ASTM-A494 designa- grades, are used when hardness or wear properties are important in
tions should be used as much as possible because the wrought addition to corrosion resistance.
producer holding the trademark is rarely associated with the cast
grades. The use of the ASTM casting alloy names also reinforces the Nickel-Molybdenum
fact that casting compositions, mechanical properties, and corrosion Nl 2MV and N7M follow the Haynes' Hastelloy B and B-4 alloys.
properties may not be the same as the wrought alloys. The cast- N7M has 3% more molybdenum, a lower iron residual, and unlike
wrought comparisons in Table 20-2 and used in this chapter are for N12MV does not contain vanadium. This gives it a slightly better
general comparison only. performance but it is generally a more difficult alloy to cast.
The differences between castings and wrought material are a
result of both compositional differences and metallurgical structure. Individual Alloys
The composition of castings is often different to facilitate pouring Cast nickel is given the designation CZ100. This alloy is typically
and other foundry processes, or to take advantage of the fact that cast made with 0.75% carbon. Its structure is very similar to ductile iron
alloys do not undergo deformation processes. The metallurgical with nodular graphite. Sometimes low carbon grades of CZ100 are
structure (phase distribution, alloy microsegregation) is different requested by customers. The low carbon version almost always
because of the solidification rates and the lack of deformation leads to gas defects. The low carbon version of CZ100 does not have
processing in castings. These differences may be an advantage to advantage over the standard grades as the carbon segregates to the
castings or to wrought material. The effects are not clearly under- graphite while the nickel matrix already has a very low carbon
stood because they often influence laboratory test results which do content.
not simulate service conditions.
The nickel-base alloys fall into three groups and a series of CW6MC - Similar to Inconel 625 in composition.
individual alloys. CY40 - Similar to Inconel 600.
Table 21-1
C Cr Ni Mo Cu Fe Other
CW12MW 0.12 15.5/17.5 Bal 16718 4.5/7.5 W 3.75/5.25

CW2M 0.02 15.0/17.5 Bal 15/17.5 2.0 V 0.20/0740
CW6M 0.07 17.0/20.0 Bal 17/20 3.0
CX2MW 0.02 20/22.5 Bal 12.5/14.5 2.0/6.0 W 2.5/3.5, V 0.35
M35-1 0.30 Bal 26/33 3.5 Cb0.50
M35-2 0.30 Bal 26/33 2.5 Si 2.0
M30-C 0.30 Bal 26/33 3.5 Cb 1/3, Si 1.0/2.0
M35-B 0.35 Bal 27/33 2.5 Si 2.7/3.7
M35-C 0.20 Bal 27/31 2.5 Si 3.3/3.7
M35-D 0.25 Bal 27/31 2.5 Si 3.5/4.5
N7M 0.07 1.0 Bal 30/33 3.0
N12MV 0.12 1.0 Bal 26/30 4.0/6.0 V 0.20/0.60
CY40 0.40 14/17 Bal 11.0
CW6MC 0.06 20/23 Bal 8/10 5.0 Cb 3.15/4.50
CZ100 1.00 95.0 min 1.25 3.0
Weight percent maximums unless otherwise noted

Nickel-Base Castings 21-3
Heat Treatment Table21-2

Cast Comparable
Proper heat treatment of the nickel-base alloys is critical. Except designation -wrought General
for some rare applications, these alloys are solution treated to im- ASTM-A494 designation application
prove their corrosion properties. (CZ100 and the nickel-copper
alloys are not heat treated.) The alloys that contain chromium and/or CW12MW Hastelloy C Aggressive acids
molybdenum contain chromium carbides, molybdenum rich inter- CW12MW(1) HastelloyC-276 Mixed acids
CW2M Hastelloy C4C High chloride solutions
metallics, and microsegregation before heat treatment. This leads to
CW6M Hastelloy C modified
alloy depleted areas which will corrode at an accelerated rate.
Solution annealing (a high temperature soak followed by water CX2MW Hastelloy C-22 As above, intended for both
quenching) will dissolve the chromium carbides and remove some oxidizing and reducing
of the molybdenum intermetallics and segregation. environments
The alloys containing both chromium and molybdenum
(CW12MW, CW2M, CW6M, CX2MW, CW6MC) are commonly M35-1 Monel400 Sea water
heat treated at 2250 °F for at least two hours because of the slow M35-2 None Hydrofluoric acids
dissolution of the intermetallics. Lower temperature (less than 2100 M30-C Weldable Monel
°F) for long periods of time is not an acceptable substitute for higher
M35-B H-Monel Corrosive wear applications
temperatures because the intermetallics actually grow at the lower M35-C None
temperatures rather than dissolve. All the solution annealed alloys M35-D S-Monel
can be water quenched. If cracking occurs from heat treating and
quenching, it is an indication that the casting is not physically sound, N7M Hastelloy B modified
the metal composition is not properly balanced, or the solution time N12MV Hastelloy B
and temperature were not sufficient. CY40 Inconel 600
Air cooling may be used on small, thin parts to avoid distortion
during cooling. CW6MC Inconel 625 Oxidizing acids
CZ100 Cast nickel Caustic service
(1) With a 0.02% max carbon

Mechanical Properties
In general, these alloys are produced to optimize corrosion resis-
tance, and mechanical properties are secondary. The property of mium-carbide formation. Molybdenum bearing alloys may form
most interest to the foundry is ductility. A high ductility allows for precipitates with poor corrosion resistance, and, in some cases,
better weldability and response to water quenching. A low ductility residual welding stresses may be of concern. Resistance to PWHT
is often an indirect indication that insufficient quantities of precipi- by the foundry is influenced by cost, time, and the fear of being
tates have dissolved in heat treatment, and corrosion properties may caught in an endless cycle. The cost and time can be factored in price
be adversely affected. and delivery if the number of cycles can be controlled. Castings can
Tensile and yield properties should meet ASTM requirements become trapped in a cycle of weld repair of original defects-PWHT-
without particular problems. As a rule strength levels cannot be weld new defects-PWHT-weld new defects-PWHT-etc.
increased by heat treatment at the foundry without adverse effects The new defects after PWHT fall into two categories. The first is
on corrosion resistance. cracks which are influenced by the original manufacturing of the
casting, which the foundry must control. The second problem is
Welding. Except for the high-strength, high-silicon Monels, all small subsurface holes or inclusions, exposed by the heat treating
the nickel-base alloys can be readily welded. Filler metal produced cycle, that then require repairs. This is the most common problem
to match the comparable wrought alloys is most often used. Crack-
and can be eliminated by two actions: the setting of inspection
ing of the base metal around welds is a common concern with
criteria to eliminate welding of small indications, or the deletion of
nickel-base alloys. Control of chemistry, pouring, casting sound-
PWHT for minor welds.
ness, and heat treatment has the dominant effect on weldability.
Upgrading can be achieved with standard techniques designed to It should be noted that most well-made nickel-chrome alloys are
have a minimum heat input rate. Preheating before welding is not produced as extra-low-carbon (0.01-0.02% typical carbon), and
recommended. In fact, low interpass temperature maximums (200- precipitation effects at small welds are minor if they occur at all.
400 °F) are often used. Major welds (through wall, large areas or deep) should be PWHT as
The requirements for post-weld heat treatment are subjects of a matter of standard practice.
much debate, many opinions, and little data. This is due to the
complexity of corrosion behavior, limited testing of cast alloys, and
the variation of base metal quality from various foundries. The end Applications
user, equipment manufacturer, and foundry should together decide
what is appropriate. Alloy selection for castings is normally based on the selection of
The first thing to consider is what metallurgical problems PWHT wrought material with the casting purchased to match. The com-
is intended to undo. In chromium bearing nickel-base alloys, chro- plexity of corrosion applications is beyond the scope of this chapter,
mium depleted zones may form during welding because of chro- but some generalizations are given in Table 21-2.

CHAPTER 22
Heat-Resistant High Alloy Steels

Page
Definitions and Alloy Classification 22-2
iron-Chromium Alloys 22-3
Iron-Chromium-Nickel Alloys 22-3
Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys 22-3
Nickel-lron-Chromium Alloys 22-3
Proprietary and Semi-Proprietary Grades 22-3
Alloy Selection 22-4

Room-Temperature Tensile Properties 22-5
Elevated-Temperature Tensile Properties 22-5
Creep and Stress Rupture Properties 22-6
Elevated-Temperature Strengthening 22-8
Property Changes Due to High-Temperature Service 22-8
Thermal Fatigue and Thermal Shock Resistance 22-9
Hot Gas Corrosion 22-9

Oxidation 22-9
Sulphidation 22-10
Carburization 22-10
Nitriding 22-11
Formability 22-11
Applications of Cast Heat-Resistant Alloys 22-11

Iron-Chromium Alloys 22-11
Iron-Chromium-Nickel Alloys 22-12
Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys 22-12
Nickel-lron-Chromium Alloys 22-12
Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys 22-13
References 22-13

A wide range of cast heat-resistant high alloy steels has been

Definitions and Alloy developed to meet industrial needs. The compositions of these
Classification alloys are shown in Tables 22-3 and 22-4. The standard grades,
which are recognized by ASTM specifications, fall in a range from
Cast heat-resistant alloys are primarily used in applications where 0 to 68% nickel with 8 to 32% chromium and the balance primarily
service temperatures exceed 1200 °F (650 °C) and may reach ex- iron plus up to 2.5% silicon and 2% manganese. Proprietary alloys
tremes as high as 2400 °F (1315 °C). Strength at elevated tempera- and others, which are now in the public domain, are generally more
tures is often the first consideration in alloy selection, however, the highly alloyed. Single or multiple additions of the elements alu-
resistance of the alloy to attack by the environment, the presence of minium, cobalt, molybdenum, niobium, the rare earth metals (Ce,
aggressive corrodants, and the imposition of cyclic stresses and La and Y), titanium, tungsten and zirconium are added to enhance
temperatures are some of the other factors that may need equal specific properties such as high-temperature strength, carburization
consideration. resistance, and resistance to thermal cycling.
Several of the cast heat-resistant alloys are compositionally re- The alloys may be simply classified on the basis of structure
lated to the wrought stainless steels and to the cast corrosion-resis- alone. Grades HA and HC with 8 to 30% chromium and up to 4%
tant alloys, as shown in Table 22-1. The major difference between nickel are ferritic. Grades HD, HE, HF, and HH may exhibit duplex
these materials is their carbon content. With only a few exceptions, structures of ferrite and austenite, while the remaining alloys HK to
carbon in the cast heat-resistant alloys falls in a range from 0.3 to HX, together with the majority of the proprietary alloys, are fully
0.6%, compared with 0.01 to 0.25% carbon normally associated austenitic.
with the wrought and cast corrosion-resistant grades. This difference An alternative classification is based on the order of the diminish-
in carbon results in significant changes in properties, for example, ing quantity of major elements, which breaks down into the follow-
the higher rupture strength of the cast alloys, which are compared ing four groups:
with those of wrought alloys in Table 22-2. It is therefore important
to recognize these distinctions, because each group of alloys has it's 1. Iron-Chromium
2. Iron-Chromium-Nickel
own appropriate application and related specifications.
3. Iron-Nickel-Chromium
4. Nickel-Iron-Chromium
Table 22-1 Similar Cast Heat Resistant, Cast

Corrosion-Resistant, and Wrought Stainless Steel
Grades Table 22-2 Rupture Strength of Cast
Cast Wrought Cast
heat-resistant corrosion-resistant corrosion- resistant 10,000 hour rupture
grade stainless grade stainless grade stress-ksi
Form Alloy 1600°F 1800°F
HC 446 CC50
HD 327 Wrought 309 1.5 0.5
HE 312 Cast HHn 4.4 1.7
HF 302B CF20 Wrought 310 1.5 0.5
HHH 309 CH20 Cast HK40 4.0 1.6
HK 310 CK20 Wrought 330 1.7 0.6
HT 330 Cast HT 4.7 1.7
Table 22-3 Standard Designations and Compositions of Cast Heat-Resistant Steel

Alloy ASTM Composition ,wt%
grade specs C Mn Si P s Cr Ni Mo Nb
HA 1,2,3 0.20 0.65(a) 1.0 0.04 0.04 8-10 0.90-1.20

HC 1,3 0.50 1.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 26-30 4.0 0.5
HD 1,3 0.50 1.5 2.0 0.04 0.04 26-30 4-7 0.5
HE 1,3 0.20-0.50 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 26-30 8-11 0.5
HF 1,3 0.20-0.40 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 18-23 8-12 0.5
HH 1,3,4 0.20-0.50 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 24-28 11-14 0.5
HI 1,3 0.20-0.50 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 26-30 14-18 0.5
HK 1,3,5 0.20-0.60 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 24-28 18-22 0.5
HL 1,3 0.20-0.60 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 28-32 18-22 0.5
HN 1,3 0.20-0.50 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 19-23 23-27 0.5
HP 1 0.35-0.75 2.0 2.5 0.04 0.04 24-28 33-37 0.5
HT 1,3,5 0.35-0.75 2.0 2.5 0.04 0.04 15-19 33-37 0.5
HU 1,3 0.35-0.75 2.0 2.5 0.04 0.04 17-21 37-41 0.5
HW 1,3 0.35-0.75 2.0 2.5 0.04 0.04 10-14 58-62 0.5
HX 1,3 0.35-0.75 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 15-19 64-68 0.5
CT15 5 0.05-0.15 1.5(b) 1.5(c) 0.03 0.03 19-21 31-34 0.5 0.5-1.5
50-50-Nb 6 0.10 0.3 0.5 0.02 0.02 47-52 Bal 1.4- .7
Notes: Maximum values unless shown otherwise, (a) Mn 0.35% min. (b) Mn 0.15% min. (c) Si 0.5% min. Key to ASTM specifications; 1. A297,2. A743,3. A608,4.
A447,5. A351,6. A560. The letter H indicates heat-resistant alloy. The second letterfrom "A" to "X" denotes increasing nickelfrom0 to 68%. Numerals after the first
two letters are used to designate the carbon content, i.e., HK40 is an HK alloy with 0.40% ±0.05% carbon.

Heat-Resistant High Alloy Steels 22-3
Iron-Chromium Alloys Proprietary and Semi-Proprietary Grades

The three alloys normally considered in this group are HA, HC, Many of the proprietary alloys or proprietary compositions that
and HD although only the first of these is technically an Fe-Cr alloy. are now in the public domain, can be conveniently classified into
The other two grades contain 26 to 30% chromium and up to 7% three groups, with the following base compositions:
nickel. These grades are mainly used in environments containing
sulphur-bearing gases, where high-temperature strength is not an • HK-20Ni-25Cr
important consideration. • HP-35Ni-25Cr
• 45Ni-30Cr
Iron-Chromium-Nickel Alloys
The nominal compositions of several of these alloys are shown in
Alloys in this group contain 18 to 32% chromium and 8 to 22%
Table 22-4. A number of other proprietary alloys outside these
nickel, with chromium always exceeding nickel and include the
ranges have also been developed for specific applications.
grades HE, HF, HH, HI, HK, and HL. While these alloys are
considered to be austenitic, the lower nickel compositions will 20Ni-25Cr
contain some ferrite. Transformation of the ferrite to brittle sigma
phase is a concern with this group, even in the higher nickel grades, The HK composition has served as a base for further strengthen-
particularly if their compositional balance leans to ferrite. The high- ing, without overly increasing the base metal cost. One of the first
temperature strength of this group is greater than that of the Fe-Cr of these alloys, Inco's IN519 made use of small additions of nio-
alloys and their creep and rupture strength increases as nickel is bium, while increasing the nominal nickel level from 20 to 24% in
raised. order to offset the development of sigma phase. Other manufactur-
ers have developed even higher-strength materials with tungsten or
Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys niobium combined with micro-additions of titanium, as illustrated
in Figure 22-1.
The four standard grades in this group, HN, HP, HT, and HU
contain 15 to 28% chromium and 23 to 41% nickel. Nickel always 35Ni-25Cr
exceeds the chromium content. These alloys have stable austenitic
structures, good high-temperature strength, enhanced resistance to Research sponsored by the SFSA in the 1960s was an important
thermal cycling and thermal stresses, combined with high resistance factor in the development of a range of alloys in which the HP alloy
to oxidizing and reducing environments. is used as a compositional base (1). These alloys make use of the
carbide forming elements niobium, molybdenum, titanium, tung-
sten, and zirconium, together non-carbide forming additions of
Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys aluminum, copper, and cobalt to increase strength and/or carburiza-
Two standard grades, HX and HW, fall into this group which tion resistance. Silicon must also be considered as an alloying
contain 58 to 68% nickel and chromium in a range from 10 to 19%. addition, since it is used at low levels to maximize creep and rupture
Usually referred to as high alloy steels, these materials are more strength and at high levels to enhance carburization. Carbon which
correctly described as nickel-base alloys. While possessing moder- is used as a strengthener, is reduced in some modifications to
ate high temperature rupture strength, their creep strength is low. increase the resistance to thermal cycling and shock.
These grades have the highest carburization resistance of the stan- One of the the most successful and widely used modifications of
dard alloys. HP alloy has been with 0.5 to 1.5% niobium. This lead to the
Table 22-4 Examples and Nominal Compositions of Some Proprietary Cast Heat-Resistant Steels
Generic Composition, Wt %
Alloy base Mn Si Cr Ni Mo W Nb Co Ti Other
25Cr-20Ni
HK-Nb-Ti 0.4 1 1 25 22 0.3 0.1
HK-Nb 0.3 1 1 24 25 1.5
HK-Co-W 0.4 1 1 23 25 2 15
25Cr-35Ni
HP-Nb 0.45 1 1 25 35 1.25
HP-Nb-Si 0.45 1 1.7 25 35 1.25
HP-Nb-L.C 0.15 1 1 25 35 1.3
HP-Nb-Ti 0.5 1 1 26 35 0.5 Add.
HP-Nb-W 0.4 1 1.5 25 37 1.5 1.5
HP-Nb-W-Mo 0.45 1 1.6 25 35 0.5 1.3 1.3
HP-Mo 0.45 1.5 1.5 2 36 1.3
HP-W 0.45 1 1.5 26 36 4
HP-W-Co 0.5 0.5 1.3 26 35 5 15
30Cr45Ni
30-45-Nb-W 0.4 1 1 34 44 0.5 0.5
30-45-Nb-Ti 0.42 1 1 34 45 1 Add. +A1
30-45-W 0.5 1 1 28 47 5
30-45-W-Co 0.45 1 1 26 47 5
30-45-W-A1 0.2 0.4 0.2 33 50 16 +A1
Note: Sulphur and phosphorus typically specified at less than 0.03% of these alloys
/ Table 22-6 Typical Tensile Properties and

982oC (1800oF) Hardness at Room Temperature
b ***w D— HK40 40
5. ^s. ... .A... HK.Nb 0 UTS YS El
ACI alloy ksi(MPa) ksi(MPa) BHN
STRESS M
STRESS KS
v. NX^ 0— HK-Nb-Ti - 30
4
HA(a) 107(738) 81 (558) 21 220
HC 110(758) 75(517) 19 223
3 20 HD 85(586) 48(331) 16 190
2
HE 95(655) 45(310) 20 200
HF 92(634) 45(310) 38 165
? 10
^^"^**"***l2 ** *" *1
1 HHI 85 (586) 50(348) 25 185
HHn 80(552) 40(276) 15 180
HI 80(552) 45(310) 12 180
TOO 1000 10000 100000 HK 75(517) 50(348) 17 170
HOURS HL 82(563) 52(359) 19 192
HN 68(469) 38(262) 13 160
Fig. 22-1 The effects of strengthening additions of niobium and HP 71 (490) 40(276) 12 176
niobium plus titanium on the rupture stresses of HK40 base alloy at HT 70(483) 40(276) 10 180
982 °C (1800 °F) HU 70(483) 40(276) 9 170
HW 68(469) 36(248) 4 185
HX 65 (448) 36(248) 9 176
Table 22-5 The Relative Decrease in Tube Proprietary Alloys

Assembly Costs Which Results From the Weight HKNbTi 74(510) 18 176
Reductions Achieved by the Use of More Highly HKNb 76(524) 37(255) 20 176
Alloyed But Higher-Strength Materials HKCoW 84(579) 50(344) 15 195
HPNb 75(517) 40(276) 12 181
HPNbLC 88(606) 41(283) 44
Design Parameters: Temperature, 1650 °F (899 °C); Tube ID, HPNbTi 77(531) 37(255) 12
4 inches (101.6 mm); Internal pressure, 450 psi (3.10 MPa) 185
HPNbW 78(538) 43(296) 13
HPNbWMo 76(525) 36(250) 11 181
Minimum HP Mo 86(592) 46(317) 13 181
sound wall Relative Relative HPW 76(524) 45(310) 13 185
thickness metal tube assembly HPWCo 74(510) 44(303) 8 185
Inches (mm) Alloy Cost/lb Cost/lb 30-45 NbTi 85(586) 42(290) 10 195
30-45 W 75(517) 42(290) 10 171
0.721 (18.31) 25Cr-20Ni(HK40) 100 100 30-45 W Co 77(531) 44(303) 10
0.330 (8.38) 25Cr-35Ni(HP) 149 78 30-45 WA1 103 (710) 256
0.280(7.11) 25Cr-35Ni(HP-Nb) 157 75
0.232 (5.89) 30Cr-45Ni-5W 235 91 Notes: (a) Normalized and tempered at 1250 °F (677 °C). All other grades are
as-cast.
development of other variants with optimized levels of carbon and 6. Design life.
silicon, as well as the use of titanium as a micro-alloy strengthening 7. High-temperature tensile properties and long term creep and rup-
addition. ture strength.
8. Service environment, be it oxidizing reducing, sulphidizing, car-
45Ni-30Cr burizing etc., or does it contain corrodants such as vanadates,
sodium, chlorides etc., or liquid metals which could flux protective
These alloys are primary intended for high-temperature service oxides.
where strength and/or carburization resistance are the prime consid- 9. Weldability in the as-cast condition and after service exposure.
eration. Because of the high-temperature applications, good oxida- 10. Machinability.
tion resistance is also a prerequisite. Like the preceding group, use
is made of single or multiple additions of W, Nb, Co, Al, and Comprehensive compilations of the physical and mechanical
micro-alloying with Ti. properties of the standard ACI alloys, together with recommended
welding and machining procedures needed to assist in alloy selec-
tion, are contained in the SFSA Handbook Supplements. Additional
Alloy Selection information on welding and machining are contained in Chapters 25
and 26, respectively, of this edition of the Handbook.
A number of factors must be considered when selecting cast heat- Alloy data sheets and technical brochures are available from the
resistant alloy castings or welded assemblies: manufacturers or licensees of proprietary alloys.
Material cost should not be a deterrent to upgrading to a more
1. The expected normal service temperature and the minimum and highly alloyed grade. The upgraded material may have greater
maximum temperatures likely to be encountered. In extreme cases strength, allowing redesign of the component to a lighter section.
the liquidus and solidus temperatures may be required. Table 22-5 compares a number of different materials suitable for
2. Frequency and rate of thermal cycling. reformer tubes, which were originally made with HK40 alloy. The
3. The severity of thermal gradients in the component alternative materials cost from 50 to 140% more than the HK40.
4. Thermal expansion properties of the alloy. Upgrading to HP-Nb alloy reduces the tube wall thickness from
5. Applied loads and manner of loading. 0.721 inches to 0.280 inches and lowers the tube weight from 40
Table 22-7 Effect of Section Size, Solidification Time and Micro-Structure (DSAS) on the Tensile Properties
of As-Cast HK40 Alloy at Room Temperature
Section solid
thickness Time DSAS UTS YS Elongating
mm sec mm ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) %
85 725 0.084 64.5 (445) 34.5 (240) 17
43 265 0.066 67 (460) 36 (250) 18
15 65 0.044 77 (530) 38 (260) 24
Notes: Data from a modified step casting poured at 1470 °C (2678 °F). DSAS, Dendrite secondary arm spacing
TEMPERATURE oF TEMPERATURE oF
600 1200 1800
600 1000 1400 1800 2200
?
Z
o
<
(3
z
o
-1
UJ
200 400 600 800 1000 1200

TEMPERATURE oC
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Fig. 22-3 Changes in tensile properties with temperature,
TEMPERATURE oC illustrated by data for HP-Nb alloy (C 0.4-0.5%, Si 1.5% max, Mn
1.5% max, Cr 24-28%, Ni 34-37%, Nb 0.6-1.5%)
Fig. 22-2 Changes in the room-temperature ductility of HU45 and
HP45 alloys as a result of aging for 1000 hours at temperatures
from 700 to 1200 °C (1292 to 2192 °F)
Table 22-8 Effect of Aging Time at 1470 °F (800
°C) on the Room-Temperature Ductility of HP45
lb/ft to 15.5 lb/ft. Consequently, despite the higher unit cost of the Alloy
alloy, the relative tube assembly cost may be as much as 25% lower Time, Elongation,
than that of the original HK40. Hours %
Experienced metallurgists and foundry engineers should be con-
sulted to assist in alloy selection and component design. These two 0 13
simple steps can result in reduced capital cost and enhanced service 0.5 10
performance. 10 7
24 4
100 3
500 3.5
Mechanical Properties 1000 4
Room-Temperature Tensile Properties

ASTM and many industrial specifications cite minimum tensile Room-temperature tensile properties are altered by even short
properties that must be met by cast heat-resistant alloys at room exposure to the service temperature. The degree of change is a
temperature. While such requirements can be a useful tool for function of both time and temperature. It can be seen in Table 22-8
quality control purposes, they have little relevance to the perform- that short exposures (30 minutes) at 1472 °F (800 °C) are sufficient
ance of a casting in service at elevated temperatures. to reduce the ductility of HP45 from 13% to 10% and to 3 to 4%
Representative room temperature tensile properties and hardness after 24 hours or more. Figure 22-2 shows that 1000 hours at 1292
values are shown in Table 22-6. These values should only be used to 1832 °F (700 to 1000 °C) reduced the elongation of an HU alloy
as a guide, since the properties within different sections of the same from 13% to 3-5%, however, the loss of ductility was much less
casting may show a wide range due to differences in section thick- severe at 2012 °F (1100 °C), while there was even an increase of
ness and pouring temperatures. This variance in strength and ductil- ductility after aging at 2192 °F (1200 °C).
ity can be related to the effect of the solidification rate on the
dendrite secondary arm spacing, as shown in Table 22-7 (2). Centri-
fugally cast tubes produced in a permanent steel mold normally Elevated-Temperature Tensile Properties
solidify faster than a static casting poured into a sand mold, conse- Short term tensile properties undergo major changes with increas-
quently, the tube usually has higher strength and ductility. Compo- ing temperature: both yield and tensile strength decrease, while
sitional variance within the specification limits also influences these elongation and reduction of area increase. These changes are illus-
properties (3). trated for an HP-Nb alloy in Figure 22-3. The general shapes of
these curves are typical of nearly all cast heat-resistant grades, fracture at stresses considerably below those which would cause
although different values will obviously apply to the individual fracture in short time tensile tests at the same temperature. The
grades. Representative tensile properties at temperatures above designer must determine whether the planned service life of the
1200 °F (649 °C) are shown in Table 22-9. component is limited by the rate or amount of deformation, or
whether the time to fracture is the limiting parameter.
Creep and Stress Rupture Properties If the rate of deformation is the limiting factor, the design stress is
Creep is defined as time dependent strain occurring under stress based on the minimum creep rate and design life after allowing for
at elevated temperatures. Creep occurs in most applications of heat- initial primary creep. Limiting creep stress is usually defined as the
resistant alloy castings at their normal service temperature. In time, stress needed to produce an arbitrary rate of creep, most commonly
creep may lead to excessive deformation and can even result in 0.0001%/h, or sometimes described as 1% in 10,000 hours. This
100 TT T T T I J ••• ••••T—"•'•'•! r . . T - ! | | | | • ••' | | T'T'T TTT
Fig. 22-4 Dependence of the

minimum creep rate on stress and
HP Nb ALLOY temperature, illustrated by HP-Nb
co alloy data
800oC(1472oF)
CO
CO
w 10 - 900oC(1652oF)
en
to
1,000oe(1832oF)
1 - 1 1 • I I I
.0001 .001 .01
MINIMUM CREEP RATE %/h
Table 22-9 Typical Tensile Properties of Cast Heat-Resistant Alloys at Elevated Temperatures
1400 °F (760 °C) 1600 °F (871 °C) 1800 °F (982 °C) 2000 °F(1093°C)
UTS YS El UTS YS El UTS YS El UTS YS El
ACI alloy ksi ksi % ksi ksi % ksi ksi % ksi ksi %
HD 36 14 23 18 15 40
HF 38 25 16 21 15.5 16
HHI 33 17 18 18.5 13.5 30 9 6.3 45
HHH 38 20 16 22 16 18 11 7.3 31
HI 38 6 26 12
HK 38 24 12 23 15 16 12 8.7 42 5.6 5 55
HL 50 30 19
HN 20 14.5 37 12 9.6 51 6.1 4.9 55
HP 43 29 15 26 17.5 27 14.5 11 46 7.5 6.2 69
HT 35 26 10 19 15 26 11 8 28 6
HU 40 20 10 6.2 28
HW 32 23 19 15 8 8 40
HX 21 17.5 48 11 7 40
Proprietary alloys
HKNbTi 47 21 21 27 15 27 15.5 10 33 8.8 7.5 35
HKNb 46 20 27 26 15 32 15 13 35
HKCoW 34 35 23 43 12.8 55
HPNb 45 20 22 28 14 36 16 9.5 48 10 6 55
HP-Nb Si 44 21 20 28 14 29 17 9 34 10 6 40
HPNbTi 46 20 26 28 16 41 14 9 49
HPNbW
HPNbWMo 46 23 26 29 16 40 16 9 50 10 6.5 60
HPMo 31 21 32 22 15 60 12 8 70
HPW 33 21 23 37 12 46
HPWCo 36 28 18 24 18 21 13 10 25
30-45 NbTi 51 24 23 30 17 32 18 10.5 39 10 6.5 40
30-45 W 32 27 19 34 11 45
30-45 W Co 30 26 18 32
30-45 WA1 54 38 23
Note: To convert ksi to MPa, multiply by 6.8947.

latter term can be confusing since it is often not clear whether it is For detailed creep and rupture stresses of the standard ACI alloys,
describing the minimum creep rate, or the total of the primary and the Handbook Supplements should be consulted together with the
secondary stages of creep. technical literature of producers. The average rupture stresses of
When the limiting factor is rupture, stress to rupture values are some alloys are shown in Table 22-10.
used in design, particularly in the case of high-temperature pressure
tubing used by the petrochemical industry (4). The effect of tem-
perature upon creep rates and rupture stresses are shown for an
HP-Nb alloy in Figures 22-4 and 22-5.
1o I i i i i 111 n r j k ^ L i i—111 ii | i i i i 1111
When rupture stresses are used in design, the most widely used
value is the minimum stress required to cause rupture in 100,000
hours (11.4 years). Such long-term data is invariably extrapolated
from tests of shorter duration. Graphical extrapolation is feasible if
some 10,000 hour data, or longer, are available. Most extrapolations to
rely on parametric equations involving rupture time and tempera-
ture. While several of these equations have been developed, the w
most widely used by producers and users of heat-resistant alloys is V)
LU
the Larson-Miller expression (5). A typical stress versus L-M pa- cc • 871oC(1600oF)
1-
rameter plot is shown in Figure 22-6. </) • 982oC(1800oF)
The number assigned to the constant in the L-M expression is
B 1038oC(1900oF)
typically in a range from 12 to 25. The constant is obtained from
curve fitting equations or by experimentation, but, unfortunately, it
' ' ' • < • . . . • !
is not uncommon for different suppliers of the same alloy to derive
10 100 1000 10000
different constants from their data banks. This can lead to conflict-
ing claims for long-term stresses. In sensitive design applications, RUPTURE LIFE-h
the users may need to critically examine the actual data banks and
compositional variance in order to resolve this problem to their Fig. 22-5 Dependence of rupture life on stress and temperature,
satisfaction. illustrated by HP-Nb alloy data
Fig. 22-6 Atypical

Larson-Miller
time-temperature parameter
(LMP) versus stress plot for
a modified HP-Nb-W-Mo
alloy. This form of data plot
is used to extrapolate short-
term test data to rupture
stresses up to 100,000
hours. The L-M parameter
may also be expressed in
the form where T is in
degrees Rankine (°F + 460).
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
P=T-(20+log tr)-10"3
(T(°K), tr(Hrs))

Table 22-10 Average 100,000 Hour Rupture Stresses and 0.0001 %/Hour Creep Stresses of Some Heat-
Resistant Alloys (Creep Stresses are Shown in Brackets)
1400 °F 1600 °F 1800°F 2000°F
(760 °C) (871 °C) (982 °C) (1093 °C)
ACI alloy ksi ksi ksi ksi
HC 1.56(1.3) 0.72 (0.75)

HHH 2.80(6.3) 1.20(3.9) 0.44(2.1)
HK 6.20(10.2) 2.50(6.0) 1.00(2.5) 0.42(0.65)
HN 3.20(6.3) 1.30(2.40) 0.22(1.04)
HP 3.30(5.8) 1.10(2.8) 0.25(1.00)
HT 5.60(8.0) 2.40(4.5) 1.05(2.0)
HU 4.60(8.5) 2.30(5.0) 0.42(2.2)
Proprietary alloys
HKNbTi 8.60 4.60 1.60
HKNb 7.40 3.34 1.21
HKCoW 2.00(3.6) 0.35(1.66)
HPNb 9.20 4.80 2.00(2.8) 0.63
HPNbSi 4.27 1.56(2.57) 0.46
HPNbTi 5.90 2.40(2.8) 0.77(1.06)
HPNbWMo 8.20 4.00 1.56(2.0) 0.43(0.78)
HPW 9.10(9.3) 4.65(5.6) 1.92(2.6) 0.58(0.74)
HPWCo 4.50(5.0) 1.75(2.2) 0.75(0.70)
30-45 NbTi 8.39 4.55 1.79(3.1) 0.45
3045 W 2.10(3.1) 0.69(1.27)
30-45 W Co 4.6 1.90(3.2) 0.76(1.6)
30-45 WA1 6.0 2.27 0.75(1.25)
Note: To convert ksi to MPa, multiply by 6.8947.
Table 22-11 Effect of Carbon on 1,000 Hour up to 15% are used in some grades. Cobalt, which does not form
Rupture Stress of HK alloys (3) carbides, is used as a high-temperature solid solution strengthener.
Titanium and zirconium both have a strong affinity for oxygen
1400 °F 1600°F 1800 °F and both can also form stable carbides. Small additions of these
(760 °C) (871 °C) (982 °C) elements, made after adequate prior deoxidation, can be used in
ksi(MPa) ksi(MPa) ksi(MPa)
%c conjunction with other carbide forming additions to even further
0.10 5.5(38) 2.5(17) 1.15(8)
strengthen material. Popularly known as micro-alloys, these materi-
0.20 8.7(60) 4.3(30) 2.1(14) als are being particularly exploited for their potential for lighter,
0.30 10.7(74) 5.4(37) 2.7(19) long term life applications in petrochemical furnace applications.
0.40 12.6(87) 6.3(43) 3.1(21) Silicon is also an important element in heat-resisting grades while
0.50 13.4(92) 6.7(46) 3.3(23) usually limited to 2 or 2.5% maximum in most standard alloys.
0.60 13.0(90) 6.6(45) 3.4(23) Maintaining this element below 1% effectively raises rupture and
creep strength.
The effects of carbon, additions of carbide formers, micro-alloy-
ing, and silicon on the long-term rupture strength of a complete
Elevated-Temperature Strengthening family of alloys based on the HP composition are summarized in
Figure 22-7.
The resistance of cast heat-resistant alloys to creep deformation is
due to dispersed particle strengthening and solid solution strength-
Property Changes Due to High-Temperature
ening. For the standard ACI alloys this is provided by the primary
chromium carbide phases present in the as-cast condition. The effect Service
is enhanced by the precipitation of much finer secondary carbides The precipitation of carbides which occurs with service exposure
which occurs with exposure to temperatures above 1200 °F. These above 1200 °F (650 °C) reduces room-temperature ductility and
carbides impede plastic deformation at high temperatures, hence toughness. If this exposure is combined with service in a carburizing
increasing strength. environment, the loss of ductility is even greater, as shown in Figure
The most important element in this process is carbon which 22-8. In order to prevent brittle fractures, impact and excessive
typically falls in a range from 0.3 to 0.7% in these materials, thermal shock to components in this condition should be avoided.
although there are some grades with carbon as low as 0.1 %. It is this Repair welding of such aged material may require the application of
high carbon content that is crucial to the performance of these alloys special procedures. Maintaining preheat and compressive stresses
(Table 22-11) (3). during welding, peening of the hot weld bead, and slow cooling of
Table 22-10 shows many of the proprietary alloys which have the weld are steps that can be taken to alleviate this problem. In
been developed and make use of additions of niobium, molybde- extreme cases, a "solution heat treatment" at 2150 °F (1175 °C) for
num, and tungsten which form stable carbides at high temperatures. several hours may redissolve a sufficient amount of the precipitated
Typically 1 to 5% of these elements are added, although additions carbides to partially restore ductility and weldability (6,7,8,9).
1400 1600 1800 2000 20 -i 1 1 1 1 1 r-

10 : i • " •
I i i.
Jk^^ 18 — — Aged @ 1800oF for 250h
(0 TEMP oF •
CL 16 - Carburized @ 1800oF 250h

5 .
en •
^^fc* •
•
14 -
12 [•
/
19%C r
o
• O 10
\^&f. *
•
I-
<
8
d o
1 r~ z 6
X \ A
\ S*\
^V - o
J-L
_l
• -_<>-- ui 4
HP Nb LC
HPNb 2 O
CO \ ifi
HPNb Hi Si \ 0
o---- 40 60 80
CO HPNbTi h
to —.£... HPNbTiHiSi NICKEL %
111
cc o~- HP
co TEMP oC Fig. 22-8 The effects of "aging" and "aging plus carburization" at
> i • i i I 982 °C (1800 °F) for 250 hours on the room-temperature ductility of
.1 cast heat-resistant alloys with 5 to 65% nickel and 19 and 25%
700 800 900 1000 1100 chromium
Fig. 22-7 Comparison of standard HP grade, niobium-modified

alloys, and micro-alloyed compositions—100,000 hour rupture lives While thermal fatigue tests can provide some ranking of alloys the
results only provide a rough guide since they are based on arbitrary
experimental conditions rather than on fundamental material prop-
erties (4). The selection base is still dominated by actual service
Prolonged exposure of the iron-chromium alloys to temperatures performance experience. Such experience favors HH II alloys for
in the range from 1200 to 1600 °F (650 to 870 °C) leads to the light duty and the nickel-chromium-iron alloys HT and HU, particu-
transformation of the ferrite to sigma phase. Sigma is extremely larly if carburization is involved. Modifications of these materials
brittle and if it forms a continuous phase with carbides at the grain with niobium have proved useful in enhancing service performance.
boundaries, it can cause dramatic brittle fractures, even if subjected In the petrochemical industry, low carbon heat-resistant cast alloys
to light impact at room temperature. such as CT15C and low carbon HP-Nb are in common usage as
Some of the iron-chromium-nickel alloys may also form sigma if fittings and complex manifolds subject to thermal cycling.
the compositional balance leans towards ferrite stabilization rather
than austenite. Sigma forms much more slowly in these alloys than
in the iron-chromium compositions. However, cracks caused by the Hot Gas Corrosion
formation of very small amounts of sigma after several years of
exposure to critical temperatures are not uncommon. The corrosion resistance of heat-resistant alloys to gaseous envi-
High-temperature exposure results in a number of changes in the ronments varies considerably with alloy type, temperature, velocity,
microstructures of these alloys. Secondary carbides are precipitated and the specific environment. Table 22-12 shows a general ranking
and both they and the primary carbides may undergo varying de- of the performance of the standard alloys in air, and in reducing and
grees of agglomeration and dissolution dependent upon service. oxidizing flue gases containing different amounts of sulphur.
Sigma phase may form, nitrides develop and surface and internal
decarburization occur. These structural changes are well docu- Oxidation
mented in standard published references which may be consulted for
additional information (10,11). Heat-resistant alloys must contain more than 12% chromium in
order to provide effective resistance to oxide scaling at temperatures
above 1250 °F (675 °C). Increasing chromium increases surface
Thermal Fatigue and Thermal Shock stability by forming dense oxide layers which inhibit the rate of
Resistance oxide penetration and reduce further oxidation. Figure 22-9 shows
The design of components that are subjected to considerable that oxidation resistance is also raised by increasing the nickel
thermal cycling or thermal shock must include a consideration of content, which allows the use of higher service temperatures. Sili-
thermal fatigue. This is particularly true if the temperature changes con is also important to the promotion of protective oxides, as
are frequent and nonuniform within or between cast sections. Fa- shown by the data in Table 22-13 (12). Without this protection,
tigue is a condition in which failure results from alternating load progressive scaling would reduce a component's cross-sectional
applications in shorter times and at lower stresses than expected area and reduce the load-bearing capacity.
from constant load properties. 'Thermal fatigue" denotes the condi- Cyclic temperatures or alternating oxidizing and reducing condi-
tion when the stresses are primarily due to hindered expansion or tions may result in oxide spalling or chemical reduction of the
contraction. Good design helps to minimize external restraint to protective oxides. Niobium-modified alloys at temperatures above
expansion and contraction. Rapid heating and cooling may, how- 1950 °F (1065 °C) are more sensitive to spalling than the base
ever, impose temperature gradients within the part, causing the composition, while alloying additions of tungsten or molybdenum
colder sections to restrain the hotter portions of the casting. have less detrimental effects.
Table 22-12 Corrosion Resistance of Cast Heat- Sulphidation

Resistant Alloys at 1800 °F (982 °C) in Various Substantial amounts of sulphur in the environment, as either H2S,
Atmospheres (Rates Based on 100 Hour Tests) SO2, or SO3, can dramatically increase oxidation rates over those
Oxidizing Reducing Reducing caused by oxidation alone. The effect is even worse in reducing
fluegas(a) fluegas(b) Hue gas environments where the propensity to form loose non-protective
AUoy Air 2gS/m3 2gS/m3 OOgS/m1 40gS/m3 40gS/ra' sulphide scales are increased (Figure 22-10) (13).
The pronounced affinity between sulphur and nickel results in the
HA U U U U U
HC G G G S
u
G G
formation of low melting point nickel-sulphide eutectics, so that the
higher nickel austenitic grades are more prone to this form of
HD G G G S G G corrosion. High levels of chromium and silicon can be used to
HE G G G G
reduce metal loss due to sulphidation. The almost wholly or partially
HF S G S U S S
ferritic cast heat-resistant alloys from HC to HH I can be utilized to
HH G G G S G G
HI G G G G G meet a number of specific requirements in high-temperature petro-
HK G G G
s G G chemical and minerals processing requirements where sulphur com-
HL G G G
u G G pounds are present.
HN G G G
s S S A particularly aggressive form of attack known as fuel ash corro-
HP G G G
u
G G sion, results from firing low grade fuel oils high in sulphur, vana-
HT G G G U S U dium, and sodium. The liquid oxides produced by combustion act as
HU G G G U S U a flux to strip off any protective oxides on the furnace components.
HW G G G U U
HX G G G
u Highly alloyed grades of the 50%Cr-50%Ni-Nb, or the 60%Cr-
G s u 40%Ni were specifically developed to operate in this environment
(a) Tested at constant temperature, (b) Cyclic tests, cooled to 300 °F (149 °C) (14).
every 12 hours. G = 1.27 mm/y (0.05 ipy) (Good); S = 1.27 to 2.54 mm/y (0.05
to 0.10 ipy) (Satisfactory); U = >2.54 mm/y (>0.10 ipy) (Unsatisfactory) Carburization
Cast alloy components must frequently operate in carburizing
environments. Commercial heat treatment hardware and ethylene
pyrolysis coils are two high use examples. The extent of carburiza-
tion is not only time and temperature dependent, but is also affected
1250 by the carburizing potential of the environment and by the alloy
composition.
1200 - Physical and mechanical properties are significantly altered by the
o0 diffusion of carbon into the surface. Ductility, strength, thermal
III 1150 fatigue resistance, and oxidation resistance are all affected. Further-
cr more, the density of the carburized layer is reduced and this imposes
3 • 50 « X I H "~jl~~j
I
H 1100
< 40 X ^-^7* ""' additional stresses upon the uncarburized portion of the component.
1
cr
LU Thus, incorrect alloy choice, or operations without consideration of
Q. 1050 ;30 * / /
E the limitations imposed by carburization can severely reduce service
1
HI
h-
1000 - 20 ' y° life.
Alloy composition plays an important role in retarding carburiza-
1
10 /
950 J 1 tion. Both nickel and chromium have large effects upon the profile
10 20 30 40 of the carbon penetration into the alloy surface (15,16,17)- Figure
CHROMIUM % 22-11 shows the effects on the weight gain due to carbon in gas
carburization tests at 1050 °C for 100 hours, on alloys with 5 to 65%
Fig. 22-9 Effect of varying nickel and chromium on the cyclic nickel at controlled levels of 19, 25 and 30% chromium. Increasing
oxidation resistance of cast heat resistant alloys. The "service amounts of nickel and chromium both raised the carburization
temperature" is defined as the temperature which results in an resistance. However, at the two extremes of the nickel range there
oxidation rate of 1mm per year. Data are based on 500 hour tests were exceptions. For the three high chromium, low nickel grades
at 1050 and 1150 °C (1922 and 2102 °F) with 7 cycles to room HC, HD, and HE, the carburization resistance falls as the nickel
temperature.
content increases. In contrast, the resistance of the very high nickel
grades decreased with increasing amounts of chromium. Thus
grades HW and HX with 60 and 65% nickel in the presence of low
chromium, have exceptional resistance to carbon pick-up.
Silicon is probably the single most important element influencing
Table 22-13 Effect of Silicon on the Weight Gain the carburization resistance of cast heat-resistant alloys (18). The
of 20Cr-25Ni-Nb Alloys in C0 2 at 1562 °F (850 °C) beneficial effects of small increases in this element on the carbon
profile curves of an HP alloy modified with molybdenum, are
AUoy Cr Ni Nb C Mn Si illustrated in Figure 22-12. However, these benefits are not without
some penalty since the creep and rupture strength, as well as weld-
No Si 19.66 25.0 0.61 0.011 0.70 ability, are reduced by higher silicon levels. In general, alloys for
With Si 20.0 25.6 0.70 0.02 0.73 0.6
carburizing service usually contain more than 1.3% silicon, while in
non-carburizing environments lower silicon is used to optimize
Weight gain, mg/cm2 creep and rupture strength, see Table 22-14.
0.1 1.0 10 100 Hours Many proprietary alloys have been developed from the standard
No Si 400 800 1,000 1,400 alloys in order to increase carburization resistance. While some of
With Si 29 55 110 210 these use additions of carbide forming elements (W, Mo, Nb, Ti),
others exploit the use of noncarbide formers such as aluminum,
silicon, and copper.
0 IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 I00
Fe NICKEL- % Fe NICKEL- %
CORROSION IN REDUCING FLUE GAS (5 GRAINS SI CORROSION IN REDUCING FLUE GAS (300 GRAINS S)
IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 I00 20 30 4 0 50 60 70 80 90 I00
NICKEL - % NICKEL - %
CORROSION IN REDUCING FLUEGASJIOO GRAINS S ) CORROSION IN REDUCING FLUE GAS(I00 GRAINS S) (COOLED
(CONSTANT TEMPERATURE) TO 300°F(I49*C) CACH 12 h) BASED ON lOO-h TESTS AT
I800*F(982°C)
Fig. 22-10 Corrosion rates of cast heat-resistant alloys in reducing flue gases
The effects of macro-grain structure on the carburization resis- Table 22-14 Effect of Silicon on the Rupture Life
tance of centrifugally cast tube alloys used in ethylene pyrolysis of a 47%Ni-28%Cr-5W% Alloy. Tested at 1700 °F
coils have been the subject of much debate and research. While (927 °C) at 7.5 ksi (51.7 MPa)
some observations suggested that equiaxed shaped grains had
higher carburization resistance than columnar grains, laboratory % Silicon LifeHrs
studies by Kane demonstrated that grain shape had no significant
0.49 239
role in carburization resistance (19). More recent work has indicated 1.53 100
that carburization resistance is increased in structures with a micro- 1.63 86
structure of small dendrites (20). 1.74 44
Nitriding
The nickel-chromium-iron grades do absorb nitrogen into the
surface during extended service at high temperatures in air. The rate
of absorption is very much lower than that of carbon and no serious Applications of Cast Heat-
corrosion problems are caused. However, after long service in high- Resistant Alloys
nitrogen atmospheres, levels as high as 1.5% have been observed
even at the mid-wall of HP-W alloy furnace rolls, where it caused Cast heat-resistant alloys are used in a wide range of industrial
significant dimensional growth. applications. Essentially wherever individual components or assem-
blies are needed to operate at temperatures above 1200 °F there is a
potential use for these materials.
Formability
Iron-Chromium Alloys
Because of their high carbon content, the cast heat-resistant alloys
are not normally considered to be formable by hot or cold deforma- The alloys in this group are made up of the grades HA, HC, and
tion processes. However, a large number of the standard and pro- HD (Table 22-3). Grade HA has only very limited applications
prietary grades can accept some deformation to modify their shape. because of its low strength and is restricted to high-temperature
Centrifugally cast tubes are specially amenable to this process. corrosion-resistant applications. The alloy is used for valves,
Conventional tube bending techniques are used to produce a large flanges, and fittings for low stress applications.
size range of U-bend sweep fittings and other fitting shapes for Grades HC and HD are used for load-bearing applications at
petrochemical furnaces, or firing rings for heat-treatment furnaces. temperatures up to about 1200 to 1300 °F (650 to 755 °C) and for
HH n and the low carbon grades CT15C and HP-Nb may be cold very light loads at higher temperatures. Since these alloys are wholly
formed, while most of the alloy modifications of the standard HP or partially ferritic, sigma phase develops at temperatures in the
alloy can be hot formed. Hot extrusion and hot swaging have also 1200 to 1600 °F (650 to 871 °C) range which limits their use. The
been used on these alloys. alloys are used in minerals or metals processing applications such
0.5 0.05 0.10 0.15

CM
E
E
— t-
Gas Carburization z
E 0.4 1050oC (1922oF).100 h HI
I-
Z z
<
>•••<>••• 1 9 % Cr o
o
0.3
zo
x - - l£r - 30% Cr
V
m
o
HI <
o
z
om
0.2 ^S^----A
LU
^••••o ~
cc CO
<
< 111
o JL CC
0.1
20 40 60 80 o
NICKEL % z 1 2 3 4
DISTANCE FROM SURFACE mm
Fig. 22-11 The influence of nickel and chromium on the
carburization resistance of cast heat-resistant alloys. All alloys Fig. 22-12 Effect of silicon on the increase in carbon in the
produced for these tests were controlled with C 0.4%, Si 1.4%, and carburized zone of HP-Mo alloy (C 0.37-0.47%, Mn 1.5% max, Ni
Mn 0.7%. 34-37%, Cr 24-28%, Mo 1-1.5%). Pack carburization at 1100 °C
(2012 °F) for 500 hours
as copper or nickel, where high sulphur environments prevail. Both nol, and hydrogen, in steam superheaters, ethylene pyrolysis coil
are used for ore roasting furnace components such as rabble arms assemblies, tube supports and hangers, heat-treatment fixtures, fur-
and blades, as grate bars and salt pots, and for furnace feedstock nace rolls, and rabble arms.
injection lances. Grade HL with higher chromium than HK has higher resistance to
Both HC and HD alloys can be modified with nitrogen and higher sulphur and scaling. Typical applictions are furnace skids and rolls,
nickel to increase ductility and weldability. This causes some loss in radiant heaters, rabble arms, and enameling fixtures
sulphidation resistance.
Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys
Iron-Chromium-Nickel Alloys The four alloys in this group, HN, HP, HT, and HU, have stable
The alloys in this group include grades HE, HE, HH, HI, HK, HL, austenitic structures suitable for exposures to temperatures in a
and an extensive range of modified alloys (Tables 22-3 and 22-4). range from 2000 to 2150 °F (1093 to 1177 °C). These alloys have
Grade HE combines moderate strength with high-temperature high carburization and thermal cycling resistance.
corrosion resistance, and is suitable for service up to 2000 °F (1093 Grade HN has long term creep rupture properties that are interme-
°C). While sulphidation resistance is not as high as the iron-chro- diate between those of HK and HP alloys. Carburization resistance
mium grades, it finds use in moderate sulphur environment for ore is higher than that of HK40. The alloy is used for tube supports and
roasting and steel mill skids and rails. hangers, heat-treatment fixtures and trays and furnace skids and
The strength and oxidation resistance of Grade HF limits its use rolls.
to temperatures up to 1600 °F (871 °C). It is extensively used in oil Grade HP and its modifications have high long-term strength, and
refineries for tube supports and beams, and in a modified, partially good resistance to thermal cycling and carburization. Despite these
ferritic composition for transfer lines. Other applications include attributes, the alloy is not extensively used in its base composition.
tube sheets, fixtures for heat-treatment furnaces, hardware for ce- More often it is used in the modified form by the addition of 0.5 to
ment kilns, and heat-treatment furnaces . 1.5% niobium which markedly increases long-term creep and rup-
Grade HH has good intermediate strength together with oxidation ture strength, ductility, and weldability. This range of alloys is used
resistance suitable for service to 2000 °F (1093 °C). Its composition in similar applications to HK alloy, but it's improved mechanical
may be balanced to produce two sub-grades: Type I which is par- properties allow operations at higher temperatures or pressures with
tially ferritic and has low creep strength and higher elevated-tem- lighter structures.
perature ductility than the completely austenitic, and stronger Type Grade HT can operate in oxidizing and reducing conditions at
II sub-grade. The SFS A Handbook Supplements give further details 2100 and 2000 °F (1093 °C) respectively. It has a high resistance to
of the property differences between HH Type I and II. Type II is thermal cycling and shock, as well as high carburization resistance.
probably the most extensively used of the two compositions. They It is one of the most widely used grades for a large number of heat-
are very widely used for heat-treatment furnace parts but are not treatment furnace components.
recommended for severe thermal cycling applications; for such HU alloy has the highest carburization and oxidation resistance of
usage some of the proprietary modifications are more appropriate. the Fe-Ni-Cr alloys. However its creep and rupture strength are not
The properties of grade HI are similar to HH Type II, but because high. Resistance to thermal fatigue is high. This alloy is used as
of higher chromium, it may be used in oxidizing conditions up to retorts for magnesium, calcium, and strontium production, as well
2150 °F (1177 °C). It is primarily used in large retorts for the as an extensive range of furnace hardware.
production of magnesium and calcium.
HK-type alloys are still some of the most extensively used of the Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys
heat-resistant grades. They have good intermediate creep and rup- The two grades HX and HW fall into this group. They have the
ture strength and resistance to hot corrosion up to 2100 °F (1150 °C). highest carburization resistance of all the standard alloys combined
They are used in reformers for the production of ammonia, metha- with very good oxidation and thermal shock resistance. These ma-
terials have a high electrical resistivity which is made use of in 7. H.W. Ebert, "Fabrication of HK40 in the Field," Welding Journal,
heating elements. Other applications are hearths, muffles, enamel- Nov 1976
ing and quenching fixtures, and containers for molten lead. 8. K.F. Krysiak, "Weldability of Supertherm Reformer Tubes After
Exposure at Elevated Temperatures," N.A.C.E. Corrosion 79, At-
Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys lanta, March 1979
9. SFSA Technical Service Report No. 112
This group does not contain any standard ACI alloys. All of the 10. L. Dillinger, et al., "Microstructures of Some Heat-Resistant Al-
compositions are proprietary grades loosely fitting a base of 45%Ni- loys," Alloy Casting Institute Div of SFSA, 1970
30%Cr-Fe (Table 22-4). The balance of iron can be significantly
11. "Adas of Microstructures of Industrial Alloys," ASM International
diminished by additions of tungsten and cobalt. These alloys are
(formerly American Society for Metals), Metals Handbook, Vol 7,
used almost exclusively in very high strength, high-temperature
8th ed., 1972, p 177-186
high oxidation-resistant applications. Alloy usage ranges from hy-
drogen reformers for "direct reduced iron" pellet plants, tube and 12. J.M. Francis," Influence of Minor Alloying Elements on Structure
assemby supports and hangers, and for skid buttons in steel billet of Surface Oxides Formed During High Temperature Oxidation of
reheating furnaces where surface temperatures of 2300 to 2400 °F an Austenitic Steel," Journal of The Iron and Steel Institute, P910-
(1260 to 1315 °C) are encountered. 913, Sept 1966
13. E.A. Schoefer, "A Selection Guide to Heat Resistant Cast Alloys,"
Machine Design, April 1959
14. "High Chromium, High Nickel Alloys for High Temperature Cor-
REFERENCES rosion Resistance," N.A.C.E. Corrosion 66, Miami, April 1966
1. Alloy Casting Institute, "Investigation of Strengthening Mecha- 15. C. Steel and W. Engel, "A Study of the Carburization Resistance
nisms and Surface Protection of Cast Alloys Above 2000 °F," and Ranking of Cast Heat-Resistant Stainless Steels," A.F.S. Inter-
Project No. 49,1966 national Cast Metals Journal, Sept 1981
2. C. Steel and D. Fraser, "Statistical Process Control of the Micro- 16. D. Yamasaki, "Study of the Carburizing Phenomenon of Heat-
structure and Properties of Cast Heat Resistant Alloy Tubing," Resisting Cast Steels for Pyrolysis Tubes," Technical Review, Mit-
N.A.C.E. Corrosion 92 Paper 303, Nashville, April 1992 subishi Heavy Industries, Feb 1977
3. H.S. Avery, "Cast Heat-Resistant Alloys for High Temperature 17. U. Van Den Brack, et al., "Selecting High Performance Castings for
Weldments," W.R.C. Bulletin No. 143. Aug 1969 Petrochemical Furnaces," N.A.C.E. Corrosion 85, Boston, March
4. "Calculation of Heater-Tube Thickness in Petroleum Refineries," 1985
American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice 530, 3rd 18. G.Y. Lai, "High Temperature Corrosion of Engineering Alloys,"
ed., Pub. A.P.I., Washington, D.C., Sept 1988 Chapt 4, ASM International, 1990, p 57-62
5. "Time-Temperature Parameters for Creep-Rupture Analy- 19. R.H. Kane, "Effect of Macrostructure on the Carburization Resis-
sis," A.S.M. Publication D8-100,1968 tance of Centrifugally Cast HK40," ASFS Steel Foundry Facts, No.
6. H.W. Ebert, "Solution Annealing in the Field," Welding Journal, 351, March 1982
Vol 53, Feb 1974 20. Private Communication

••5 i t * 8 * ™
O&'jftt
CHAPTER 23
Low-Temperature and Cryogenic Steels

Introduction 23-2
Definitions and Alloy Classifications 23-2
Ambient and Low-Temperature Properties 23-5
Ferritic and Martensitic Steels 23-5
Effect of Alloying Elements 23-5
Specifications 23-8
Austenitic Stainless Steels 23-13
Toughness 23-13
Structural Stability at Low Temperatures 23-14
References 23-14

FRACTURE FRACTURE
0.5 TRANSITION TEMP, TRANSITION TEMP,
ELASTIC LOADING PLASTIC LOADING
0.4 •a/o Y S = 0 DUCTILITY ^ \ /

•—'' 0.60 TRANSITION^
i—" 0.80 TEMP
I 0.3 —" 1.00
DIFFICULT TOTALLY
CRACK SHEAR
0.2 INITIATION; FRACTURE
Where Q = * EAST CRACK
PROPAGATION;
0.1 2 ' CLEAVAGE
* = a complex flaw shape FRACTURE
parameter SHEAR
BRITTLE FAILURE; FRACTURE
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Flaw Shape Parameter, Q EASY CRACK EXCEPT IN
INITIATION AND PLASTICALLY
PROPAGATION ; LOADED
(a) CLEAVAGE REGIONS
FRACTURE
DIFFICULT CRACK INITIATION

AND PROPAGATION
TEMPERATURE•
Fig. 23-1 Schematic representation of notch toughness behavior

with respect to Charpy V-notch performance curve (1)
Introduction
The ductility and toughness properties receive special attention in
the selection of steels for low-temperature applications because
these properties decrease as the temperature is lowered. Hardness,
strength, modulus of elasticity, and fatigue strength generally in-
>/Q, Inches
crease with lower temperature. Many steels, ordinarily selected for
ambient temperature applications, are suitable for components
(b) which operate at lower temperatures. The increasing number of low-
temperature applications, in many industrial processes and the in-
tensified activities in arctic regions of the world, have led to the
development of specialized alloys and steels which exhibit more
1000
too V s ress Field 1 attractive combinations of properties than encountered in other
\ ^ t— r* engineering materials.
600
400
I ^-i-T
o-L to Plane of Cridi
K| = 1.21TO2IJA3) Definitions and Alloy
- 200
© r K j = 150 ksiyTn.
Classifications
! 100 The term "low-temperature steels" is used for steels which exhibit
s » / "*—, favorable combinations of properties for service as components in
moderately to extremely cold environments, and for handling rela-
£ 60 V^lOO
tively warm liquified gases such as propane and carbon dioxide
40 down to -150 °F (-100 °C). "Cryogenic steels" are capable of
\^50 retaining toughness at temperatures down to -^52 °F (-269 °C).
These steels are involved in storing and handling of liquified gases
•V^25 such as methane, argon, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
0.01 0.1 1.0 The steels considered in the discussion of low-temperature and
a/Q, Indies
cryogenic steels fall into one of several broad alloy classifications:
(C)
• Ferritic carbon and low alloy steels
• Martensitic low alloy steels
• Martensitic high alloy steels
Fig. 23-2 (a) Flaw shape parameter curves for surface and internal • Austenitic high alloy steels
cracks, (b) Graphical solutions for an internal disc shape flaw, embed-
ded in a large body (tension loading), (c) Graphical solution for an el- The ferritic carbon and low alloy steels are characterized by a
liptical surface crack tension loading
distinct transition in fracture from ductile to brittle behavior when
Low-Temperature and Cryogenic Steels 23-3
tested over a range of temperatures. Martensitic steels, both low where ac is the critical crack length, o is the applied stress normal to the
alloy and high alloy, also exhibit this transition in fracture behavior flaw, and D is a parameter which depends on specimen and crack
as a function of temperature. The impact transition of these steels geometry.
(Figure 23-1) has been defined in a number of ways: Figures 23-2a through 23-2c illustrate the types of information
available from fracture toughness determinations.
1. By the absorbed energy level at various temperatures, i.e., the Relationships among these criteria have been investigated since
temperature which corresponds to a specific energy level in all of them relate to the general impact fracture transition which is
Charpy tests. The Charpy V-notch energy transition temperature, characteristic of ferritic and martensitic steels. Figure 23-3 illus-
Tcvi5» is commonly selected criterion. This is the temperature at trates the broad relationship of T o 15 to NDTT, while Figure 23-4
which 15 ft/lb (20 J) are required to fracture a Charpy V-notch
impact specimen.
2. By the Fracture Appearance Transition Temperature (FATT), at
which the fracture is characterized by a certain percentage of TEMPERATURE- °C
shear features. The fracture appearance due to shear has ductile -IOO -50 0 50 100
or fibrous features, while a brittle fracture due to cleavage is 1 1
- 100
200 --
NDTT
CAST# = 0 77T
' C V I 5 - 4.3 I'FI
crystalline in appearance with shiny facets. A commonly used
criterion in Charpy V-notch impact testing is FATT55, where 50% N0TT -7 («F) *
WROUGHT O=069T CVI5
of the fracture surface exhibits fibrous features. 150 -
3. By the deformation behavior of the impact specimen upon frac- 50

ture, i.e., lateral expansion on the compression side of the Charpy 100 -
specimen, or less frequently, the lateral contraction at the root of
the V-notch which is subject to tension stresses. ^ 50
•
4. By the Nil Ductility Transition Temperature (NDTT), as deter- I
mined by the drop-weight test according to ASTM specification
E208. 1= °
Q
5. By the absorbed energy transition of the Dynamic Tear Test, or Z
0 ^ -- -50
by the absorbed energy in this test (DTTE). o.o»^ 0
6. By the determination of the plain-strain fracture toughness (Kic), -50
utilizing the tests described in ASTM E399. These tests yield
information which can be used in engineering design calcula- -100
- -100
tions of allowable flaw size and material selection for a given
application. Calculations of allowable flaw sizes for various flaw -150 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
shapes, or interrelation between the fracture toughness, flaw -200 50 100 150 200
-200 -150 -100 -50
configuration, and stress level, are provided by such expressions
as: C v - 15 ft -lb TEMPERATURE - °F
KIC = aDVna,. Fig. 23-3 Correlation between Tcvis and NDTT for cast and
wrought carbon and low alloy steels. Wrought steel data after Gross
Fig. 23-4 Correlation between

10 50 100 150
lateral expansion and impact 2.0
I I 1 1 I I I I I 1 . 1 1 1 1
energy in Charpy V-notch tests of
cast carbon and low alloy steels
70 _ 0 in ( 2 5 . 4 mm) SECTIONS /
•
A
£A A
A A
A
A
* »4
y. 1.8
A 3 - 10 in. ( 7 6 . 2 - 254mm) SECTIONS y QQ £& ^ '
- 1.6
60 — ° A Cfos&P '
- mil
- 1.4
Sex AS/QD A A
50 -
2
O
A ' TXprV^* / A 1.2
yO
A nO XT /
y* wt y/ &&W /
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2 _
< 40 1.0 2
& PA
EXP
& A / X
UJ
A
0.8
_i 30 - <* /A X9^> / ^~*-LAT. EXPANSION = -0.65 + .85 CUE — ( m i l )
<
ATERAi
tr
- 0.6
4 0 H? UJ
wy
20 —
0
_i tf, 0.4
-
10
rk> / 0.2
a, A P
•4W\_L_ L i i i i i i i i 1 0
20 40 60 80 100
ENERGY - ft- lb
07 indicates the manner in which lateral expansion relates to the impact

energy in Charpy V-notch tests, independent of test temperature and
strength level—within the tensile strength range of 70-140 ksi
06
*. / (483-1034 MPa). The correlation between room temperature Kic
I8 0 #22' and Charpy V-notch results for cast quenched and tempered 4335
»23° oo*,„ and normalized and tempered 9535 steels is shown in Figure 23-5.
05 /
0 »27
z / °»25
J
_' 0.4 « —'±~) =2 786 — — +0090
*«»3 0 / \ rYS/ Ks /
°*26
* 0 3
*ôT 41 &
/ l3
0 2
/ O g
° tt 40
0.1 7 0 »
*32
1 1 1 1 1 a) b) c)
0 1 02 03 0 4 05 OS
CVN/ir
Vs • F T lb / K S I
Fig. 23-6 Sulfide inclusions in 0.35 percent carbon, 0.74 percent
manganese, 0.39 percent silicon steel, (a) Type II, 0.009 percent
Fig. 23-5 Relationship between room-temperature values of Ki c aluminum residual content after deoxidation, (b) Type III, 0.030
and Charpy V-notch absorbed energy, CVN for cast QT 4335 and percent aluminum residual content after deoxidation, and (c) Type
NT 9535 steel (5) I, silicon killed, 500x (21)
Normalized and Tempered Quenched and Tempered

+20 +20
0 0
-20 -20
g -40 ^-V \Z
Q
-40
Z
-60 -60
-80 -80
J I L J L
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
Room temperature U)
60 =? 60
50 oi 50
a>
40 | 40
O
30 30
20 20
10 8—-. 10
J L J I L J_ 0 J_
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
% Aluminum % Aluminum
Fig. 23-7 Effect of aluminum content on the Charpy V-notch impact energy and NDTT of 0.2C-1.2Mn steel. Specimens were tested in the
normalized and tempered, and quenched and tempered conditions (6).
Ambient and Low-Temperature

Properties
Ferritic and Martensitic Steels
Effect Of Alloying E l e m e n t s . Aluminum reduces the grain
size and markedly influences the type of sulfides formed in cast
steel. Both of these effects influence the impact resistance of the
steel. Figure 23-6 illustrates the three general types of sulfides which
can be present in steel castings. Type I sulfides form at very low
aluminum levels, or in steels containing calcium or rare earth addi-
tions. Type II sulfides form at intermediate aluminum levels and are
present in the grain boundary regions. Poor impact resistance is
expected when sulfides of this type are present in large quantities.
Type III sulfides occur at higher aluminum levels. Figure 23-7
shows the effect of aluminum content on the impact properties of a
carbon-manganese steel in both the normalized and tempered, and
quenched and tempered conditions. At very high aluminum and/or
nitrogen levels, and in very heavy section castings, an embrittling
agent (aluminum nitride) can form. Therefore, aluminum must be
controlled to produce optimum impact resistance. The primary pur-
pose of aluminum in cast steel is for deoxidation.
Carbon is generally considered harmful to the impact properties
of steel. This is illustrated in Figure 23-8. Increasing carbon has an
effect on hardenability, which can be beneficial in producing the
desirable martensitic microstructure. It is generally agreed that in-
creases in carbon beyond the amount necessary to produce this
desirable microstructure, and the required mechanical properties,
are considered harmful to the impact resistance. The effect of micro-
structure on the Charpy impact properties is shown in Figure 23-9.
Chromium has variously been reported to have either a slightly
positive or slightly negative effect on toughness. It is generally
added to improve hardenability, and therefore can lead to the desir-
able martensitic microstructure. -100 -50 0 +50 +100 F
Hydrogen is an undesirable residual element in steel which can TEST TEMPERATURE
reduce ductility and lead to cracking, especially in high strength
heavy section castings. Hydrogen has little effect on impact proper- Fig. 23-9 Effect of various microstructures on the toughness of
ties at the levels in which it normally occurs in steel castings. cast chromium-manganese-molybdenum steel (11)
Fig. 23-8 Effect of carbon content on

the impact transition temperature
200 011% C
curves of ferrite/pearlite steels
150
5. 0 2%C
>act energy
\\L
100
0 31% C
E
0-41% C
0-49% C
50 0 60%C
0 69% C
0 8% C
0 — : — i —r-î . *
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
Test temperature (°C)
Testing temperature, °F
0 50 100 Fig. 23-10 Variation in Charpy
V-notch impact energy with
temperature for 0.30% C steels
containing varying amounts of
manganese. The specimens were
austenitized at 900 °C (1650 °F) a n d
cooled at approximately 14 °C/min
(25 °F/min). The microstructures of
these steels were pearlitic.
- 40 J
-25 0 25
Testing temperature, *C
Temperature, °F TEMPERATURE-°C
-200 -150 -100 -50
200-100 0 100 200 300 70 1 1 • ""T 1
1
90
=y 6 0 80
" / - - —.
ej so -
DC
UJ
/ / _^ _ 60 i
z - / _-
lil 40 50 |
UJ | 3 % _ N i ^
/ ' ^--^ I I UJ
30 - £- 40 Z
UJ
20 »? '' / / •£/
"V
30
°N/ o\"/ U
o/ 20
V
10
/ /$ / - 10
'\* i '^l 1 1 1 1
-300 -200 -100 + 100
TEMPERATURE-°F
100-50 0 50
Temperature, "C Fig. 23-12 Effect of nickel content on impact resistance of
normalized low carbon steels (keyhole notch). All steels contain
0.10% carbon except the 0 % Ni and 2 . 0 % Ni steels which contain
Fig. 23-11 Variation in Charpy V-notch impact energy with
0.20 and 0.15%, respectively (3).
temperature for alloy steels containing 0.35% C, 0.35% Si, 0.80%
Cr, 3.00% Ni, 0.30% Mo, 0.10% V, and the indicated amounts of
manganese. The steels were hardened and tempered to a yield
strength of approximately 1175 MPa (170 ksi). The microstructures
of these steels contained tempered martensite (7).
Nickel is one of the most common additions to low-temperature
steels. It acts much like manganese, except that much larger addi-
Manganese is a beneficial addition in ferritic grades. It is limited tions can be tolerated. Nickel steels are more prone to hydrogen
to about 2% maximum due to segregation problems at higher levels. problems than other grades. Although nickel lowers the upper shelf
The effect of manganese may be detrimental in martensitic steels. energy, it significantly lowers the transition temperature of the steel.
Figures 23-10 and 23-11 illustrate the effect of manganese in ferritic This is illustrated in Figure 23-12. It has a small effect on har-
and martensitic grades. denability, but significantly lowers the Aci temperature of the steel,
Molybdenum is added for hardenability and to increase resistance thus limiting the maximum tempering temperature.
to temper embrittlement. It is generally thought to slightly increase Nitrogen and oxygen are both detrimental to the impact resistance
the NDTT of the steel. of steel. They can also lead to gas-related problems in the foundry.
I20
Fig. 23-13 Effect of sulfur and phosphorus
content on Kic in 4335 cast steel in the 151.6 to HO
S = .019 P = .012 (HEAT No 25)
158.5 ksi yield strength range (5)
IOO
-S=.024 P = 015 (HEAT No 43)
90
| 80
CO
5£
J TO •S = .025 P-. 046 (HEAT No. 39)

o
S=.04O P = 0 4 5 (HEAT No.3l) — ^ " 0
* 60 S=.050 P= .056 (HEAT No.40^5^-0
S=066 P= .066(HEATNo.32r—^0
50
40
30
*
_L J_ I _1_ _1_ X _1_ _L
.020 .040 .060 .080 100 .120 .140 .160
SULFUR CONTENT + PHOSPHORUS CONTENT- WT.%
T e m p e r a t u r e , °F IOU
-100 50 0 50 100 150 - 300

125 i I 1 1 1
o 0.006'>/oS 120
- 80
• 0.009c
V-
100 a 0.025";4S
--
31-0.67% c 200
- 60 80
75 >
G
o
Oi 0
C
C c
<D
40 ™ 3
I 50 u n 40
10 -- • 100
a a &
/ > r <\ -A E E
0)
\
20
A'\
25 t" *->
c
o 0 \
0 -0.17-0.3 0%C -- 0
75 -50 - 25 0 25 50 75 \
-40
T e m p e r a t u r e , °C V ^ ^
Fig. 23-14 Variation in transverse Charpy V-notch impact energy

0.01-1D.11%C-^
with temperature for HSLA steels containing varying amounts of -80 - -100
sulfur. The steels were silicon-aluminum killed with a minimum
yield strength of 450 MPa (65 ksi).
-i?n
Aluminum is frequently added to reduce the oxygen content of the 10 15 20
steel, and titanium or zirconium are added to combine with nitrogen. Mn/C ratio
Both oxygen and nitrogen should be kept as low as possible, consis-
tent with the melting, refining, and pouring practice of the foundry. Fig. 23-15 Interactive effect of carbon and manganese on notch
Phosphorus is an undesirable tramp element in steel castings. It toughness. Manganese-to-carbon ratio affects the transition
temperature of ferritic steels (6).
has been implicated in temper embrittlement, and lowers the impact
resistance of steel. It should be kept as low as possible in low-
temperature steels. Figure 23-13 shows the combined effect of
sulfur and phosphorus on the Kic values for cast 4335 steel.
Silicon raises the NDTT of steel, at least at levels greater than
0.20%. It is added to cast steels for fluidity and deoxidation pur- niques should be considered to reduce the sulfur to the lowest
poses, but should be kept below 0.60% for improved toughness. possible level.
Sulfur reduces both the upper and lower shelf energies, and gen- 77ie manganese-to-carbon ratio has been shown to affect the im-
erally reduces impact resistance. This effect is illustrated in Figure pact properties of ferritic steels. This is illustrated in Figure 23-15.
23-14. Basic melting, ADD refining, or ladle desulfurization tech- In martensitic steels, this effect may not be significant.
• - 25
Fig. 23-16 Interactive effect of manganese and
o
nitrogen on notch toughness. Fracture
0 • appearance transition temperature (50% shear
*^ —- 0 FATT) in plain carbon steel (0.10% C) at three
< manganese levels (0.4,0.7, and 1.2% Mn)
/o . - ' ' varies with nitrogen content. The beneficial
/ A
effect of manganese is particularly evident at low
A
-- -25
levels of nitrogen.
i
s -- -50
/
E -60 .f / f / -75 E
l h -- -100 £
1
l
I -U.«7o M i l - -125
l -0.7% Mn
I
I
-100
i 150
1
U
1
1 175
-120 i
0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0018

Nitrogen, %
Table 23-1 The Effect of Composition on Toughness of 1-inch Thick Steel Castings as Measured by NDTT
andTCv(°Fper0.1%)(6)
Normalized and tempered
Quenched anc tempered NDTT NDTT(l) TCv20
NDTT TCv30 Rep 75 TCv18 of annealed, normalized, and normalized and tempered wrought steels (2)
c -31 -12 +38(3) +27 +23 +30(0.12-0.32)(3) +36(0-0.8X4) +52(0-0.68X7,8) —

Mn -2.7(3) -4.6 -3.3 -4.7 -8(0.3-1.5)(8) -10(0.2-1.5X3) -12(0.1-1.4)(4) —
Si +7.8 +14 +6.5 +5.4 +8(0.34-0.83X5) +12(>0.30)(8) +17(0.31-1.2)(3) -30(0.02-0.20X4)
Cr -1.7 1.1(3) — -1(0-1.34X4) +5(0.005-1X6) — —
Mo -1.6(3) +5.3 — +6.0 +18(0-0.29X3) +25(0-0.30X8) — —
Ni -3.2 -1.7 -2.6 -7.2 -2.2 -1.8(5) -3(0-3)(8) ^t.5(0.04-2.5)(3) -5(0-1.45X4)
S — — — — — Nil(0.02-0.05)(3,3a) — — —
P — — — +139,+267 — +130(5a)(8) +10(0.01-0.06X3) — —
Al -130 -112 -120(4) — -72(5) -200(0-0.03X8) — —
N — — — — — +330(0-0.06X3) +290(5) — —
Cu — — — — — +4(0.03-2)(3) — — —
Ti — — — — — +50(0-0.08X3) — — —
V — — — — — Nil(0-0.05)(3) — — —
Zr — — — — — +60(0.05-0.15)(3) — — —
(1) Research Rep. 75 data for commercially made steels. (2) The effect °F/0.1 % is followed by applicable composition range and literature reference. (3) This effect
was not established with 90% confidence and the listed value stems from arithmetic data analysis (Heats 1-16). (4) No effect was noted with confidence in the range
of 0.035 to 0.07 (Heats 1-20). The listed value is an estimate for the range of 0.01 to 0.035 (Heats a-h). (...) Effect not established with 70% confidence, a simple dash
indicates that the effect was not studied or found in the literature
The manganese-to-nitrogen ratio is an interactive effect which 23-2, 23-3a and 23-3b. The applicable ASTM specifications are
can strongly influence toughness. It is most pronounced at low A352, "Steel Castings, Ferritic and Martensitic for Pressure Con-
nitrogen levels. Increasing the manganese and reducing the nitrogen taining Parts, Suitable for Low Temperature Service," and A757,
can produce superior impact properties, as illustrated in Figure "Steel Castings, Ferritic and Martensitic, for Pressure-Containing
23-16. and Other Applications, for Low Temperature Service." In addition,
Table 23-1 gives a compilation of the effects of alloying elements other ASTM specifications have supplementary requirements for
on the toughness properties of cast and wrought steels, in different impact testing when agreed between the purchaser and the foundry.
conditions of heat treatment. The grades listed in Table 23-2 are only a few of the many possible
S p e c i f i c a t i o n s . The carbon, low-alloy and martensitic stainless grades which can be considered for low-temperature service. The
steels designated for low-temperature service are listed in Tables large number of grades available for selection range from moderate
Table 23-2 Chemical Limits for ASTM A352/A352M and A757/A757M

Values are in weight percent, and are maximums unless a range is shown.
Total
Grade Type C Mn Si P S Cr Ni Mo Cu V W residuals
ASTMA352/A352M
LCA Carbon steel 0.25(a) 0.70(a) 0.60 0.04 0.045 0.50(b) 0.50(b) 0.20(b) 0.30(b) 0.03(b) 1.00(b)
LCB Carbon steel 0.30(a) 1.00(a) 0.60 0.04 0.045 0.50(b) 0.50(b) 0.20(b) 0.30(b) 0.03(b) 1.00(b)
LCC Carbon- 0.25(a) 1.20(a) 0.60 0.04 0.045 0.50(b) 0.50(b) 0.20(b) 0.30(b) 0.03(b) 1.00(b)
manganese steel
LCI Carbon- 0.25 0.50-0.80 0.60 0.04 0.045 0.45-0.65
molybdenum steel
LC2 2'/2% Nickel steel 0.25 0.50-0.80 0.60 0.04 0.045 2.00-3.00
LC2-1 Nickel-chromium- 0.22 0.55-0.75 0.50 0.04 0.045 1.35-1.85 2.50-3.50 0.30-0.60
molybdenum steel
LC3 3 V2% Nickel steel0.15 0.50-0.80 0.60 0.04 0.045 3.00-4.00
LC4 4'/2% Nickel steel 0.15 0.50-0.80 0.60 0.04 0.045 4.00-5.00
LC9 9% Nickel steel 0.13 0.90 0.45 0.04 0.045 0.50 8.50-10.0 0.20 0.30 0.03
CA6NM 12'/2% Chromium- 0.06 1.00 1.00 0.04 0.03 11.5-14.0 3.5-4.5 0.4-1.0
nickel-Mo Steel
ASTMA757/A757M
A1Q Carbon steel 0.30 1.00 0.60 0.025(b) 0.025(b) 0.40(b) 0.50(b) 0.25(b) 0.50(b) 0.03(b) 1.00(b)
A2Q Carbon- 0.25(a) 1.20(a) 0.60 0.025(b) 0.025(b) 0.40(b) 0.50(b) 0.25(b) 0.50(b) 0.03(b) 1.00(b)
manganese steel
B2N,B2Q 2V2% Nickel steel 0.25 0.50-0.80 0.60 0.025(b) 0.025(b) 0.40(b) 2.0-3.0 0.25(b) 0.50(b) 0.03(b) 1.00(b)
B3N.B3Q 3*/2% Nickel-Steel 0.15 0.50-0.80 0.60 0.025(b) 0.025(b) 0.40(b) 3.0-4.0 0.25(b) 0.50(b) 0.03(b) 1.00(b)
B4N,B4Q 4Y2% Nickel steel 0.15 0.50-0.80 0.60 0.025(b) 0.025(b) 0.40(b) 4.0-5.0 0.25(b) 0.50(b) 0.03(b) 1.00(b)
C1Q Nickel- 0.25 1.20 0.60 0.025(b) 0.025(b) 0.40(b) 1.5-2.0 0.15-0.30 0.50(b) 0.03(b) 1.00(b)
molybdenum steel
D1N.D1Q Chromium- 0.20 0.40-0.80 0.60 0.025(b) 0.025(b) 2.0-2.75 0.50(b) 0.90-1.20 0.50(b) 0.03(b) 0.10(b) 1.00(b)
molybdenum steel
E1Q Nickel-chromium- 0.22 0.50-0.80 0.60 0.025(b) 0.025(b) 1.35-1.85 2.5-3.5 0.35-0.60 0.50(b) 0.03(b) 0.70(b)
molybdenum steel
E2N.E2Q Nickel-chromium- 0.20 0.40-0.70 0.60 0.020(b) 0.025(b) 1.50-2.0 2.75-3.90 0.40-0.60 0.50(b) 0.03(b) 0.10(b) 0.70(b)
molybdenum steel
E3N 12'/2%Chromium- 0.06 1.00 1.00 0.030(b) 0.030(b) 11.5-14.0 3.5-4.5 0.40-1.00 0.50(b) 0.10(b) 0.50(b)
nickel-Mo steel
(a) For eachreductionof 0.01 % carbon below the specified maximum, an increase of 0.04% manganese above the specified maximum will be permitted up to a maxi-
mum of 1.10% for LCA, 1.28% for LCB, and 1.40% for LCC and A2Q.
to excellent toughness performance at low temperature. This broad grades in Tables 22-3a and 33-3b. Toughness requirements vary
spectrum has developed because applications differ in severity, and according to the alloy type. The temperature at which a specific
because impact toughness is only one criteria of selection for low- impact energy must be met depends on the grade of steel and varies
temperature applications. Thermal conductivity and expansion from -50 to -320 °F (-^6 to -196 °C).
characteristics are of importance to some end uses. In addition to The section size in which a toughness level must be met is a
these, design of the component, as well as the stresses imposed in particularly important consideration in selecting a low-alloy steel
service, may have equal or overriding importance, relative to tough- for low-temperature service. The section size effects have been
ness, in the alloy selection. detailed in Chapter 18 and are again illustrated in Table 23-4, with
Higher strength and better toughness are obtained from quenched the chemical compositions of these grades given in Table 23-5.
and tempered low-alloy steels, compared to normalized or normal- Properties listed in Table 23-4 may be expected only for grades
ized and tempered steels, as discussed in greater detail in Chapter which are produced to meet low-temperature toughness require-
17. This is also evident from the minimum mechanical property ments, such as those in ASTM A352 and A757. In general, tough-
requirements of ASTM A352 and A757 (Tables 23-3a and 23-3b). ness and ductility are adversely affected by increasing section size,
The superior performance of the low-alloy steels compared to plain but the magnitude of the effect varies with the grade of steel and its
carbon steels derives from their alloy content and the tough tem- heat treatment. Strength and hardness also decrease with increasing
pered martensitic structure which forms on quenching and temper- section size, but these effects are often less distinct than the tough-
ing. ness variation.
The various alloy combinations available in Table 23-2 offer a The martensitic stainless steel, CA6NM (called E3N in A757),
considerable range of strength and low-temperature toughness val- exhibits excellent toughness down to -150 °F (-101 °C) or below.
ues. The tensile strength of the carbon steels typically ranges from Figure 23-17 shows the change in plane strain fracture toughness
60-90 ksi (415-621 MPa), with minimum required Charpy V-notch (Kic) and tensile strength with temperature. These data were deter-
impact values of 13-15 ft/lb (17-20 J) at-50 °F (-46 °C). Depending mined for 11.8 in. (300 mm) thick sections as shown in Figure
on the alloy type, an ultimate tensile strength range of 70-145 ksi 23-18. Like all of the martensitic grades, CA6NM can be tempered
(485-1000 MPa) is shown for the low-alloy and martensitic stainless to a range of strength levels with a corresponding change in tough-
Table 23-3a Mechanical Property Requirements for ASTM A352/A352M

Values are minimums unless a range is shown (20).
Grade
Requirement LCA LCB LCC LCI LC2 LC2-1 LC3 LC4 LC9 CA6NM
Tensile strength, 60.0-85.0 65.0-90.0 70.0-95.0 65.0-90.0 70.0-95.0 105.0-130.0 70.0-95.0 70.0-95.0 85.0 110.0-135.0
ksi(MPa) (415-585) (450-620) (485-655) (450-620) (485-655) (725-895) (485-655) (485-655) (585) (760-930)
Yield strength, 30.0 35.0 40.0 35.0 40.0 80.0 40.0 40.0 75.0 80.0
ksi (MPa) (205) (240) (275) (240) (275) (550) (275) (275) (515) (550)
Elongation, % in 24 24 22 24 24 18 24 24 20 15
2 in. or 50 mm
Reduction of 35 35 35 35 35 30 24 24 30 35
area,%
CharpyV-notch -25 -50 -50 -75 -100 -100 -150 -175 -320 -100
test tempera- (-32) M6) (-46) (-59) (-73) (-73) (-101) (-115) (-196) (-73)
ture, °F(°C)
Energy, ft-lbf 13(18) 13(18) 15 (20) 13(18) 15 (20) 30(41) 15 (20) 15 (20) 20(27) 20(27)
(J), min value
for 2 spec, and
minavgfor3
spec.
Energy, ft-lbf 10(14) 10(14) 12(16) 10(14) 12(16) 25 (34) 12(16) 12(16) 15 (20) 15 (20)
(J), min fori
spec.
Heat treat- NTorQT NTorQT NTorQT NTorQT NTorQT NTorQT NTorQT NTorQT QT NT
ment^)
(a) NT, Normalize and temper; QT, Quench and1 temper
Table 23-3b Mechanical Property Requirements for ASTM A757/A757M

Values are minimums unless a range is shown (20).
Grade
B2N, B3N, B4N, DIM, D1N2, D1N3, E2N1, E2N2, E2N3,
Requirement A1Q A2Q B2Q B3Q B4Q C1Q D1Q1 D1Q2 D1Q3 E1Q E2Q1 E2Q2 E2Q3 E3N
Tensile 65 70 70 70 70 75 85-115 95-125 105-135 90 90-120 105-135 115-145 110

strength, ksi (450) (485) (485) (485) (485) (515) (585-795) (655-860) (725-930) (620) (620-825) (725-930)(795-1000) (760)
(MPa)
Yield strength, 35 40 40 40 40 55 55 75 85 65 70 85 100 80
ksi (MPa) (240) (275) (275) (275) (275) (380) (380) (515) (585) (450) (485) (585) (690) (550)
Elongation, % 24 22 24 24 24 22 20 18 15 22 18 15 13 15
in 2 in. or 50
mm
Reduction of 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 30 40 35 30 30 35
area,%
CharpyV- -50 -50 -100 -150 -175 -50 (b) (b) (b) -100 -100 -100 -100 -100
notch test (-46) (-46) (-73) (-101) (-115) (-46) (-73) (-73) (-73) (-73) (-73)
temperature,
°F(°C)
Energy, ft-lbf 13(17) 15 (20) 15(20) 15 (20) 15 (20) 15 (20) (b) (b) (b) 30(41) 30(41) 20(27) 15 (20) 20(27)
(J), min
value for 2
spec, and
minavgfor3
spec.
Energy, ft-lbf 10(14) 12(16) 12(16) 12(16) 12(16) 12(16) (b) (b) (b) 25 (34) 25 (34) 15(20) 12(16) 15 (20)
(J), min for 1
spec.
Heat treat- QT QT NTorQT NTorQT NTorQT 1 QT NTorQT NTorQT NTorQT QT NTorQT NTorQT NTorQT NT
ment(a)
Maximum sec- l'/ 2 (32) 3(75) 5(125) l'/ 2 (32) l'/ 2 (32) 5(125) (b) (b) (b) (b) 5(125) l>/2(32) l'/ 2 (32) l'/ 2 (32)
tion in inches
(mm)
(a) NT, Normalize and temper; QT, Quench and temper, (b) Requirements shall be subject to agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser.

Table 23-4 Tensile and Low-Temperature Toughness Properties(a) of Selected Ferritic Hardenable Cast
Steels(b)
Heat Section
ASTM treat- size UTS Y.S. El R.A. FATTso Tcvl5 NDTT
Spec Grade ment^) in. (mm) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) % % op (°C) °F (°C) °F (°C)
A216 WCA NT 1 (25) 75 (517) 47 (324) 20 46 68 (20) 27 ( -3) 5 (-15)

3 (51) 75 (517) 45 (310) 28 38 116 (46) -4 ( -20) 14 (-10)
5 (76) 72 (496) 40 (276) 22 48 32 (0) 0 ( -18) 32 (0)
WCB NT 1 (25) 73 (503) 45 (310) 29 25 93 (34) 59 15) 0 (-18)
3 (51) 74 (510) 49 (338) 17 20 134 (57) 32 0) 9 (-13)
5 (76) 71 (490) 46 (317) 13 18 131 (55) 57 14) 14 (-10)
WCC NT 1 (25) 75 (517) 53 (365) 20 18 61 (16) -A -20) 7 (-14)
3 (51) 75 (517) 54 (372) 16 15 39 (4) 14 -10) -4 (-20)
5 (76) 74 (510) 52 (359) 16 13 55 (13) 23 -5) 0 (-18)
A352 LCB QT 1 (25) 70 (483) 46 (317) 35 73 20 (-4) -75 -60)
3 (51) 65 (448) 43 (296) 39 73 60 (16) -40 ^10) ^10 MO)
5 (76) 65 (448) 42 (290) 35 60 60 (16) -30 -34) ^10 (-40)
LCC QT 1 (25) 76 (524) 53 (365) 18 29 37 (3) -73 -58) -A0 M0)
3 (51) 77 (531) 51 (352) 28 47 41 (5) -67 -55) -22 (-30)
5 (76) 71 (490) 49 (338) 28 49 36 (2) -40 -4Q) -13 (-25)
LCI QT 1 (25) 80 (552) 65 (448) 28 62 14 (-10) -86 -66) -40 (-40)
3 (51) 79 (545) 66 (445) 29 64 32 (0) -58 -50) -22 (-30)
5 (76) 74 (510) 53 (365) 25 44 57 (14) 0 -18) 5 (-15)
LC2 QT 1 (25) 77 (531) 62 (427) 26 35 -78 (-61) -160 -107) --121 (-85)
3 (51) 73 (503) 59 (407) 33 48 -47 (-A4) -166 -110) --112 (-80)
5 (76) 71 (490) 55 (379) 30 54 -22 (-30) -144 -98) -94 (-70)
A352 LC2-1 QT 1 (25) 109 (752) 97 (670) 24 65 -60 (-51) -140 -96)
3 (51) 106 (731) 92 (634) 23 66 -55 (-49) -95 -71) --140 (-96)
5 (76) 107 (738) 93 (641) 21 53 -25 (-32) -110 -79) -80 (-62)
LC3 QT 1 (25) 89 (614) 57 (393) 19 33 -121 (-85) -166 -110) --193 (-125)
3 (51) 92 (634) 61 (421) 17 25 -193 (-125) -157 -105) --175 (-115)
5 (76) 85 (586) 60 (413) 15 18 -202 (-130) -148 -100) --193 (-125)
A757 CIQ NQTA 1 (25) 95 (655) 72 (496) 27 60. -130 [-90)
3 (51) 92 (634) 69 (476) 31 7Q. -120 (-84) -90 (-68)
5 (76) 78 (738) 60 (413) 25 54.. -105 (-76) -80 (-62)
CIQ ANQT 3 (51) 82 (565) 68 (469) 30 58 -15 (-26) -110 (-79) -85 (-65)
5 (76) 83 (572) 62 (427) 28 55 -22 (-30) -85 (-65) -68 (-56)
E1Q NQT 1 (25) 102 (703) 90 (621) 26 69.. -145 (-99) --175 (-115)
3 (51) 102 (703) 88 (607) 22 53.. -120 (-84) --140 (-96)
5 (76) 99 (683) 83 (572) 25 69. -100 (-73)
E1Q ANQT 3 (51) 90 (621) 72 (496) 28 62 -120 (-84) -188 (-122) --151 (-102)
5 (76) 91 (627) 71 (490) 23 61 -100 (-73) -155 -104) --144 (-98)
E3N(d) QT 1 (25) 132 (910) 117 (807) 8 20 -184 (-120) -256 (-160) --211 (-135)
3 (51) 127 (816) 87 (600) 17 49 -157 (-105) -220 (-140) •-202 (-130)
5 (76) 117 (807) 95 (655) 10 14 -94 (-70) -148 (-100) --202 (-130)
(a) Determined at the 1/4 thickness location of cast plates measuring n excess of 4Tx 4T. (b) See Table 23-5 for composition and heat tresitment. (c) N,Nc rmalized;
Q, Quenched; A, Aged; T, Tempered, (d)Also referred to asCA-6NM,asir ASTM A 352
Table 23-5 Composition of Selected Ferritic Hardenable Cast Steels(a)

ASTM Heat Composition, %
Specification Grade treatment(b) C Mn Si P S Cr Ni Mo Al
216 WCA NT 0.24 0.72 0.53 0.021 0.013

WCB NT 0.24 0.65 0.42 0.012 0.023 0.15 0.09 0.07 0.044
WCC NT 0.21 1.12 0.51 0.034 0.035 0.10 0.09 0.047
352 LCB WQTSR 0.18 0.75 0.38 0.007 0.014 0.06 0.03 0.015 0.051
LCC WQT 0.18 1.11 0.36 0.02 0.02
LCI NQT 0.17 0.78 0.40 0.02 0.008 0.06 0.11 0.53 0.09
LC2 NQT 0.12 0.63 0.41 0.011 0.013 0.05 2.6 0.01 0.016
LC2-1 NQTA 0.08 0.58 0.35 0.012 0.010 1.40 3.00 0.52 0.047
LC3 WQT 0.12 0.82 0.36 0.01 0.013 0.18 3.9 0.06 0.009
757 CIQ NQTA 0.18 0.89 0.34 0.01 0.006 0.03 1.72 0.22 0.034
CIQ ANQT 0.21 0.87 0.39 0.014 0.014 0.06 1.67 0.28 0.041
E1Q NQT 0.07 0.61 0.30 0.022 0.003 1.42 2.87 0.39 0.017
E1Q ANQT 0.10 0.75 0.34 0.018 0.013 1.83 2.90 0.42 0.054
E3N NT 0.05 0.51 0.57 0.025 0.009 12.4 3.25 0.63 0.03
(a) See Table 23-4 for tensile and low-temperature toughness properties, (b) NT, Normalized and tempered; WQT, Water quenched and tempered; WQTSR, Water
quenched and tempered and stress relieved; NQTA, Normalized, quenched, tempered, and aged

TEMPERATURE - ° C
-I20 -80 -40
70
60
50
2
30
1200 I
TENSILE
STRENGTH - I000
or
0 . 2 % YIELD " 8 0 0
STRENGTH
J I
-200 -I00 I00
TEMPERATURE•
Fig. 23-17 Change in plane strain fracture toughness and tensile

strength with temperature below 32 °F (0 °C) for cast 13 Cr-4 Ni
steel CA-6NM. Test casting and specimen location shown in Figure
23-18(7)
Temperature, °C
160 -120 -80 -40 0 40
I I I I I I
AOD refined
100 - 140
Absorbed energy (ft- lbs)
75 100
Basic arc refined

50 - Fig. 23-18 Test casting and specimen location for toughness and
strength data of cast 13 Cr-4 Ni steel in Figure 23-17 (7)
Induction melted
25
20
15
I, I I I I I I
- 2 5 0 - 2 0 0 - 1 5 0 - 1 0 0 - 5 0 0 50 100
Temperature, °F
Fig. 23-19 Typical Charpy V-notch impact properties of CA-6NM

steel. (After C S Nalbone, ASTM STP 756, 1982)
TEMPERATURE-°C
-200 -I50 -I00 -50
TEMPERATURE-°C 200
-80 -40 0 40
-400 -300 -200 -I00 0 100

-200 -I00 0 I00 200 TEMPERATURE- °F
TEMPERATURE - ° F
Fig. 23-21 Effect of test temperature on tensile and Charpy
Fig. 23-20 Charpy V-notch transition curve for the 0.1 C-3.1 Cr-0.5 keyhole-notch properties of CF-8 cast stainless steel, solution
Mo cast steel, 2 in. (51 mm) test coupons (10) annealed and quenched (13,14). Conversion: 1 ft • lb = 1.356 J
Table 23-6 Alloy Casting Institute Classification of Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Castings
Nearest Composition!!)), %
Structure ACI AISI C Mn Si Mo
type(a) type Alloy type max max max Cr Ni max Other elements
A+F CE-30 29Cr-9Ni 0.30
A+F CF-3 19Cr-10Ni 304L 0.03
A+F CF-8 19Cr-9Ni 304 0.08
A CF-20 19Cr-9Ni 302 0.20
A+F CF-3M 19Cr-10Ni 316L 0.03 1.50 1.50 17-21 9-13 2-3
A+F CF-8M 19Cr-10Ni 316 0.08 1.50 1.50 18-21 9-12 2-3
A+F CF-12M 19Cr-10Ni 316 0.12 1.50 1.50 18-21 9-12 2-3
A+F CF-8C 19Cr-10Ni 347 0.08 1.50 2.00 18-21 9-12 Cb 8 x C min,
1.0 max or Cb-
TalOxCmin,
1.35 max
A+F CF-16F 19Cr-10Ni 303 0.16 1.50 2.00 18-21 9-12 1.5 Se 0.20-0.35, P
0.17 max
A+F CG-8M 19Cr-10Ni 317 0.08 1.50 1.50 18-21 9-13 3-4
A CH-20 25Cr-12Ni 309 0.20 1.50 2.00 22-26 12-15
A CK-20 25Cr-20Ni 310 0.20 1.50 2.00 23-27 19-22
A CN-7M 20Cr-29Ni 0.07 1.50 1.50 18-22 27-31 1.75-2.50 Cu 3.00 min
(a) A+F, Duplex structure of austenite plus ferrite; A, Fully austenitic matrix, (b) Phosphorus and sulfur each 0.04 max except CF-16F
Table 23-7 Magnetic Measurements and Austenite Stability at -320 °F (-196 °C) (19)
Room-temperature % Austenite % Austenite % Ferrite % Ferrite
permeability in unstrained on rupture in unstrained on rupture
Designation atH = 200 area face area face
CF-8 2.451 76 64 22 36
Ni modified CF-8 1.013 100 92 0 8
Modified CK-20 1.015 100 100 0 0
CF-3M 1.021 97 77 3 27
Kromarc-55 1.034 100 100 0 0
Table 23-8 (18) Composition of Cast Austenitic Steels Tested for Austenitic Stability at Low Temperature
(19)
Com position, %
Designation C Cr Ni Mn Mo Si P
Modified CK-20 0.03 23.73 22.60 4.08 1.35 0.003

CF-3M 0.04 16.50 13.81 2.08 1.00 0.008
Kromarc-55 0.05 16.01 20.76 8.76 2.12 0.22 0.003
CF-8 0.08 20.24 9.33 0.85 1.58 0.001
Ni Modified CF-8 0.03 18.03 14.49 1.04 0.15 1.13 0.001
ness. The effect of test temperature on the toughness of this alloy castings. There are small but significant differences in composition
with different melting and refining methods is shown in Figure between cast and wrought stainless steels as shown in this chapter
23-19. and in the Appendix. The ACI designation and the designation of the
In addition to the existing grades that are commercially available, nearest wrought equivalent steel are listed in Table 23-6 for fully
development work has been carried out on alternate alloy combina- austenitic and duplex cast stainless steels. Their low-temperature
tions for specific advantages. For instance, 2 in. (51 mm) Cr-Mo properties are reviewed here because of their importance for low-
steel castings with low sulfur and silicon levels exhibited in excess temperature and cryogenic applications.
of 25 ft/lb (34 J) at -100 °F (-73 °C), at a tensile strength of 91 ksi
(627 MPa). A NDTT of -150° (101°) was determined, and the T o u g h n e s s . Austenitic steels retain considerable toughness at
Charpy V-notch test results are shown in Figure 23-20. This particu- cryogenic temperatures, as illustrated in Figure 23-21, for CF8
lar alloy is essentially nickel-free and may be useful in service that stainless steel by the linear decrease in Charpy keyhole-notch im-
combines low temperature with sour gas environments. pact energy while the tensile and yield strength increase. The loss in
toughness due to lower test temperatures is more distinct in Charpy
Austenitic Stainless Steels V-notch impact tests, as shown in Figure 23-22.
Fully austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steels, as well as austenitic-fer- Comparative data in Figure 23-23 show that the lower carbon
ritic, or so-called duplex Cr-Ni stainless steels, are produced as duplex cast stainless steel grades CF3M, CF8, and CF8M and the
TEMPERATURE - °K austenitic CN7M and CF20 exhibit significantly higher toughness

50 100 I50 200 250 300 than the stabilized grade of CF8C, and the free-machining grade
I I I I I I CF8F (a lower carbon version of C-16). The higher carbon austenitic
200
- 250 grades CH-20 and CK-20 show lower impact resistance than the
other grades listed.
150 - 200 i Carbide and sigma phase precipitation, caused by reheating into
N>^~ > the sensitizing temperature range significantly lower the impact
C3
~ 150 0T values at all temperatures, as indicated for grade CF8 in Figure
I00 z 23-24.
UJ
I00 Structural Stability at Low Temperatures. There are a
50 - few applications where, in addition to resistance to brittle fracture,
50 the designer is required to specify a material with a high degree of
dimensional stability or one that remains completely nonmagnetic.
I i i I I I Ball valves for handling liquified gases and liquid hydrogen bubble
-400 -300 -200 -I00 lOO chambers are examples of applications for which an alloy is pre-
TEMPERATURE-°F ferred that will remain fully austenitic even after plastic deforma-
tion.
Fig. 23-22 Charpy V-notch impact energy data band for CF-8 cast When properly heat treated, the austenite of the various stainless
stainless steel, solution annealed and quenched (15,16,17) steels of the 18Cr-8Ni family is stable at room temperature. Depend-
ing upon the exact composition, however, a portion of the austenite
may transform to martensite when subjected to lower temperatures
and plastic deformation, or both. Transformation temperatures as
high as 600 °F (333 °C) above the Ms temperature have been
suggested (18).
Magnetic measurements (19) and austenite stability data in Table
23-7 indicate substantial transformation of austenite in the CF8
TEMPERATURE- °K
alloy tested at -320 °F (-196 °C). Transformation was completely
100 150 200 absent in the manganese modified CK-20 and the proprietary Mn-
Cr-Ni-Mo cast stainless alloy (Table 23-8).
REFERENCES
1. "Low Temperature Properties of Ferrous Materials," SAE Report

TR-169
2. J.H. Gross, "Comparison of Charpy V-Notch and Drop-Weight
Tests for Structural Steels," Welding Research Journal, June 1956
3. T.N. Armstrong and A.P. Gagnebin, "Impact Properties of Some
Low Alloy Nickel Steels at Temperatures Down to -200 °F," ASM
Trans., Vol 28,1940, p 1-20
T E M P E R A T U R E - °K
50 100 150 200 250 300
80 1 1 1 1 1
- 100^
i >-
>- 6 0 CO
CO
rr SOLUTION ANNEALED y 80 *
ui
z AND QUENCHED ~~>yy^ z
Ul Ul
Ul 60 y
- I 40 O
O 1035 "F •^X X
X 3 TO 30 min ,
UJ 40 £
>-
£20 0.
l 2 5 0 ° F - 3 0 msn^y' y
< 20 <
X l 2 5 0 ° F - 3 min ^yyX O
o 1250^-48 h r — - ^ y S ^
1035° F - 4 8 hrj ,
-300 -200 -100 1 1 0
TEMPERATURE - °F -400 -300 -200 -100 0 K)0
Fig. 23-23 Comparative impact toughness of cast austenitic and Fig. 23-24 Effect of sensitizing treatments on the impact
austenitic-ferritic stainless steel grades, solution annealed and resistance of Type CF-8 at subzero temperatures (14). Conversion:
quenched (13,14) °C = (5/9) (°F-32)
4. MPC research to be published 15. Private communications, E. Kay, Sandusky Foundry and Machine
5. Private communications, V. Behal, Dominion Foundries and Steel, Company, Sandusky, OH, 1979
Ltd., 1979 16. G. Mayer and K. Balajiva, "The Low Temperature Mechanical
6. SFS A Research Properties of Some Cast Stainless Steels," Metallurgia, 59,1959, p
7. J. Zwyssig, "Bruchzaehigkeit Von G X5 Dr Ni 13-4 M Tief-Tem- 221
peraturbereich," Konstmieren-Giessen, 1979, p 10 17. Data Sheets on the Properties of Steel Castings, BS3100, Austenitic
8. Data Sheets on the Properties of Steel Castings, BS3100, 13-C4 Cr-Ni and Austenitic Cr-Ni-Mo Steel Castings, Steel Castings
4-Ni Steel Castings, Steel Castings Research and Trade Associa- Research and Trade Association, Sheffield, England, 1978 and
tion, Sheffield, England, 1978 1979, respectively
9. SFS A data collection from member companies 18. G. Eichelman, Jr., et al., "The Effect of Composition on the Tem-
10. Private communications, J. Crawford, Climax Molybdenum Com- perature of Spontaneous Transformation of Austenite to Martensite
pany, on "Cast Structural Steel for Low Temperature Applications," in 18-8 Type Stainless Steel," Discussion, ASM Trans., Vol 45,
by H.L. Arnson, Climax Molybdenum Company of Ann Arbor, MI 1953, p 104
11. J. Wallace, 'Toughness of Cast Steels as Influenced by Heat Treat- 19. C.L. Goodzeit, "Evaluation of Stainless Steel Casting Alloys for
ment and Other Processing Variables," Journal of Steel Castings Cryogenic Service in the 80-in. Liquid-Hydrogen Bubble Cham-
Research, No. 74, March 1976, SFSA, p 1-15 ber," Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, Vol 10, Plenum Press,
12. "SCRATA Materials Act Sheets on 13% Cr-4%Ni Steel (including New York, 1965, p 26-36
CA-6NM)," Steel Castings Research and Trade Association, Shef- 20. 1991 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 01.02: "Ferrous Cast-
field, England, April 1991,pC18.1 ings; Ferroalloys," ASTM, 1991
13. E.R. Hall, 'Tensile and Impact Properties of Cast Stainless Steels at 21. J.M. Svoboda and R.W. Monroe, Ed., Steel Casting Metallurgy,
Cryogenic Temperatures," ASTM, STP 302,1962 SFSA, 1984
14. J. Juppenlatz, "Austenitic Cast Stainless Good for Low Tempera- 22. G.J. Roe, Ed., Metals Handbook, Vol 1: "Properties and Selection:
ture Applications—But", Iron Age, Sept 4,1972, p 147 Irons and Steels," 9th ed., ASM, 1978

CHAPTER 24
Hardenability and Heat Treatment

Page
Introduction 24-2
Carbon and Low Alloy Steel 24-2

Transformation During Heating 24-2
Transformations During Cooling 24-3
Austenite Transformation Diagrams 24-4
Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 24-4
Continuous Cooling Diagrams 24-5
Types of Heat Treatment 24-6
High Strength Low Alloy Steels 24-11
Austenitic Manganese Steels 24-11
Martensitic Stainless Steels 24-12
Austenitic Stainless Steels 24-13
Precipitation Hardening Steels 24-14
Quench Hardening of Carbon Steel 24-15

Hardenability 24-15
Jominy Procedure 24-15
Ideal Critical Diameter 24-20
Calculated End Quench Curves 24-20
Application of Ideal Critical Diameter 24-22
Cooling Rate Equivalence 24-23
Specifying Hardenability 24-24
Hardenability Bands 24-25
Quenching to Produce Martensite 24-25
Quenchants 24-26
Quenching Variables 24-31
Measuring Quench Severity 24-32
Cooling Curves 24-33
Quench Factors 24-34
Hardenability of Cast 4130 Steel 24-34
TTP Curves for Cast 4130 Steel 24-35
Microstructure and Properties 24-37
Residual Stress, Distortion, and Cracking 24-38
References 24-42

24-2 Part 5B: Processing Properties
1100
2000
HOLOING
1900
UPPER
TRANSFORMATION FULL ANNEAL 1000
LOWER U_ 1 8 0 0
TRANSFORMATION
UJ I
UJ
a: a:
- 9 0 0 ID
I-
<
$ <r
UJ
UJ a_
a. 5
UJ UJ
H
i- 800
K
1300 700
a + PEARLITE % PEARLITE + Fe 3 C
I it! I _L
Fe 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
CARBON-%
TIME-
Fig. 24-2 Simplified iron-carbon diagram. Shaded band is
annealing or normalizing temperature range.
Fig. 24-1 A generalized sketch of the steps in the heat treating of
steel castings
microstructure of ferrite and cementite (Fe3C) existing as alternating
lamella. Most heat treating begins by heating the steel into the
Introduction austenite phase region where the room-temperature microstructure
is transformed to the austenitic face-centered cubic structure. If such
The overwhelming majority of carbon, low alloy, and high alloy a steel is heated to a moderate temperature below 1340 CF (727 °C),
steel castings produced today are heat treated prior to being put into internal stresses resulting from the casting process may be relieved
service. Castings are heat treated to enhance particular properties without substantially altering the as-cast microstructure or physical
such as hardness, toughness, corrosion resistance, etc. and to im- properties.
prove uniformity of properties throughout the casting. The particular A portion of the iron-carbon phase diagram is illustrated in Figure
type of heat treatment depends on both the alloy type and the 24-2. The iron-carbon diagram illustrates the phases present as a
intended service conditions. It should be noted that heat treatment function of carbon concentration versus temperature. At carbon
procedures for cast steels are similar to those employed for wrought concentrations below 0.77% and temperatures below the eutectoid
steels. value of about 1330 °F (721 °C), the stable phases are ferrite and
In general, heat treatment is an operation involving heating to an pearlite. At carbon concentrations above 0.77%, the stable phases
elevated temperature followed by controlled cooling for the purpose below 1340 °F (727 °C) are pearlite and cementite.
of obtaining particular microstructures and combinations of proper- If a steel containing less than the eutectoid carbon concentration
ties. The utility of steel lies largely in the relative ease with which (hypoeutectoid) is heated to a temperature just above the eutectoid
properties can be altered by controlling the rate at which parts are temperature (P-S line in Figure 24-2), pearlite decomposes to pro-
heated and then cooled. The changes in properties occur principally duce face-centered cubic austenite (gamma iron) resulting in a
because of the variety of microstructural constituents obtained with mixture of ferrite and austenite phases. If heating is continued to
various cooling rates. higher temperatures, the ferrite progressively decomposes to form
The essential elements of any heat treatment are the heating cycle, more austenite. At a sufficiently high temperature, the ferrite and
holding temperature and time, and the cooling cycle. A heating cycle any carbides present are completely decomposed to produce a ho-
and three different types of cooling cycles are schematically illus- mogeneous austenitic microstructure. The process of heating for the
trated in Figure 24-1. The length of time that a casting is held at a purpose of forming a homogeneous austenite microstructure is re-
particular temperature and the rate at which it is then cooled are ferred to as austenitizing or solution treating. Most strengthening
important factors. The holding time at a definite temperature should heat treatments begin by heating the steel fully into the gamma
be long enough to complete the desired microstructural transforma- region. The upper critical temperature for a steel containing less than
tions. 0.77% carbon is represented by the line G-S.
Heating a carbon steel containing more than 0.77% carbon (hy-
pereutectoid) to a temperature above the S-K line in Figure 24-2
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels again results in a decomposition of the pearlite to form a structure
containing both austenite and cementite. At higher temperatures, the
cementite is progressively decomposed until at a sufficiently high
Transformations During Heating temperature, the structure consists of homogeneous austenite. The
Most carbon and low alloy cast steels contain less than 0.77% upper critical temperature for a steel containing greater than 0.77%
carbon and as a consequence, the as-cast microstructure is a two carbon is represented by the line S-E. The lower critical temperature
phase mixture consisting of ferrite (alpha iron) and pearlite. Ferrite for both hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels is represented by
is a body-centered cubic phase, and pearlite is a two-phase eutectoid the line P-S-K.
Hardenability and Heat Treatment 24-3
or during continuous cooling of allloyed steels at certain cooling

1
' ' T i i 1 ! i rates.
Transformation of austenite at even lower temperatures, below
500
about 400 °F (204 °C), results in the formation of a body centered
tetragonal structure. This structure is referred to as martensite and is
0 4 0 0 found in fully hardened steels. Microstructurally, martensite has the
0 appearance of needles. Since martensite occupies a greater volume
Ms
oT \ ; than austenite, steel expands when martensite forms, and this results
= 300 in dimensional changes which may cause distortion. In severe situ-
o
ations distortion may cause parts to crack during quenching.
<£
1 200
- \sMf - In many cases, some austenite may remain in a severely quenched
steel after cooling. When this occurs, martensite needles are ob-
100 served to exist in a matrix containing some austenite. This untrans-
formed austenite is referred to as retained austenite. Retained
austenite is relatively soft and its presence detracts from martensitic
i • r \ < i i
0 0.2 04 06 0.8 1.0 1.2 14

properties when a steel requiring full hardening is desired. Retained
Fe Weight per cent carbon austenite is also undesirable because it can subsequently transform
to martensite during machining or after a part is put into service. The
expansion occurring when retained austenite transforms to marten-
Fig. 24-3 Influence of carbon on M s and Mf temperatures (1) site creates internal stress which may cause distortion and a loss of
tolerances in machined parts. The resulting untempered martensite
is also brittle which may lead to cracking in service. As a conse-
quence, the presence of retained austenite is generally objection-
able.
Transformations During Cooling The transformation of austenite to martensite begins at some
If an austenitized solution treated steel containing less than 0.77% temperature generally referred to as the martensite start (Ms) tem-
carbon is slowly cooled from the austenite temperature region, the perature and continues with decreasing temperature to some lower
temperature referred to as the martensite finish (Mf) temperature. At
first phase to precipitate from the austenite is alpha-ferrite. This
the Mf, the reaction of austenite to martensite ceases even though
transformation results in a change in the atomic arrangement from
some retained austenite may be present. The M s and Mf tempera-
the face-centered cubic austenite to the body-centered cubic alpha-
tures are influenced by the concentrations of alloying elements
ferrite. Since alpha-ferrite can accomodate only a small amount of
present, carbon concentration, and alloy segregation that may have
carbon in solution, the concentration of carbon in austenite increases
occurred during solidification. The influence of carbon content on
during cooling, until at or below the eutectoid temperature of 1340
the Ms and Mf temperatures is illustrated in Figure 24-3 (1).
°F (727 °C); the remaining austenite transforms to pearlite. Slow The Mf temperature in some alloy steels is below room tempera-
cooling a hypereutectoid steel containing more than 0.77% carbon ture. More complete transformation of austenite in such steels may
is similar to cooling a lower carbon steel except that the first be obtained by cooling to the Mf temperature followed by reheating
constituent to precipitate from austenite is cementite (Fe3C). Ce- to room temperature and cooling to the Mf temperature a second or
mentite usually develops at the austenite grain boundaries and forms third time. With each cooling cycle a smaller percentage of retained
a network structure that can be observed in steel at room temperature austenite is converted to martensite.
after the transformation is complete. The Ms temperatures of many steels have been determined experi-
At the eutectoid composition (0.77% C), austenite decomposes mentally, and can be approximated using several empirical formu-
into pearlite without the formation of either primary ferrite or pri- lae. One empirical formula developed by Grange and Stuart (2) is
mary cementite. Since both ferrite and pearlite formation require given as Eq 1:
some diffusion of carbon, higher cooling rates generally reduce the
thickness of the ferrite and cementite phases in pearlite. In general, MS(°F) = 1000 - 650 * %C - 70 * %Mn - 35 * %Ni - 70 * %Cr - 50 * %Mo
as the transformation temperature decreases, the ferrite and Fe3C (Eql)
phase distribution formed becomes finer, which results in a progres-
sive increase in hardness and strength.
At even higher cooling rates, the transformation of austenite to All elemental concentrations are expressed in wt% in this equa-
ferrite and pearlite is delayed or may even be terminated in many tion, and this formula applies when all carbides are dissolved in the
carbon and low alloy steels. The transformation of austenite at austenite.
temperatures between 1000 °F (538 °C), and about 400 °F (204 °C) Another empirical formula reported by Atkins is given in Eq 2 (3):
produces a structure composed of ferrite and cementite, but the
MS(°C) = 539-432 *%C-30.4 *%Mn-17.7 *%Ni-12.1 *%Cr-7.5*%Mo
phases are not arranged in a lamellar form characteristic of pearlite.
Instead, the ferrite and cementite have a feathery or acicular appear- (Eq2)
ance in which neither ferrite nor cementite can be clearly resolved
with an optical microscope. These structures are known as bainite.
The Mf temperature is important when attempting to minimize
When the transformation occurs in the range of about 700-1000 retained austenite in quenched steels. The Mf temperature generally
°F (371-538 °C), bainite has a feathery appearance and is called ranges from 300-475 CF (165 to 245 °C) below the corresponding
upper bainite. When transformation occurs at temperatures in the Ms temperature. The influence of carbon concentration on the pro-
range of about 400-700 °F (204-371 °C), the bainite has a more portion of martensite formed at a given temperature below the Ms is
acicular appearance and is called lower bainite. The hardness of illustrated in Figure 24-4 (2).
bainite varies depending on the exact bainite structure achieved but The most common method of hardening steel involves quenching
typically ranges from about Rockwell C 45 to Rockwell C 60. For from the austenitizing solutioning temperature in a liquid medium
medium carbon steels, bainite can form during extended holding of that rapidly extracts heat. The rate of cooling in the part depends on
the austenite in the temperature range of 400-1000 °F (204-538 °C) the heat removal characteristics of the cooling medium, the thermal
characteristics of the alloy, and the section thickness of the part.

Cooling curves superimposed on "C curves" showing the beginning
and end of transformation are illustrated in Figure 24-5. The points
M s 0 % martensite where the cooling curves cross the beginning and ending curves
0 represent the beginning and end of transformations for the indicated
cooling rates, and the hardness values given are approximate for a
10% martensite steel containing 0.55% carbon. Curve A shows a slow cooling
40 - • _ _ _ ^ condition such as in a furnace (annealing), with transformation
60 -T~--~»^ taking place at relatively high temperatures thus producing thick
~~>^50%
lamellar pearlite. The cooling condition illustrated by curve B rep-
80 resents conditions that might be encountered during air cooling
(normalized) or fan cooling and would result in the formation of
100 ^-^ finer pearlite and higher hardness than observed in condition A. The
f 120 **•».
cooling characteristics illustrated by curve C, represent an initial
^ ^ 9 0 % formation of fine pearlite, but there is insufficient time in the upper
140 - temperature region to allow complete transformation to pearlite. As
160 a consequence, some of the remainder of austenite transforms to
bainite or martensite during continued cooling. Under this condi-
180
tion, the transformation occurs to produce two or more microconsti-
200 ^ ^ 99% ^^> tuents. The formation of two or more types of microconstituents
such as pearlite and bainite, or bainite and martensite, is referred to
220 - as a split transformation and is generally avoided.
240
\ At a sufficiently high rate of cooling, such as indicated by curve
D, transformation does not occur until the Ms temperature is reached
260 -
1 . ^
and martensite formation begins. The cooling rate indicated by
280 - curve E is sufficient to produce a fully hardened steel. The cooling
rate that will accomplish this is called the critical cooling rate. A
300
cooling rate slower than the critical value will allow formation of
I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 some pearlite, and therefore, will not produce full hardening.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Carbon, % Austenite Transformation Diagrams
Transformation diagrams were developed to illustrate the time
dependence of microstructural transformations. There are two
widely used diagrams for presenting transformation data. The first
Fig. 24-4 Relationship between percent carbon in steel and is the time-temperature-transformation (TIT) diagram, sometimes
proportion of martensite formed at a given temperature. (2) referred to as the isothermal transformation diagram (IT diagram).
Isothermal Transformation Diagrams, TTT diagrams
800 i I 1 I are developed by solution treating small samples of steel at the
I
v—Eutectoid temperature
appropriate temperatures and then rapidly cooling from the austeni-
tizing temperature to a temperature between the Ae3 and the marten-
700 site start temperature (Ms), holding for a predetermined period of
time, completing the quench, and analyzing the resulting micro-
\ \ \ structure for the transformation products.
600 \ \ \ Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams for carbon
" \ v\ steels containing about 0.20% and 0.30% carbon are illustrated in
/ \ \ Full onneol Figures 24-6 and 24-7 (4). A TTT diagram for a chrome molybde-
\ num steel containing approximately 0.30% carbon is illustrated in
500
\ \ Normalizing Y
Figure 24-8. While carbon shifts the start of transformation curve to
\ Dil quench X \ longer periods of time at a given temperature, as may be seen by
c 400- \ Y comparing Figures 24-6 and 24-7, the unalloyed carbon steels are
\ \ Criticol rote \ \
very difficult to quench to fully hard microstructures because trans-
1 \ cooling.
formation of austenite to ferrite and pearlite begins at such short time
300 V " intervals over the temperature range of 800-1200 °F. The very fast
I Water \ transformation of austenite to ferrite and pearlite makes it virtually
*, \r nch \ impossible to achieve fully martensitic structures except in very thin
/ Y \ —
sections.
200 - \ \ \
\ The addition of chromium and molybdenum however, retards the
\ transformation and allows hardening to occur with a less severe
100-
^-*>K \ \ \ \ \ quench.
\ \ \ \ \ The TIT curve for 4130 steel, illustrated in Figure 24-8, is usually
Martensite ^ Mortensite
ond peorlite
Fine
peorlite
Coorse
peorlite
interpreted to mean that the steel must be cooled past 1000 °F and to
1 i i i i the start of the martensitic transformation (Ms) in less than about 1.5
01 1 10 100 10* 10" 10 5x10 seconds to produce a fully martensitic structure and to the Ms in
= a
Time, in seconds about 10 seconds to produce a 50% martensitic structure. Slower

cooling rates may result in less than 50% hardening. Several books
Fig. 24-5 Typical continuous cooling transformation curves containing TTT diagrams have been published (4,5).
1DNESS -RC
JJ III! II II! .11Ui - in
800
- A ,
I -- • "
"C
A+F 600
1400
50%
<X
700 A, - ---
^ »———
• -
1200 85RB
1000
V 1 'S F HC - 90RB
14
§ 500
K
<
£ 400
.1 \
s
S
'\
- 22
34
^
<
500
UJ 400
0. Q_
S
LLl 600
h- 300
-
400
- 1 T DIA GFtA A
200
- IN IN IHOU J IDAY IWEEK
0.5 I 2
III!
5 K>
llll
I0 Z I03
ill
I04
llll 4 I0 6
0.5 I Z 5 10 I0* I03 10"
TIME - SECONDS TIME - SECONDS
Fig. 24-6 Carbon Steels: 1021; Chemical composition. AISI and Fig. 24-7 Carbon Steels: 1029; Chemical composition. AISI and
UNS: Nominal 0.18 to 0.23 C, 0.60 to 0.90 Mn, 0.040 P max, 0.050 UNS: Nominal 0.25 to 0.31 C, 0.60 to 0.90 Mn, 0.040 P max, 0.050
S max. Legend. A = Austenite; F = Ferrite; C = Carbide; M = S max. Legend. Same as Figure 24-6
Martensite; B = Bainite; P = Pearlite
Continuous Cooling Diagrams. The second method of

studying and reporting transformations involves examining samples •C
of steel that are continuously cooled at specified rates. The resulting 800
diagrams are referred to as Continuous Cooling Transformation
(CCT) diagrams. CCT curves provide data on the temperature re-
gime of each phase formation, the amount of transformation occur-
ring at a given cooling rate with time, and the cooling rate necessary
to produce martensite.
UJ
A time-transformation-temperature (TTT) diagram with a super- §5 500
imposed continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram is illus- I-
<
trated in Figure 24-9 (6). Cooling curves associated with selected £ 400
a.
positions on a Jominy bar are also superimposed. 2
UJ
CCT diagrams have some characteristics not seen in TTT dia- I - 300
grams, such as a depressed M s temperature at slow cooling rates,
and the prevalence of bainite in the microstructure. The CCT dia- 200 - 400
grams are particularly helpful when devising heat treatments for
high hardenability-thick section steels (6-10). 00 - 2 oo
The continuous-cooling diagram for a 1038 carbon steel contain-

ing approximately 0.38% carbon is illustrated in Figure 24-10 (3)
which indicates the difficulty of achieving full hardening in an 15 1 2 5 K> I0 2 I03 10* I0 5 I0 6
unalloyed low carbon steel. This diagram suggests that cooling rates TIME - SECONDS
in excess of 10,000 °C (18,000 °F) per minute are required in order
to achieve full hardening.
The continuous cooling transformation diagram for a chromium- Fig. 24-8 Chromium-Molybdenum Steel 4130; Chemical
molybdenum (AISI 4130) steel, illustrated in Figure 24-11, shows composition. AISI and UNS: Nominal 0.28 to 0.33 C, 0.40 to 0.60
how the required cooling rates for hardening are reduced with these Mn, 0.035 P max, 0.40 S max, 0.15 to 0.30 Si, 0.80 to 1.10 Cr,
alloy additions (3). Achieving a 50% martensitic microstructure 0.15 to 0.25 Mo
requires a cooling rate of about 120 °F per second at 1300 °F, and a
fully martensitic microstructure requires a cooling rate above 300 °F
per second at 1300 CF. The discrepancies in the required cooling
rates needed to produce 50% martensite in 4130 steel as determined thermal transformation diagrams, but there is little or no definitive
from the TTT diagram (Figure 24-8) and from the CCT diagram data on the subject.
(Figure 24-11) is principally a result of the different methodologies These and other published diagrams present approximate cooling
involved and possibly to differences in the composition and grain rates needed during quenching various alloys to obtain desired
size of the steels used to develop the transformation curves. Con- microstructures (4,11). The actual rates required in parts made of
tinuous cooling diagrams are generally thought to indicate the prob- different alloys depend to some extent on the specific compositions
able quenched transformation products more accurately than iso- of the steels being quenched.
Austenitizing temperature = 860 °C

Fig. 24-9 Experimentally
AC3 (0.25 min) determined CT diagram
800 (continuous lines) for steel with
German designation 42 CrMo 4
(0.38% C, 0.99% Cr, and 0.16%
700 Mo). IT diagram is also shown
(dashed lines). (3)
600
O
o 500
S
2 400
CD
Q.
E
<u
1- 300
200
100
16 24
1 day
20 _L
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance from quenched end
Types of Heat Treatments Solution Treating (Austenitizing). Solution treating or

austenitizing is an elevated-temperature process intended to achieve
It is apparent from the foregoing discussion that a range of a uniform carbon distribution in the austenite. The object of the heat
structures and properties can be achieved in cast steel by controlling treatment is to dissolve second phases such as carbides and produce
the composition, solution treating temperature, and the conditions a homogenous structure with uniformly distributed carbon.
used to cool the steel from the austenitizing temperature back to
room temperature. The purpose of this section is to describe some Homogenization. Homogenization treatments are usually the
heat treatment cycles that may be used to achieve particular micro- same as solution treatments and are intended to achieve a uniform
structures and properties in cast products. distribution of carbon in austenite. However, in some circumstances,
homogenization refers to efforts to achieve a homogenous distribu-
Stress Relief. Stress relief refers to the process of heating steel tion of all elements in the austenite. Homogenization temperatures
to a temperature in the range of 800-1200 °F (427-649 °C) for the may range from 2000-2300 °F (1093-1260 °C) or higher in efforts
purpose of relieving internal stresses without substantially altering to achieve uniform distributions of nickel, chromium, molybdenum,
the microstructure or properties of the part. Some stress relief can and carbon in the matrix. However, the diffusion coefficients for
occur at relatively low temperatures of 400-500 °F (205-260 °C) as these elements are so low that the time required is long, often a
illustrated in Figure 24-12, but about 90% of the residual stress can hundred hours or more. The results do not generally warrant the
be removed at higher temperatures of 1000 °F (540 °C) or higher. costs associated with extended homogenizing treatments.
Sometimes a stress relief treatment is required after operations such
as welding, induction hardening, or grinding are performed after the Annealing. The purpose of annealing is to soften the metal,
primary heat treatment. The maximum temperature for stress relief increase its ductility, relieve internal stresses caused by previous
is generally limited to about 50 °F (30 °C) below the tempering treatments, and enhance machinability. In full annealing, a steel is
temperature used after quenching. Higher stress relief temperatures heated to at least 100 °F (38 °C) above the upper critical tempera-
cause softening. ture, as illustrated in Figure 24-2, and held for sufficient time to
900
Fig. 24-10
CT diagram for plain
carbon steel contain- 800
ing 0.38% C and
0.70% Mn. Transfor-
mation and micro- 700
structures are plotted
as a function of bar di-
ameter.
O 600
500
400
300
200
100
Air cool
0.1 0.2 0.5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000
\ I I I I I I I Oil quench
5 10 20 50 100 150 200 300
I I I I I I Water quench
10 20 50 100 150 200 300
Bar diameter, m m
900 r
Fig. 24-11
Continuous cooling
transformation 800 Ac
3 10% 50%
diagram Start
Aci
700
O 600
8. 500
<S 400
S5
*- 300
200
100
1000 500 200 100 50 20 5 2 1
Cooling rate at 750 °C °C per min
_L Air cool
0.1 0.2 0.5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 mm
I I I I II I I ! Oil quench
5 10 20 50 100 150 200 300 500 m m
I I I I I I Water quench
10 20 50 100 150 200 300 500 mm
Bar diameter, mm

achieve a uniform distribution of carbon in austenite. This is fol- nace and air cooled. Furnace cooling to lower temperatures wastes
lowed by slow cooling, usually in a furnace. When castings have furnace time and requires extra heat to reheat the furnace for the next
cooled 25 °F (14 °C) below the lower critical temperature, the load. The strength of annealed castings is low, and the ductility is
transformation of austenite is usually complete. The transformations high. Some low alloy steels are annealed for machinability and
associated with annealing are not section size dependent unless the given a final heat treatment after rough machining.
sections are sufficiently large that macrosegregation occurred dur- There are variations in annealing treatments for specialized pur-
ing solidification. The castings can then be removed from the fur- poses, for example to achieve spheroidized pearlite structures.
Spheroidized pearlite has excellent machinability, but the thermal
cycle is long and expensive and should not be specified unless the
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE - °C last increment in ductihty and machinability is actually required.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
1000 1 1 1 1 1 1 240
ARMCO IRON WITH 0.025 % C. 1 1 1 1 1
o o AVERAGE BRINELL HARDNESS
800 - • • LONGITUDINAL STRESS - 200
2000 1100
• -• TANGENTIAL STRESS E7
o o RADIAL STRESS
® ® TANGENTIAL AND RADIAL 1900 / -
STRESS
AUSTENITE
m (y ) 1000 0
I 1800 0
o^
I 1
TEMPERATURE-
HARDNESS
TEMPERATURE
1700
G(
o
o
1600
1500
/ / + Fe3C
y+ a 800
M
1400 oN/"^ W////////M
v/s K
1300 E
PEARLITE
700
a + PEARLITE PEARLITE f Fe3C
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Fe 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE - ° F CARBON-%
Fig. 24-12 The effect of tempering on residual stresses, in Fig. 24-13 Simplified iron-carbon diagram. Shaded band
quenched cylinders (11) represents hardening temperature range of carbon steels.
Fig. 24-14 Types of quench

cycles. A, Conventional quench
and temper; B, Martempering;
C, Isothermal quenching and
tempering; D, Austempering

Normalizing. Normalizing refers to solution treating a steel at a TEMPERING TEMPERATURE-°C

temperature of at least 100 °F (38 °C) above the upper critical IOO 200 300 400 500 600
temperature followed by cooling in air. The normalizing tempera-
ture depends on the carbon concentration as illustrated in Figure
24-2. The purpose of normalizing may be to refine the grain struc-
ture, harden the steel slightly, or reduce carbon segregation that may
have occurred during solidification.
Normalized castings must be placed on trays so air can circulate
freely around every casting in the load as they are cooled. If air flow
is restricted, the operation will be more like annealing. Accelerated
cooling by fans or forced-air flow may produce a result more like
quenching.
The microstructure that results from normalizing is a mixture of
ferrite and pearlite, usually resulting in low residual stresses and
almost no distortion. Some castings are tempered after being nor-
malized to achieve a slight additional softening and stress relief.
Tensile strengths up to 95 ksi (655 MPa) can be obtained by 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
normalizing low alloy steels containing above about 0.30% carbon. TEMPERING TEMPERATURE - °F
70
Normalizing and tempering is used to meet a number of standard
casting specifications. Machinability of cast parts is usually good
because of the uniform structure obtained. Er---^
The cost of normalizing makes this heat treatment attractive. It
requires less furnace time than annealing; the cooling cycle is less
65
&v ^——
60
expensive than quenching; and minimal problems are encountered
with distortion.
55-
Quench Hardening. It is possible to accelerate cooling from
the solution treating temperature and control the transformation of
50
-
\v^"-^.
^
\ \ ^
^
N
N
^
^—-£2?V/
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ C ;
austenite to bainite and martensite for the purpose of achieving D ^~^42pv, ^~~-~
higher strengths and hardnesses than can be obtained with annealing < \ ^ ^ ^ ^ c .
or normalizing treatments. In hardening by quenching, the work is X 45
austenitized at temperatures illustrated in Figure 24-13 and then -x. ^^>89°v,
rapidly cooled to prevent the formation of ferrite and pearlite. A 40 --
schematic quench cycle is illustrated in Figure 24-14(A).
The maximum attainable hardness of a quenched steel is control-
35 -
^ ^ v
led almost exclusively by the carbon concentration and is obtained
by cooling at a rate equal to or greater than the critical cooling rate
30 1 1 I I I I
for the alloy. Quenching media include water, brine solutions, oil, 10 1/2 2 5 25
10
water-polymer solutions, and in some cases inert gases. SEC MIN HR
Water and oil are the media most commonly used for quenching TIME AT TEMPERATURE
steel castings. Water is used whenever possible, but high-carbon and
deep-hardening steels require oil quenching. Some complicated Fig. 24-15 Effect of tempering temperature and time on the
shapes also require oil quenching to minimize quench cracking. softening characteristics of steel
Under almost all conditions, oil cools steel a little more slowly than
water.
Certain organic polymers can be added to water to provide a hardening is not required. Quenching of carbon and low alloy steels
quenching solution which resembles oil in its heat removal charac- is always followed by tempering.
teristics. The main advantage of these solutions is that they remove
heat more slowly than water without the fire hazard of oil. Their Tempering. Tempering is the process of heating a hardened steel
greatest disadvantage is that they require careful concentration, to a temperature below the lower critical temperature in order to
temperature, and agitation control in order to achieve consistent achieve some softening, and then cooling the steel back to room
quench behavior. The quench severity provided by these baths can temperature. The objective of a tempering treatment is to reduce the
vary widely with the type of polymer, polymer concentration, bath hardness and relieve some of the stresses in order to obtain higher
temperature, and extent of agitation during quenching. Proper quen- ductility than available in as-quenched parts. Tempering slightly
chant control is necessary and sometimes more difficult than antici- modifies the structure of martensite, and this change can be used to
pated. adjust strength, hardness, toughness, and other mechanical proper-
ties to specified levels.
Interrupted or Slack Quenching, in some situations it is Carbon and low alloy cast steels are usually tempered in the range
desirable to quench steel in water or brine to produce a high surface of 350 to 1300 °F (175-700 °C). The time of holding at temperature
hardness. However, water or brine quenching may cause cracking may vary from 30 minutes to several hours. A longer tempering time
or excessive amounts of distortion if used to fully harden parts. If it at a given temperature, or a higher temperature for a given time,
is not necessary to harden the part throughout the cross section, an increases the extent of tempering. Martensite softens more than
interrupted quench may be used. Interrupted or slack quenching pearlite at a given tempering temperature, and the steel composition
usually involves quenching in water for a predetermined time and affects the rate of tempering. Some effects of temperature are illus-
then transferring the part to an oil bath to complete the transforma- trated in Figure 24-15 where hardness is used to measure the re-
tion. This is not a commonly used procedure, but it is sometimes sponse to tempering. In general, the presence of carbide-forming
used on steels containing 0.30% or more carbon where through elements causes steel to be more resistant to tempering.
TIME-hr.
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE-°C 2 4 8 16 32 64
60 ~n PI n i r~i p
IOO 200 300 400 500 600 — O I in.(25.4mm)COUPONS AGED
RED. OF AREA < AT 4 0 0 ° F ( 2 0 4 " C )
4320 40
OIL QUENCHED X
I/2 in.( I2.7mm) SECTION JS20
o i ELONGATION
z >- _ END VALUE -

I in.(25.4mm)COUPONS AGED AT OBTAINED IN
ROOM TEMPERATURE ACCELERATED
O40 AGING
o D
< I200--I20 Q
Q.
30 END VALUE "
5 REDUCTION OF AREA OBTAINED IN
ACCELERATED.
20 AGING
ELONGATION
10 i II ii
3 14 30 60 90 180270 575
TAS
NORMALIZED
Fig. 24-17 Change in ductility with time for 1 in. (25.4 mm)
coupons aged at room temperature and at 400 °F (204 °C). Values
plotted are average of three tests.
Table 24-1 Temperature Range of Martensite

Formation in Several Carbon and Alloy Cast Steels
ELONGATION (14)
_l_ _l_ _L_ _L_ _ l _ I 0
o 50% 99%
200 400 600 800 I000 £ Martensite Martensite Martensite
1200 O Steel start (Ms) formed finish (M t )
_l
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE - SAENo. °F °C op °C op °C
Fig. 24-16 Loss in room-temperature toughness due to temper 1030 650 343 560 293 450 232
embrittlement, illustrated for wrought Ni-Cr-Mo steel (13) 1065 530 277 425 219 300 149
1090 425 219 315 157 180 82
1335 650 343 560 293 450 232
2340 580 304 560 293 405 207
Tempering below 1100 °F (595 °C) may cause temper embrittle- 3140 635 335 550 288 430 221
ment in certain steels. The decrease in notch toughness caused by 4130 715 380 650 343 550 288
temper embrittlement is illustrated in Figure 24-16 for a Ni-Cr-Mo 4140 650 343 570 299 440 227
AISI 4320 steel tempered in the range of about 500-700 °F (13). 4340 550 288 480 249 370 188
Usually tempering in the temper embrittlement range is avoided,
4640 650 343 570 299 480 249
5140 650 343 570 299 450 232
and when higher tempering temperatures are used, the work may be 620 327 560
6140 293 450 232
quenched from the tempering temperature to minimize the time in 8630 690 366 630 332 530 277
the embrittling temperature zone. 9440 625 330 540 282 405 207
Martempering. In the usual quench hardening process, parts are
cooled at a rate greater than the critical to form martensite. In some
parts prone to cracking or distortion, however, it is desirable to use
a practice where the parts are initially cooled faster than the critical tempering furnace. This thermal cycle is schematically illustrated in
rate, but the cooling cycle is interrupted above the Ms temperature Figure 24-14(C).
until the temperature becomes uniform across the section. The parts Most steels that can be oil quenched can be martempered. The
are then cooled to room temperature in air. This cycle is referred to maximum section size that can be through-hardened by martemper-
as martempering, and a martempering cycle is schematically illus- ing is appreciably less, however, than the section size that can be
trated in Figure 24-14(B). The martemper cooling cycle favors hardened by conventional quenching.
uniform martensite formation throughout the section and helps
minimize distortion and cracking. AllStempering. The austempering process requires that a steel
In martempering, the work is usually quenched in a molten salt be cooled from the solution treating temperature sufficiently quickly
bath to a temperature just above the temperature where martensite to miss the nose of the C curve, but cooling is stopped and the
begins to form (Ms) and held long enough for the temperature to temperature held at some value below the nose of the C curve to
equalize in the heaviest sections. The work is then removed from the produce a bainitic structure. This cooling cycle eliminates the for-
salt and air cooled. Martensite forms during cooling from the Ms to mation of pearlite as well as martensite. Minimizing the volume
the Mf. Table 24-1 lists M s and Mf temperatures for a number of cast expansion associated with martensite formation helps eliminate
carbon and low alloy steels (14). cracking, but some sacrifices are made in hardness and toughness
In modified martempering, the work is quenched into a bath at a with bainitic structures compared to fully martensitic structures. The
temperature between the M s and Mf temperatures. When the tem- austempering cycle is schematically illustrated in Figure 24-14(D).
perature at the surface and center of the work has equalized, the Upper or lower bainite can be formed depending on the temperature
work is removed from the bath and either air cooled or placed in a at which the part is transformed.
35
Fig. 24-18 Hardness changes as a
function of temperaging time and
temperature for N and T and Q and T 30
heat treatments after austenitizing at 950
°C(1740°F)
25 o N & T (620 °C)
O • N & T (580 °C)
DC
x 20 A Q & T (580 °C)
of
• Q & T (620 °C)
(0
<D
c 15
•o
(0
X
100
Temperaging time, hrs
A g i n g for H y d r o g e n R e m o v a l . Hydrogen in steel can sub- Strength is maintained by adding manganese for solid solution
stantially reduce the toughness and cause low elongation and reduc- strengthening and by the addition of microalloying elements vana-
tion of area values. If the steel contains 4 or 5 parts per million of dium and/or niobium that form strengthening carbonitride precipi-
hydrogen, the ductility may be reduced to only 20% of that of a tate during heat treatment. Desirable properties are achieved for
hydrogen free steel. both quench and temper and normalize and temper heat treatments.
Hydrogen in steel does diffuse reasonably rapidly. If held for a During the heat treatment of the HSLA cast steels, both the
sufficient time at room temperature, hydrogen will diffuse out of conventional ferrous phase transformations and the simultaneous
steel and ductility will be restored. precipitation of carbonitride precipitates take place. The kinetics of
Hydrogen removal can be accelerated by heating steel to 400 to each reaction must be controlled. During the initial austenitizing
600 °F (200-315 °C). This heat treatment is commonly referred to heat treatment, the material is transformed to austenite and carboni-
as aging, and the required aging time is proportional to section tride precipitates are solutionized. Temperatures as high as 1900 °F
thickness. Generally, a thickness of 1 in. (25.4 mm) requires about may be necessary to fully solutionize niobium carbonitrides that
20 h for hydrogen removal. For heavy sections, 10 in. (254 mm) or may be present. During quenching or air cooling from the austeni-
more, hydrogen removal by aging may become impractical due to tizing temperature, the ferrite/pearlite matrix or a martensite matrix
time requirements. The effect of aging is illustrated in Figure 24-17. is developed but the precipitation of carbonitrides is prevented due
to the rapid cooling. Upon final tempering (aging), the matrix
A g e Hardening. The age hardening reaction most commonly hardness decreases due to the conventional tempering reactions, but
observed in carbon or low alloy steels results from the precipitation at the same time strengthening carbonitride precipitates form by an
of copper at temperatures of 800-900 °F after the steel has been age hardening reaction. The net result is that the final tempering step
austenitized and cooled as quickly as possible to room temperature. does not result in the significant decreases in hardness as is observed
The steel is then reheated to about 900 °F to cause copper precipita- for conventional steels. The hardness changes observed during the
tion with an associated increase in both hardness and strength. tempering (aging) of an HSLA cast steel are shown in Figure 24-18
In higher alloy materials containing substantial amounts of nickel, for different heat treatments and tempering temperatures (15). Good
aluminum and titanium additions can be made that will promote the impact toughness is achieved for these materials when the material
formation of nickel-aluminide and nickel-titanium compounds. The is tempered to a slightly overaged condition. Special intercritical
formation of these compounds is favored by first solution treating heat treatments in particular have been observed to increase the
the steel at temperatures in the range of 1800-2100 °F (980-1150 toughness of the HSLA cast steels without sacrificing strength (16).
°C), rapid cooling to room temperature, and then aging in the range
of 900-1100 °F (480-590 °C).
Age hardening has some advantages because the precipitation Austenitic Manganese Steels
occurs uniformly across the section and results in a minimum
amount of distortion. All age hardening steels require an initial Manganese steels are brittle in the as-cast condition because they
solution treatment to dissolve the hardening compounds and ele- contain a network of grain boundary carbides precipitated from
ments prior to being quenched and aged. The age hardening tem- austenite during solidification and cooling. In carbon-depleted areas
peratures are usually sufficiently low that a minimum amount of along grain boundaries, some austenite may have transformed to
surface discoloration or oxidation occurs during the hardening proc- pearlite. The purpose of heat treating manganese steel is to produce
ess. a uniform austenite structure supersaturated with dissolved carbon.
In this condition, the steel is wear resistant because it is very work
hardenable on the wear surface but it maintains a ductile and tough
High Strength Low Alloy Steels core. Austenitic manganese steels are commonly solution treated at
temperatures between 1925 and 1975 °F (1050-1075 °C) for best
High strength low alloy (HSLA) cast steels are similar in compo- toughness although higher temperatures are necessary for the higher
sition and properties to the widely used wrought HSLA steels. This carbon and higher alloy grades (17).
family of cast materials has good strength and low-temperature Manganese steel castings should be held at the austenitizing
toughness, combined with excellent weldability. The carbon content temperature long enough to ensure full carbide solution. A rule of
of these steels is kept low to promote toughness and weldability. thumb is to hold the steel at temperature for 1 hour for each inch of
800
,~ Grain-boundary and Fig. 24-19 TTT curves for austenitic
1400 manganese steel (a) TTT curve of a steel with
acicular carbides
1.28% C, 12.4% Mn, 0.35% Si, 0.009% S,
700
0.030% P, 0.28% Ni, and 0.23% Cu.
Austenitized 30 min. at 1050 °C (1920 °F).
Grain size 5 to 6. (After Collete, Crussard, Kohn,
600 — l Plateau, Pomey, and Weisz.) (b) TTT curve of a
o steel with 1.2% C, 14.0% Mn, 0.07% S, and
<D
2.0% Mo. Austenitized at 1100 °C (2010 °F).
jo 500
CD
Q.
E
CD
*~ 400
V
- %\ Austenite +
grain-boundary
300 carbides
E w
cy •* oo
200 =1400
10 102 103 104 105 106
Time in seconds
(a)
800
1400
700 Austenite +
i
\ carbides +
1200
\ fine pearlite
600
"^_
§ Austenite 1000
eS 500 Austenite + CD
CD
O.
E
intergranular carbides a.
800 E
CD CD
t-
•" 400
300 600
8 c
c E E E
o I I I I 3 5!
200 tn T- I =1400
10 102 10 3 10 4 105 106
Time in seconds
(b)
section thickness. After complete solution treatment, the casting is in corrosion resistance because of the associated chromium deple-
quenched in highly agitated cold water until the part reaches the tion along the grain boundaries.
water temperature. Whether the microstructure of a stainless steel is ferritic, marten-
TTT curves for 2 manganese steel compositions are illustrated in sitic, or austenitic is determined principally by the chromium,
Figure 24-19(A) and (B) (18). Manganese steels are reasonably nickel, and carbon concentrations. Generally the chromium steels
hardenable if properly solution treated but they need to be rapidly are either martensitic or ferritic depending on the chromium and
quenched, primarily to minimize grain boundary carbide precipita- carbon concentrations.
tion which can reduce the toughness. The chromium steels are predominately martensitic when the
following inequality is met:
Martensitic Stainless Steels pCr-(17x%C)<12.5% (Eq3)
Martensitic and higher alloy stainless steels are solution treated The amount of ferrite in chromium steels increases as the chro-
just as carbon, low alloy and manganese steels to achieve a uniform mium content increases or as the carbon content decreases.
carbon distribution in the austenite. Producing a "stainless" steel It is usually desirable to solution treat most stainless castings to
with the ability to resist corrosion depends to a great extent on dissolve chromium carbides or sigma phase formed during cooling
obtaining a uniform distribution of chromium in the matrix. Chro- in the mold. The solution of these phases helps produce a uniform
mium concentrations above about 12% result in a passive surface chromium distribution that favors corrosion resistance. It is simi-
that maximizes corrosion resistance. However, precipitation of larly desirable to solution treat welded components to eliminate
chromium carbides at grain boundaries can lead to a significant loss grain boundary carbides that may have formed either during weld-
1000
Fig. 24-20 Isothermal transformation diagram for 1800
0.1%C-12%Cr
various 12% chromium steels • 0.1% C-12% Cr - 1/2% Mo
• 0.1% C-12% Cr-1%Ni
1600 0.1% C-12% Cr - 1% Ni - 1/2% Mo
0.1%C-12%Cr-3%Ni
800
1400
1200 Showing start of

LL transformation only
o 600
| 1000
2
CO ID
Q.
E" 800 E
CD CO
t- 400
600 M 1 temperatures
400
200
200
5 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

Time, s
1 min 10 min 1 hr 10 hr 100 hr

Fig. 24-21 Effect of ferrite on hardenability I I i i i
1500 Approx. ACT Steel A A+F
1400
Austenite
1300 C US
Q A+F+ F+C 78
1200 \V / 50%
o
1100 83
i i i i -i— T rr
2 5 10 102 103 104 105 CO
CO
2 CD
CO
Q.
Approx. Aci I I I I I
E Steel B
CO
CO 1500 X
1400 Austenite - 74
1300
+ SÂ + F + C (/ ' ( / F+C
^ - 78
Ferrite x N
1200
1100
5% AF
\^ v ^ 50%
V ^"^5"-*^ -M84
I I I
5 10 102 103 104 105
Time, sec.
ing or during cooling of a welded part to room temperature. The is to dissolve carbides and sigma phase if present to produce a
object is to dissolve second phases and produce a homogeneous homogeneous chromium solid solution. Accelerated cooling is usu-
structure. A quench or other accelerated cooling is usually required ally required to retain carbon in solution and prevent precipitation
to retain carbon in solution and prevent precipitation of carbides. of chromium carbides which results in chromium depletion and
The hardenability of the 12% chrome martensitic stainless steels localized loss of corrosion resistance.
is quite high as illustrated by the TIT curve shown in Figure 24-20 Corrosion-resistant stainless steels usually have a low carbon
(19). The presence of excessive amounts of ferrite in the microstruc- concentration, normally less than 0.08%, and often less than 0.03%.
ture can result in some loss of hardenability as illustrated in FigureFor best corrosion resistance, alloys should be solution treated to
24-21 (20,21). dissolve grain boundary carbides prior to being put into service.
Solution treating temperatures range from 1900 to 2100 °F (1040-
1150 °C), depending on alloy content, section size, and corrosion
Austenitic Stainless Steels resistance requirements.
The solubility of chromium carbides in an 18% chrome-8% nickel
Austenitic stainless steels are also solution heat treated to opti- steel is illustrated in Figure 24-22 (22). The solubility of carbon in
mize corrosion resistance. The principal object of the heat treatment austenite is about 0.03% at 1200 CF (650 °C), increases to about
T°C
1000
900-
800
700
600
500 930
475°C
2 4 6 8 10 MIN EMBRITTLEMENT, a'
J I 1 I I I II)
400 _L J L_L J I J L_L ]_ _L ' » ' 750
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
TIME, hr
Fig. 24-23 Temperature-time precipitation curves for various phases observed in alloy U50 (9)
Several precipitates can form during casting, fabrication, or use of

stainless steel at moderately elevated temperatures. Time-tempera-
ture precipitation curves for grain boundary carbides and several
other phases in U50 stainless have been developed by Solomon and
Devine and are illustrated in Figure 24-23 (23). U50 contains about
21% chromium and 7% nickel. The formation of M23C6 carbides
can occur quickly as a casting is cooled to room temperature or after
welding. Carbides can be avoided by solution treating followed by
rapid cooling often by water quenching to room temperature.
Precipitation Hardening Steels

It has been known for many years that precipitation hardening can
occur in low carbon iron alloys containing titanium, molybdenum,
t0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 nickel, copper, and tungsten. However, since it is possible to
74% Fe CARBON, % strengthen low alloy iron-base materials containing carbon with a
18% Cr
simple quench and temper treatment, the possibility of strengthen-
8% Ni
ing alloys by precipitation hardening has not been developed to any
Fig. 24-22 Phases in 18% Cr-8% Ni steel for carbon content great extent, probably because of the higher cost of the elements
between 0 and 1%(8) required compared to carbon. The recent development of maraging
steels, however, and the possibility of obtaining high strengths
without distortion that often accompanies quench and temper heat
0.1% at 1600 °F (870 °C), and then sharply increases to a value of treatments, has resulted in some interest in precipitation hardening
about 0.5% at 2500 °F (1370 °C). alloys.
Because of higher carbon solubility at elevated temperatures, it is The iron-copper system has a simple eutectoid transformation at
possible to solution treat castings and weldments that may contain 1560 °F and a copper solubility in austenite just above the eutectoid
small amounts of grain boundary carbides, dissolve the carbon in the temperature of approximately 4% (24). On transformation to ferrite
matrix, release the chromium, and produce a uniform chromium during cooling, the solubility of copper decreases to about 1.9% and
concentration throughout the structure, even at grain boundaries. continues to decrease with decreasing temperature. The solubility at
This condition promotes maximum corrosion resistance. room temperature is not precisely known, although it is quite low.
Because of the increased solubility of copper in austenite, more 220

copper can be retained in solid solution by quenching from this
phase field than can be retained on quenching from the ferrite phase 200 -
field (25).
Solution treating creates a relatively soft condition in which the 180 -
precipitation hardening steels can be machined with greater ease,
compared to the fully hardened condition achieved after aging. The 160
:=-
cooling rate from the solution treating temperature must be fast cl / / Quenched
ength (1000
140 / / and tempered
enough to prevent the precipitation hardening reaction from taking
place during quenching. 120
Age-hardenable steels can be aged to harden at a controlled rate.
One advantage of this type of hardening process is the absence of 100
distortion when compared to that normally occurring in steels hard- O)
Yield
ened by the martensite reaction. Another advantage is the ability to 80
machine components in the soft, solution treated condition, fol-
lowed by aging at relatively low temperatures, without significant 60
> <
scaling. ' / \ Normalized
A very fine dispersion of copper spherical precipitates formed
during age hardening produces the maximum internal stress and,
40
20
_ y
x and tempered
consequently, the highest strength attainable in copper-bearing

irons. Hardness measurements indicate that by the time the spheres 0 I I I I I I
begin to appreciably increase in size, the hardness decreases. If rod 80 100 140 180 220 260
shaped precipitates begin to form, the material is well overaged (24). Tensile strength (1000 psi)
The manganese-copper cast steels represent a family of low alloy
cast steels which can be precipitation hardened. These low carbon Fig. 24-24 Tensile and yield strengths of normalized and
steels normally contain 0.90 to 1.50% manganese and 1.50 to 1.80% quenched and tempered carbon and low alloy steels of various
copper. The usual heat treating practice is to normalize from 1700 compositions
°F (925 °C) and precipitation harden for about two hours in the
range of 900 to 950 °F (480-510 °C). This hardening reaction
produces an increase of 20 ksi (138 MPa) in tensile strength with a Steels vary in their response to the quenching operation because the
minimum decrease in ductility. depth below the surface that can be hardened depends on the
CB-7Cu and CD-4MCu are stainless precipitation hardenable composition of the steel and the severity of the quench. Since the
steels. CB-7Cu, the equivalent of wrought 17-4 PH and 15-5 PH, cooling rate during a quench is fastest at the surface and slowest at
can be hardened by heating to 1925 °F (1050 °C) followed by the center of a part, and since the hardening reaction is composition
cooling to room temperature and aging at temperatures in the range dependent, hardenability is an important consideration in alloy
of 900-1150 °F (480-620 °C) depending on the desired properties. selection for the production of high strength parts.
The solution treating temperature for CD^tMCu is 2050 °F (1120 Improved quenching practices may permit the use of a less har-
°C) with quenching from 1900-1750 °F (1040-955 °C). For appli- denable, less expensive steel while still achieving desired proper-
cations involving corrosion, this alloy is usually employed in the ties. The quenching practices employed, however, are usually a
solution treated and quenched condition. For structural applications, compromise between a practice that could harden to the greatest
aging treatments can be performed between 900-950 °F (480-510 possible depth and the requirement that quenching be done without
°C). excessive distortion or cracking (27).
Hardenability
Quench Hardening of Carbon Hardenability refers to the ability of a steel to be transformed
partially or completely from austenite to martensite at a given depth
Steel when cooled under prescribed conditions. Hardenability should not
be confused with hardness. Hardness refers to the resistance of a
The best combination of properties in cast carbon and low alloy
material to penetration as measured with a Rockwell, Brinell, or
steel can be obtained by quenching to a martensitic microstructure
other indentation test. Hardenability reflects the ability of a steel to
followed by tempering. A considerably higher yield strength can be
be hardened when cooled in a particular way. Hardenability is
obtained at a given tensile strength by quenching and tempering
empirically determined, and several types of experiments have been
compared to normalizing and tempering, as illustrated in Figure devised to measure it in various kinds of steel.
24-24.
Successful hardening depends on the geometry of the part, the J o m i n y P r o c e d u r e . The most familiar and commonly used
hardenability of the steel employed, and the quenching practices procedure for measuring hardenability is the Jominy bar end-quench
employed. Quenching to develop a martensitic structure without test. This test has been standardized and is described in SAE-J406
warping or cracking requires a good part design, a steel with ade- and ASTM-A-255 specifications. In this test, a 4 in. long x 1 in.
quate hardenability, properly maintained heat treating furnaces and diameter bar is austenitized at the proper temperature, dropped into
quench facilities, the proper quenchant, knowledgeable employees, a fixture, and one end rapidly cooled with 75 °F water issuing from
and experience. a 1/2 in. orifice under prescribed conditions. The austenitizing
Some heat treating problems are related to poor part design. Long temperature is selected according to the specific steel and may be as
parts with small cross sections, those lacking symmetry, and those low as 1500 °F (815 °C) or as high as 1700 °F (925 °C). However
with holes or recesses are difficult to heat treat without distortion or most steels are heated in the range of 1600 to 1650 °F (870-900 °C).
cracking. Excessively rapid or nonuniform cooling of parts can also Special precautions are taken to minimize scaling during solution
cause distortion or cracking (26). treating.
The principal method of hardening carbon and low alloy steels The end quenched bar is subjected to a continuous stream of cold
consists of quenching the steel from the austenitizing temperature. water and is cooled quickly under agitated water quenching condi-
Fig. 24-25 (a) Standard form of end-quench test

specimen (Jominy), support, and water-quench re-
quirements, (b) End-quench hardenability of a sin-
gle heat of steel, tested in nine laboratories, showing
reproducibility (Jominy)
1/2 in. 1/8 in.

(12.7 mm) (3.2 mm) 1-1/8 in. (29 mm)
T
-BZ2ZZZZZZ2ZZZZ.
45°
1-1/32 in. (26.2 mm)
Unimpeded * - l - i n . (25 4 mm)

Water Jet
4 in.
( 1 0 2 mm) 1-in. (25.4-mm)
Round Specimen
2-1/2 in.
(64 mm)
r Water at 75 F + 5 F
(24 C + 2.8 Of
•1/2-in. (12.7-mm) i.d.

Orifice
1/2 in.
(13 mm)
(a) From Quick-Opening

Valve
1
Distance from quenched end, mm

10 20 30 40 50
T T T
Hardenability range, based on

tests by nine laboratories on
an SAE 4068 steel
End-quenched method
20
10 _L _L _L _L
(b) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Distance from quenched end, sixteenths in.
tions at the lower end. The cooling rate is much slower and approxi- are also important but not as critical in obtaining consistent data.
mates air cooling at the upper end. Rates comparable to still water However, all tests should be conducted in compliance with the
quenching, oil quenching, and forced air cooling are represented at standards set forth (8,28).
locations between the water quenched and air cooled ends of the bar. The hardness vs. distance representation of Jominy data provides
After quenching, parallel flats are ground on opposite sides of the hardness data on the steel at various cooling rates. The hardness
bar and hardness measurements are made at 1/16 in. intervals along readings are plotted against distance from the quenched end to
the bar length. The standard specimen, specimen support, water produce the hardenability or end quench curve. Figure 24-26 illus-
quench requirements, and a composite of hardness-distance results trates schematic end quench curves for four steels to show various
obtained on a particular steel in nine laboratories are illustrated in shapes that may be assumed by different alloys. The carbon steel is
Figure 24-25a and b. shallow hardening and the chromium-molybdenum steel is fairly
In general, the Jominy test is considered to provide valid data on deep hardening.
steels having an ideal diameter (Di) in the range of from about one Some variation in composition occurs between heats of a given
to six inches. The Di can be less than 1 inch, but this usually requires grade. Therefore, the end quench curves can (within limits) vary
that Vickers hardness readings be taken closer to the quenched end from heat to heat. When enough heats within a given grade have
and closer together than possible using more conventional Rockwell been tested, the end quench curves may be plotted to form a har-
hardness measuring equipment. denability band. Several end quench bands are illustrated in Figures
The austenitizing time and temperature, extent of oxidation or 24-27 tlirough 24-45.
surface decarburization during austenitizing, care and consistency
of surface flat preparation, and bar positioning prior to making
hardness measurements are important procedural factors that can
influence test results. Water temperature, water-jet height, orifice
diameter, and transfer time from the furnace to the quench fixture DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm
10 20 30 40 50 60
10 20 30 40 50 60
1 1 1 1 1 1
\
50
O
^
>v
or ^ __ Cr-Mo
1
X
40
i — _ __Ni-Cr- Mo
in
w
,~
UJ 30
Q
£20 Mn-B
I
10
C
1 1 1 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

24 32 40
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED E N D - i n .
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-în.
Fig. 24-27 Hardenability curves for carbon cast steels
Fig. 24-26 Hardenability curves for C, Mn-B, Ni-Cr-Mo, and Cr-Mo
cast steels
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END •

DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm
10 20 30 40 50
10 20 30 40 50 60
60 1 1 1 1 1
1
O
1
40 -
HARDNESS
%/yyi330^
- vyy/r,
o
1 i 1 1
3
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - in.
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED E N D - i n .
Fig. 24-29 End-quenched hardenability of manganese (1330) cast
Fig. 24-28 Hardenability curves for carbon cast steels steel
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm

10 20 30 40 50 60
0.5 I.O 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.5 I.O 1.5 2.0 2.5
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-in. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED E N D - i n .
Fig. 24-31 End-quench hardenability of nickel-chromium (3130)

Fig. 24-30 End-quench hardenability of nickel (2320 and 2330) cast cast steel
steel
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END • mm

10 20 30 40 50 60 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-in. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-in.
Fig. 24-32 End-quench hardenability band for nickel-chromium Fig. 24-33 End-quench hardenability of molybdenum (4030) cast
(3140) cast steel steel
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-mm

10 20 30 40 50 60 I0 20 30 40 50 60
60
1 1 1 1
40 /X/4140/
w,
/yyy4130/
20
n 1 1 i 1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 0.5 I.O I.5 2.0 2.5
Fig. 24-34 End-quench hardenability of chromium-molybdenum Fig. 24-35 End-quench hardenability of

(4130 and 4140) cast steel nickel-chromium-molybdenum (4330) cast steel
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-mm

IO 20 30 40 50 60 IO 20 30 40 50 60
60 I I I I I I
O
or
i
i —
co
CO
LU
zQ
(T20 -! —
< {y//^\ô/Zv7/
X V/Av
I i I
0 0.5 I.O I.5 2.0 2.5 0 0.5 I.O 1.5 2.0 2.5
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - i n . DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-in.
Fig. 24-36 End-quench hardenability of nickel-molybdenum (4620 Fig. 24-37 End-quench hardenability of chromium (5130) cast
and 4640) series cast steel steels
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-mm

IO 20 30 40 50 60 IO 20 30 40 50 60
60
o
or
x
4 0
i
co
CO
UJ
z
Q
o:20
<
X
_j_ _L
0.5 I.O I.5 2.0 2.5 0 0.5 I.O 1.5 2.0 2.5
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-in. DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - i n .
Fig. 24-38 End-quench hardenability of manganese-molybdenum Fig. 24-39 End-quench hardenability of

(8400) series cast steels nickel-chromium-molybdenum (8600) series cast steel
IO 20 30 40 50 60 IO 20 30 40 50 60
60
O
cr
X
40
I C r - M o CAST STEEL
CO C - 0.30 %
CO
UJ Cr - 2.50 - 3 . 5 0 %
Mo- 0 . 4 0 - 0.60 %
<
X
_L _L _L
0 0.5 I.O 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Fig. 24-40 End-quench hardenability of Fig. 24-41 End-quench hardenability of copper-manganese-silicon

manganese-nickel-chromium-molybdenum (9530) cast steel cast steel.
10 20 30 40 50 60 10 20 30 40 50 60
1 1 1 1 T"
COPPER-MANGANESE- SILICON
CAST STEEL
C - 0.20 %
Cu - 1.50-1.80 %
Mn- 0.90-1.25 %
Si - 0.85-1.10 %
I
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-in.

DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-in.
Fig. 24-43 End-quench hardenability of manganese-molybdenum
Fig. 24-42 End-quench hardenability of copper-manganese-silicon
(8030) cast steel
cast steel.

DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-mm
10 20 30 40 50 60
10 20 30 40 50 60
60 1 1 1 1 1 1
o
Q:
x 40
i
to
UJ
z
Q
a: 2 0
<^xr//////////.
<
x
1. 1 1 1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Fig. 24-44 End-quench hardenability of Fig. 24-45 End-quench hardenability of

manganese-molybdenum-boron (80B30) cast steel nickel-chromium-molybdenum-boron (86B30) cast steel as
compared to 8630 cast steel
Ideal Critical Diameter. Jominy hardness curves can be used opment, or where the end quench test is not practical such as on thin
to estimate the ideal critical diameter (Dr) of an alloy. The "critical section parts or stock. In these cases, the end quench curve may be
diameter" (D) refers to the largest bar diameter that has 50% marten- computed from the chemical analysis.
site at the center after being quenched. The "ideal critical diameter" The hardenability of a steel is largely controlled by the carbon
is the largest diameter bar that can be quenched to produce 50% content, grain size, and alloy element concentrations (8). For most
martensite at its center after being given an "infinite" or "ideal" cast steels, the grain size is small and does not vary widely. Har-
quench. The ideal quench is one that lowers the surface temperature denability of cast steels, therefore, is determined largely by the
of an austenitized steel to the bath temperature instantaneously. chemical analysis.
Under these conditions, the cooling rate at the bar center depends Hardenability is generally calculated in terms of the ideal critical
only on the thermal diffusivity of the steel. diameter, and equations most often used for this prediction contain
The ideal critical diameter can be estimated from a Jominy curve multiplicative factors for the alloy elements. The base Di is deter-
using Figure 24-46. For example, a steel with a 50% martensite mined by the carbon concentration and grain size. The base Di is
point 8/16th of an inch from the end of the Jominy specimen can be then multiplied by the various alloy factors, which take into account
quenched to 50% martensite at the center of a 2.7 in. diameter bar the hardenability effects of the other elements present. Equation 4 is
under ideal quenching conditions. The ideal critical diameter has one expression for calculating the ideal critical diameter.
been correlated with the 50% martensite point in many alloys to
develop this figure. Di = Di (carbon & grain size) *fivin* fsi fcr * fMo * fv *fcu (Eq4)
Calculated End Quench Curves. There are situations

where end quench curves are not available, such as in alloy devel- where fx = multiplicative factor for the particular alloying element
Table 24-2 Tabulated Hardenability Factors for Carbon-Grain Size and Selected Alloying Elements in Steel
Carbon-Grain Size
Percent #6 #7 #8 Mn Si Ni Cr Mo
0.05 0.0814 0.0750 0.0697 1.167 1.035 1.018 1.1080 1.15

0.10 0.1153 0.1065 0.0995 1.333 1.070 1.036 1.2160 1.30
0.15 0.1413 0.1315 0.1212 1.500 1.105 1.055 1.3240 1.45
0.20 0.1623 0.1509 0.1400 1.667 1.140 1.073 1.4320 1.60
0.25 0.1820 0.1678 0.1560 1.833 1.175 1.091 1.54 1.75
0.30 0.1991 0.1849 0.1700 2.000 1.210 1.109 1.6480 1.90
0.35 0.2154 0.2000 0.1842 2.167 1.245 1.128 1.7560 2.05
0.40 0.2300 0.2130 0.1976 2.333 1.280 1.146 1.8640 2.20
0.45 0.2440 0.2259 0.2090 2.500 1.315 1.164 1.9720 2.35
0.50 0.2580 0.2380 0.2200 2.667 1.350 1.182 2.0800 2.50
0.55 0.273 0.251 0.231 2.833 1.385 1.201 2.1880 2.65
0.60 0.284 0.262 0.241 3.000 1.420 1.219 2.2960 2.80
0.65 0.295 0.273 0.251 3.167 1.455 1.237 2.4040 2.95
0.70 0.306 0.283 0.260 3.333 1.490 1.255 2.5120 3.10
0.75 0.316 0.293 0.270 3.500 1.525 1.273 2.62 3.25
0.80 0.326 0.303 0.278 3.667 1.560 1.291 2.7280 3.40
0 85 0.336 0.312 0.287 3.833 1.595 1.309 2.8360 3.55
0.90 0.346 0.321 0.296 4.000 1.630 1.321 2.9440 3.70
0.95 4.167 1.665 1.345 3.0520
1.00 4.333 1.700 1.364 3.1600
The base Di and one set of alloy factors are presented in Table
24-2 (29). The alloy factors were developed based on data from
medium carbon steels of medium hardenability. These factors and
others for particular composition range steels have been incorpo-
rated into calculators for quickly making calculations and plots of
Jominy and quench data (30,31).
The procedure for calculating the hardenability of a steel from the
composition includes the following steps: 1
1. Determine the ASTM grain size.
2. Determine the chemical composition.
3. Determine base Di from carbon content and grain size (such as
from Table 24-2) (27).
4. Determine alloy factors (such as from Table 24-2). I
5. Multiply the factors according to Eq 4 to calculate the ideal
diameter Dr. I
Table 24-2 does not provide alloy factors for calculating the
effects of vanadium or boron. There is some uncertainty and incon-
sistency about the behavior of these elements. Vanadium up to about
0.1% increases hardenability, but higher concentrations may pro-
duce vanadium-rich carbides that are difficult to dissolve at standard 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
austenitizing temperatures. End quenched distance in 1/16 in. to
Boron increases hardenability of steels with carbon contents be- 50% martensite point
low about 0.3% but has little effect in higher carbon steels. Boron is
not widely used in cast steels because it is difficult to achieve Fig. 24-46 Relationship between end-quenched distance and
consistent hardening effects. When boron does raise hardenability, hardenability (Di)
it has an effect greater than in shallow-hardening steels. It is appro-
priate to make a few heats when dealing with vanadium and boron,
to determine their effects in the alloy of interest.
Using the Di already calculated from Eq 4, proceed horizontally
Once the Di has been determined, the end-quench curve can be across Figure 24-47 and note the ratio given by the intersection with
determined using Table 24-3 and Figure 24-47 (32,33). The first each curve. The hardness at the indicated distances from the
column of Table 24-3 gives the maximum hardness of quenched quenched end can then be calculated by dividing the initial hardness
steel as a function of carbon content. Subsequent columns provide by the ratio given on the abscissa and plotting the resulting values
the hardness at reduced martensite contents of 95%, 80% and 50%. to draw the end-quench curve.
The maximum hardness is the initial hardness value often plotted Since the curve is drawn based on carbon content and Di, tables
1/16 in. (1.59 mm) from the quenched end of a Jominy specimen. It have been published which give the hardness ratio at various dis-
is also used in the ratio of initial hardness to distance hardness in tances from the quenched end for various combinations of Di and
Figure 24-47. The numbers on the curves of Figure 24-47 indicate carbon content (34,35).
the number of 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) increments from the quenched It is possible to construct the end-quench hardness band for a
end, for example, 4/16,8/16,12/16 in. (6.35,12.70,19.05 mm), etc. given alloy by preparing a curve for the maximum Di band on the
8.0
10
o>°
1 1
i i jwjffly///
8
UJ
LU6 - / - _l
<
_l >
<
>4
Q
2 o.ot
— i • i i i 1
10 12 14
D| VALUES
Fig. 24-48 Relationships among ideal critical size, Di, actual

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 critical size, D, and severity of quenching, H
INITIAL HARDNESS
RATIO
DISTANCE HARDNESS Table 24-3 Effect of Carbon Concentration and %
Martensite on the As-Quenched Hardness of Steel
Fig. 24-47 Curves used for the determination of hardness for
Carbon, Hardness, HRC
certain distances from the quenched end (2)
% 99% M 95% M 90% M 80% M 50% M
0.10 38.5 32.9 30.7 27.8 26.2

0.12 39.5 34.5 32.3 29.3 27.3
0.14 40.6 36.1 33.9 30.8 28.4
CRITICAL THICKNESS T,H - mm
0.16 41.8 37.6 35.3 32.3 29.5
6 8 10 20 40 60 100 200 0.18 42.9 39.1 36.8 33.7 30.7
20 1 1 11 M| 1 1 1 I i|
1 ~yr —rp 400 ' 0.20 44.2 40.5 38.2 35.0 31.8
0.22 45.4 41.9 39.6 36.3 33.0
H= 0.02/
0.24 46.6 43.2 40.9 37.6 34.2
o: or 0.26 47.9 44.5 42.2 38.8 35.3
200UJ
UJ i- 0.28 49.1 45.8 43.4 40.0 36.4
\M
H UJ
UJ 0.30 50.3 47.0 44.6 41.2 37.5
< 100 % 0.32 51.5 48.2 45.8 42.3 38.5
Q 80 0.34 52.7 49.3 46.9 43.4 39.5
— H =0.3/^ / H = 00
0.36 53.9 50.4 47.9 44.4 40.5
- 60 < 0.38 55.0 51.4 45.4
O 49.0 41.5
• 40t 0.40 56.1 52.4 50.0 46.4 42.4
O S*^ H = .0/ 0.42 57.1 53.4 50.9 47.3 43.4
1.0 0.44 58.1 54.3 51.8 48.2 44.3
<
UJ
"" ^S
1 1 1 /Mill 1 I I I 1 I I ' 20< 0.46 59.1 55.2 52.7 49.0 45.1
Q
0.1 0.2 LU 0.48 60.0 56.0 53.5 49.8 46.0
0.4 0.6 I 4
io 9 0.50 60.9 56.8 54.3 50.6 46.8
CRITICAL THICKNESS T,H* in. 0.52 61.7 57.5 55.0 51.3 47.7
0.54 62.5 58.2 55.7 52.0 48.5
Fig. 24-49 The relation between ideal critical diameter, Di, and the 0.56 63.2 58.9 56.3 52.6 49.3
critical thickness, TH, that can be fully hardened using a quenching 0.58 63.8 59.5 57.0 53.2 50.0
medium with severity H (6) 0.60 64.3 60.0 57.5 53.8 50.7
M, martensite
highest allowable alloy element concentrations and another for the
minimum allowable alloy concentrations. Computing a Di for a heat
with all alloy elements at the top of the specification range and
another with all elements at their lower limits results in a band that Application of Ideal Critical Diameter. The definition of
is excessively wide however. Since these extreme conditions are Di assumes that parts are cooled in an ideal quench. Real quenching
unlikely to occur, establishing the band becomes one of probability operations can only approach these ideal conditions. The depth of
mathematics. Another approach to establishing a hardenability band hardening obtained in practice depends not only on the hardenability
is to determine the Di for 50 to 100 heats and statistically determine of the particular steel but also the rate of cooling or quench severity.
the distribution of Di and thus the maximum and minimum Di Quench severity is often expressed by a number which is desig-
values. nated as the "H value." The larger the H value, the more severe the
Table 24-4 presents calculated Di values for various steels cov- quench. The H value depends mainly on the quenching medium, its
ered by ASTM Specification A487. The compositions used for temperature, and the degree of agitation during quenching. Table 24-5
computing the Di values are included in the table. lists H values for several quenchants and quenching conditions (36).
Table 24-4 Calculated Di for ASTM A487 Low Alloy Steels

Analysis used in calculation,% Calculated D,
Class C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo in. mm
1N-1Q 0.25 0.80 0.60 0.15 0.25 0.10 V0.08 1.59(a) 40(a)
2N-2Q 0.25 1.25 0.60 0.15 0.25 0.20 2.69 68
4N-4Q-4QA 0.25 0.80 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.23 3.86 98
6N-6Q 0.33 1.50 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.35 9.48 241
7Q 0.15 0.80 0.60 0.60 0.85 0.50 V0.06 4.80(b) 122(b)
Cu0.33
B 0.004
8N-8Q 0.15 0.70 0.60 2.40 1.00 9.86 250
9N-9Q 0.28 0.80 0.60 0.90 0.25 0.23 4.63 118
10N-10Q 0.25 0.60 0.60 0.75 1.70 0.30 5.42 138
11N-11Q 0.15 0.65 0.40 0.65 0.90 0.55 4.61 117
12N-12Q 0.15 0.55 0.40 0.70 0.80 1.05 8.23 209
13N-13Q 0.25 0.95 0.40 0.20 1.60 0.25 3.32 84
14Q 0.50 0.95 0.40 0.20 1.60 0.25 4.70 119
A-AN-AQ 0.20 0.65 0.40 0.20 0.25 0.10 1.28 33
B-BN-BQ 0.25 0.90 0.40 0.20 0.25 0.10 1.62 41
C-CN-CQ 0.20 1.10 0.40 0.20 0.25 0.10 1.70 43
DN 0.45 0.70 0.40 0.20 0.25 0.10 1.83 46
(a) Does not include the effect of V. (b) Does not include the effect of V and B
Table 24-5 Grossman Numbers and Film Coefficients for Selected Quenchants
Quenchant Quenchant Grossman
temperature velocity number Effective film coefficient
Quenchant °F m/s ft/in in (H = h/2k) W/m2 K Btu/ft2 h °F
Water 32 90 0.00 0 1.1 5000 880

0.25 50 2.1 9000 1600
0.51 100 2.7 12000 2100
0.76 150 2.8 12000 2100
55 130 0.00 0 0.2 1000 180
0.25 50 0.6 2500 440
0.51 100 1.5 6500 1100
0.76 150 2.4 10500 1850
Fast oil 60 140 0.00 0 0.5 2000 350
0.25 50 1.0 4500 790
0.51 100 1.1 5000 880
0.76 150 1.5 6500 1200
25% polyvinyl pyrrolidone 43 110 0.00 0 0.8 3500 620
0.25 50 1.3 6000 1100
0.51 100 1.5 6500 1200
0.76 150 1.8 7500 1300
Conventional oil 65 150 0.51 100 0.7 3000 530
Martempering oil 150 300 0.51 100 1.2 5000 880
Air 27 80 0.00 0 0.05 200 35
2.54 500 0.06 250 44
5.08 1000 0.08 350 62
Source: Ref 12
The diameter of a cylinder that will quench to produce 50% Diof6.42in. (163 mm) is quenched in still water (H=l.l from Table
martensite at the center (D) in commercial quenching operations is 24-5). The corresponding critical plate thickness is 3.0 in. (76 mm).
always less than the ideal critical diameter (Dr). The relation be- This is the thickness of a plate which can be hardened to 50%
tween D and Di for quenches of various H values is illustrated in martensite. A 6 in. (152 mm) diameter rod or cylinder will harden to
Figure 24-48. For example, if a steel has Di = 4 in. (102 mm) and is 50% martensite in the center under the same conditions. The differ-
quenched in water where H = 1.5, a 3.5 in. (89 mm) diameter bar ence in hardened depth between plates and cylinders arises from the
can be expected to quench to 50% martensite at the center. If the slower cooling rate in plates because they have lower surface area
same steel is quenched in oil with H = 0.4, a cylinder with a diameter to mass ratios. The bar actually has twice the surface to volume ratio
of 2.25 in. (57 mm) can be expected to harden to produce 50% (when the bar diameter equals the plate thickness) and consequently
martensite at the center. can cool faster during quenching.
The relationship between ideal critical diameter, quench severity,
and the thickness of plates that can be hardened is illustrated in C o o l i n g Rate E q u i v a l e n c e . Different parts of a section cool
Figure 24-49. For example, assume that a plate of 4340 steel with a at different rates when being quenched. The rates of cooling are
Table 24-6 End-Quench Distance vs. Bar Diameter (30)

When the end-quench hardness curve of a steel has been found, this table enables one to estimate the hardnesses that would be
obtained at the centers of quenched round bars of different diameters, when that same steel is quenched with various severities of
quench. For each successive 1 /16 in. position, the hardness obtained in the end-quench test would be found at the center of the bar
size shown.
Equivalent bar diameter when quenched

Infinite or
stm Circulated stm Circulated Still idealized
Distance from end in oil oil water water brine quench
end-quench test inches H = 0.25 H = 0.45 H-1.0 H = 1.5 H = 2.0 H = °°
2
Ma 0.1 0.15 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.7
/16 H 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.65 0.75 1.15
3
/16 0.35 0.55 0.85 1.0 1.25 1.6
0.5 0.80 1.3 1.5 1.9
vV,16 '/4
0.6 0.95
1.15
1.4 1.6 1.75 2.2
6
%6 % 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4
7 2.7
/16 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.0 2.3
8
/,6 '/2 1.1 1.5 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.9
9
/,6 1.3 1.7 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.2
10
/16 V8 1.4 1.9 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.4
n
/16 1.6 2.1 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.6
12
/16 3
/4 1.7 2.2 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.8
13
14
/16 1.9 2.4 3.2 3.4 3.5 4.0
7
/16 /8 2.0 2.5 3.3 3.5 3.7 4.2
15
/l6 2.1 2.7 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.4
16 1
/16 2.3 2.8 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.6
17
/16 2.4 3.0 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.7
% iVfe 2.5 3.1 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.9
19
/16 2.6 3.3 4.1 4.4 4.5 5.0
20
/l6 l»/4 2.7 3.4 4.3 4.5 4.7 5.1
21
/!6 2.8 3.5 4.4 4.7 4.8 5.3
22
/l6 i3/8 2.9 3.6 4.5 4.8 4.9 5.4
23
24
/16 3.0 3.7 4.7 5.0 5.1 5.5
/16 l'/2 3.1 3.8 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.6
25
26
/16 3.2 4.0 4.9 5.2 5.3 5.8
/16 l5/8 3.3 4.0 5.0 5.3 5.4 5.9
27 6.0
/
28 16
3.4 4.1 5.1 5.4 5.5
/16 lV4 3.5 4.2 5.2 5.5 5.6 6.1
29
/l6 3.6 4.3 5.3 5.6 5.6 6.2
^ 6 l 7 /8 3.6 4.4 5.4 5.7 5.7 6.2
31
/!6 3.7 4.5 5.5 5.8 5.8 6.3
32
/.6 2 3.8 4.5 5.5 5.8 5.9 6.4
affected by the severity of quench and section thickness as indicated considered to be the diameter of a circle that can be inscribed in the
in Figures 24-48 and 49 (37). The cooling rates along the length of section of interest.
Jominy end-quench bars also varies depending on the distance from Data on end-quench equivalence of plates are not numerous.
the quenched end. Consequently, there should be a cooling rate Table 24-7 provides the equivalent end-quench distance for the
somewhere along an end-quench bar which corresponds to the center of various plate thicknesses under different quench condi-
cooling rate at a point of interest in a part being quenched. tions. Table 24-8 presents end-quench equivalent data for different
To determine this point on the end-quench bar, the cooling rates parts of plate sections quenched in agitated water. Whether a graph
of interest in the actual part are measured over some temperature such as Figure 24-50 or a table such as Table 24-8 is used, the result
interval typically from 1350 °F (730 °C) down to 600 or 700 °F (315 is equivalent distance from the quenched end for points in the cross
or 370 °C). This is the range where the greatest tendency of trans- section of the quenched piece having equivalent hardness.
formation to pearlite or bainite occurs.
Figure 24-50 provides the end-quench equivalent at the surface, Specifying Hardenability. Hardenability is specified in sev-
center, and two intermediate positions in cylindrical sections eral different ways. The Society of Automotive Engineers Recom-
quenched in solutions providing different quench severities (38). mended Practice J-435a covers three grades of 0.3% carbon steel.
These curves allow one to determine the hardness at a particular The hardenability bands for the three grades are illustrated in Figure
distance from the end of a Jominy end quench bar and predict the 24-51. The choice of analysis to fit the chosen grade is usually made
hardness at the surface, half radius, 3/4 radius, and center of bars by the manufacturer.
quenched in oil, water, and salt. Similar data are presented in tabular When the hardenability band has been defined for the steel, it can
form in Table 24-6 (39). be accepted by both producer and customer. The end-quench curve
The curves in Figure 24-50 and data in Table 24-6 can be used for for each heat made to this specification is required to fall within the
shapes having other cross sections such as square or hexagonal bars band. The specification may call for a range of hardness at one or
by determining equivalent diameters. The equivalent diameter is more distances from the quenched end, i.e. Rockwell C 38 to 53 at
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED E N D - m m DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END - mm

2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 8 10 20 40 60 Fig. 24-50 Correlation curves for
identical cooling times in
end-quench hardenability
specimens and round bars
quenched in hot salt, oil, and
water. Water was at 75 °F (24
°C); mineral oil [Saybolt universal
viscosity at 100 °F, (38 °C), 79
sec], at 120 °F (49 °C); molten
salt, at 400 °F (204 °C) (7).
8 10
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END- DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END-

SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH
Table 24-7 Equivalent End-Quench Distance Plates—Hardness at Center of Section

Equivalent end-quench distance
Plate quenched in
thickness Still oil Stillwater Agitated water
in. mm Vwin. mm Vwin mm VI6 in. mm
0.5 12.7 4.5 7.1 2.0 3.2 2.0 3.2

1.0 25.4 10.0 15.8 6.0 9.5 6.0 9.5
1.5 38.1 15.5 24.6 8.5 13.5 8.5 13.5
2.0 50.8 21.5 34.1 12.0 19.1 12.0 19.1
2.5 63.5 29.5 46.8 15.0 23.8 14.0 22.2
3.0 76.2 19.5 30.9 17.5 27.8
3.5 88.9 26.0 41.3 24.0 38.1
6/16 in. (9.5 mm)fromthe quenched end. The distance is generally Figures 24-43,44, and 45 illustrate the effect of 0.001 to 0.006%
chosen as the equivalent to a critical region in the part being heat boron on the end-quench hardness band. Excessive additions of
treated. Other specifications may set maximum and minimum dis- boron are not recommended because of the possibility of boride or
tancesfromthe quenched end for a given hardness, i.e. Rockwell C carboride compound formation and the detrimental effects of these
40 at 3/16 to 14/16 in. (4.7-22.2 mm)fromthe quenched end. compounds on machinability and mechanical properties.
Still other hardenability specifications may set lower and upper Part of the width of the band for a given alloy is due to variations
limits on the ideal critical diameter. This range is not calculated from in analysis, including residual elements, from heat to heat. Some
the extreme composition limits of the steel grade, but from the elements, chromium and molybdenum, for example, have an appre-
distribution of Di values determinedfromseveral production heats. ciable effect on hardenability even when present in small quantities.
As a consequence, residual alloy element concentrations must be
Hardenability Bands. Hardenability bands for cast steels monitored and controlled as closely as specified elemental concen-
have been determined by the Steel Founders' Society of America. trations if hardness values within the hardenability band are to be
They include carbon steels and many of the frequently used low maintained.
alloy steels. Several bands are illustrated in Figures 24-27 through
24^5. Some of the figures show the effect of carbon in alloys where
the rest of the analysis is essentially constant. Quenching To Produce Martensite
The hardenability bands are useful in selecting alloys for particu- The term quenching is sometimes used to refer to the rapid heat
lar applications. The hardenability bands for wrought steels are extraction required when parts are being austempered or martem-
similar to comparable cast steels if both steels have similar compo- pered in hot oil or salt baths, but its use in this section is restricted
sitions and grain sizes. to the process of rapidly removing heat for the purpose of forming
Table 24-8 Equivalent End-Quench Distance for Plates—Quenched in Agitated Water

Plate Equivalent end-quench distance in Vis in. and mm
thickness (at three distances from the surface)
in. (mm) '/win. (1.6 mm) % m.
i (6.4 mm) Center
0.5 (12.7) 1.3 (2.1) 2.0 (3.2) 2.0 (3.2)
1.0 (25.4) 2.0 (3.2) 4.0 (6.4) 6.0 (9.5)
1.5 (38.1) 2.5 (3.9) 6.0 (9.5) 8.5 (13.5)
2.0 (50.8) 2.5 (3.9) 8.0 (12.7) 12.0 (19.1)
2.5 (63.5) 3.0 (4.7) 10.0 (15.9) 14.0 (22.2)
3.0 (76.2) 3.0 (4.7) 12.5 (19.8) 17.5 (27.8)

10 20 30 40 Cooling curves
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Time (sec) or cool rate (°F/sec)
Fig. 24-52 Cooling curves and cooling rate curves at center of a

DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED E N D - 1.5 in. diameter probe quenched in unagitated hot water
SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH
Fig. 24-51 Hardenability bands specified by SAE J-435a
The fastest overall cooling rates are achieved with brine solutions,
generally followed by water, polymer solutions in water, oils, inert
martensite. Just how rapidly the steel must be cooled to miss the gases, and air.
nose of the transformation curve depends on the hardenability of the Transformation diagrams provide data on various steels and the
particular alloy. More hardenable materials do not require fast cool- cooling rates necessary to form martensite and avoid ferrite or
ing rates, but achieving martensitic microstructures in most con- pearlite formation. The required cooling rate is determined by the
struction grades of steel requires faster cooling rates than can be hardenability of the steel. The actual rate that can be achieved is a
obtained in air. It is usually necessary for steel to be sprayed or function of the quenchant and facility, and the thickness and geome-
immersed in a liquid quenchant to increase the rate of heat extrac- try of the part, and the heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the
tion, but in a few cases it is possible to use gas quenching, especially alloy. The quenching capacity of a given facility depends on the
agitated gas under pressure. quenchant used, its temperature, and the extent of agitation.
There are three stages of heat extraction associated with quench-
ing. Duplicate temperature-time curves in a part being quenched and Quenchants
corresponding cooling rate curves are illustrated in Figure 24-52.
The various stages involved during cooling are also labeled in this Many materials and solutions have been used as quenchants for
figure. Slow cooling occurs in stage A as a result of a vapor barrier steels. The fastest quench rates are usually obtained using water or
formation around the part. Heat transfer during this period occurs brine, i.e. water-salt solutions. Slower, less drastic quenchants in-
primarily by radiation through the vapor blanket. Stage B quenching clude the water-based polymers, oils, and salts. Very slow rates can
is relatively short in duration but represents the interval where the be obtained by cooling in air or inert gas atmospheres. This review
rate of heat removal is highest. During this stage the vapor blanket is limited to commonly used materials including water, brine, water-
collapses and high heat extraction rates associated with nucleate based polymers, oils, with a limited review of salts.
boiling on the part surface are achieved. The final stage of quench-
Water. Water has several advantages over other quenchants. Water
ing (C) is associated with the end of boiling and relatively slow heat
is readily available, cheap, not hazardous, and can be used to
removal by conduction and convection from the steel into the liquid produce very high quench rates. However, its ability to extract heat
quenchant (8,36). can cause cracking in more hardenable steels, except in simple
In general, agitating the quenchant accelerates heat removal by shapes. Water quenching is prone to cause cracking and distortion
limiting the duration of stage A and accelerating heat removal in in parts with a difference in cross section area of more than 1:4 and
stages B and C. An increase in the quenchant temperature usually parts with holes and grooves.
slows the rate of heat removal if other conditions are held constant. The bath temperature during water quenching is normally in the
The cooling rates and temperature ranges of the three stages vary range of 55 to 75 °F and should be less than 110 °F. Agitation of the
with the type of quenchant and the mass of the parts being quenched. bath is needed if soft spots are to be avoided. Soft spots can
Table 24-9 Effects of Water Temperature on Cooling Rates and Predicted Hardness in 1.5 inch Diameter
Steel Bars Quenched from 1550 °F
Alloy 4130
Film
Bath Cooling rate at coefficient
temp Velocity 1300°F 650 "F 400 °F (BTU/)
Quenchant (°F) (FPM) (F/sec) (ft2 • °F)
Water 80 50 58.6 26.2 13.2 1652.5

Water 90 50 58.1 26.3 13.0 1589.4
Water 100 50 55.8 25.8 12.5 1346.5
Water 120 50 43.7 25.9 12.2 617.1
Water 140 50 16.8 25.7 11.3 132.8
Water 160 50 10.1 24.6 10.6 73.5
Water 180 50 8.5 24.2 9.7 60.1
Water 200 50 6.3 23.7 9.1 42.5
Water 212 50 5.4 22.6 9.9 35.8
sometimes be detected by etching a part in hot HC1:H20, which 1600

causes the soft spots to appear as light areas. Contamination of water • • ^ ^ Rate curves
baths with sludge, oils, and scale reduces the cooling rate, and 1400
^ - ( a ) 80 °F
contamination with salt increases the cooling rate (7,10,27). 1200 _ MV ^^"""""^W^ \ JL-—(b) 90 °F
Changes in the quenching medium can seriously affect the quench N \ / ! _ — - (C) 140 °F
severity. An increased temperature reduces the cooling effect of -1000 /TjÎIII-—(d)160"F
\ ^ ^
water, but has little effect on that of oils. The water temperature is J{ \ Cooling curves
<o 800 ' ^ y \ / ( d ) 160 °F
not important up to 75 °F (25 °C) but between 75 and 120 °F (25 CD
and 50 °C), the cooling power decreases materially. Above 120 °F I 600 _ ^ \ \ \ / / ( c ) 140 °F
(50 °C) the cooling power of water is quite low. Dissolved salts CD
V ^ ^ >v / / / < b > 9 0 ° F
400 %j. \ . V / A ( a ) 80 °F
increase the cooling power of water, while emulsions reduce the
cooling rates that can be obtained. Additional data on water quench- 200
ing and some of the control measures has recently been published i i i I I I I I I I
(38). 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
The effect of water bath temperature on cooling curves and Time (sec) or cool rate (°F/sec)
cooling rate curves produced when 1.5 in. diameter bars were
quenched into water at 80,90,140, and 160 °F flowing at 50 fpm is Fig. 24-53 Cooling curves and cooling rate curves produced by (a)
illustrated in Figure 24-53. Some characteristics of these conditions 80 °F, (b) 90 °F, (c) 140 °F, (d) 160 °F water flowing at 50 fpm past
are presented in Table 24-9. Water at 140 °F produced a cooling rate a 1.5 in. diameter bar
at 1300 °F of 16.8 °F per second. With a lower water bath tempera-
ture of 80 °F, the cooling rate at 1300 °F (which is commonly used
as an indicator of the ability of quenchants to extract heat) was 58.6
°F per second, about 3.5 times higher than water at 140 °F.
Conventional oils have additives for improving thermal stability.
Brine. Brine can be prepared by mixing sodium chloride, calcium The viscosity is usually about 100 Saybolt universal seconds (SUS)
chloride, or sodium hydroxide with water. A 10% mixture of salt in at 100 °F, with a range of 70-300 SUS. Conventional oils are
water provides a material that can rapidly remove heat from cast- normally used at a bath temperature of about 120-150 °F to quench
ings. The salt elevates the boiling temperature and hastens the harden steels (27).
collapse of the vapor blanket in Stage A cooling. Agitation and bath Fast oils usually have a lower viscosity than conventional oils,
temperature are not as critical in brine solutions, nor are soft spots and additives are present to speed quenching and improve thermal
as much of a problem as with water. The uniformity of heat removal stability. The additives present include inhibitors to slow oxidation,
is enhanced by the presence of salt. Brines are not as sensitive as wetting agents to increase the quenching rate, and detergents and
water to contamination but the salt concentration must be controlled. dispersants to control sludge and contamination. The viscosity of
Equipment and parts exposed to brine must be protected, however, fast oils ranges from about 70 to 125 SUS at 100 °F. Fast oils are
from its corrosive action. used at 120-150 °F for less hardenable alloy steels (27).
Hot oils are designed for use in baths operated at temperatures of
Oils. Oil quenchants are readily available and widely used. Suc- 200-300 °F and sometimes up to 400 °F. The higher bath tempera-
cessful performance demands that the oil produce the desired cool- tures require that hot oils have a higher viscosity and improved
ing rate and resist thermal degradation during prolonged use. Deg- oxidation resistance. The viscosity of hot oil is typically in the range
radation of quenching oil can result from contamination, oxidation, of 250 to 3000 SUS at 100 °F. Hot oils are used to harden alloys or
or thermal cracking at elevated temperatures (27,40). part shapes that are more prone to distortion and cracking.
There are four general classifications of quenching oils: conven- Martempering oils are used at temperatures greater than 300 °F
tional, fast, hot, and martempering. Other types such as those used and usually at 450 °F. Because of the high operating temperature,
in vacuums exist, but these are generally restricted to very special- martempering oils need the highest viscosity and thermal stability.
ized operations. The viscosity of martempering oil is usually around 2000 SUS at
1600 100 °F, and the oils are used with martempering treatments applied
to very crack-sensitive parts (41).
1400 The duration of each quench stage is considerably different from
25%) those provided by water. The duration of all stages (A, B, and C) is
_ 1200 1 5 % ./ 5 %
longer than produced by water, resulting in slower cooling rates
u.
S- 1000 - A through the martensite formation range.
inj 800
An ideal quenchant would provide fast A and B stage cooling to
CD
prevent the formation of pearlite or bainite, and produce a slow C
f 600 stage to minimize distortion and cracking during martensite forma-
o ^ , 25% tion. A fast oil has a faster A and B stage than conventional oil, but
H
400 - / ,15% a similarly slow C stage. Therefore, a fast oil will harden a part more
200 0<^/^5% than a conventional oil without necessarily contributing to the dis-
tortion.
I I I I I I I I I I Used conventional oils usually produce faster cooling rates than
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150
new oils because thermal cracking and the increased soluble resin
Time (sec) or cool rate (°F/sec) and acid contents increase the ability of the oil to wet parts. This
increase in quenching speed is usually undesirable, and the faster
Fig. 24-54 Cooling curves and cooling rate curves in a 1 in. rates indicate oil degradation and instability (10,42,43).
diameter stainless probe quenched in 5,15, and 25% at 110 °F Water contamination of oil quench baths can occur from conden-
and flowing at 50 fpm
sation or leaks in the oil cooling system. Water contamination can
sometimes be heard as a crackling or frying sound during quench-
ing. Contamination is undesirable since it can lead to staining,
foaming, nonuniform hardness, and cracks. Water contamination
can even lead to steam explosions.
1600
Staining indicates oil breakdown and is associated with varnish or
lacquer precipitation on parts during quenching. Carbon steels are
1400 "^J*>>,N80% very sensitive to staining. Oil oxidation and as little as 0.03% water
100%\ ) contribute to staining. The tendency toward staining can be qualita-
1200 -\\ \ 120% tively assessed by keeping a thin coat of oil on a test panel at 500 °F
in air for 24 hours (27,41).
1000 The use of oil quenchants requires that proper consideration be
given to the fire hazard, ventilation of smoke, and protection from
800 - \\ \ ^ water contamination. Oil usually ignites for one of two reasons—a
I 600
400 — ,^0oC\^ .120%

partially submerged load leading to overheating of the bath surface
and ignition or operation of the oil too close to the flash point. Oil
quenching systems should be designed to fully immerse the tray or
/ ,100% basket if any part of the system fails. Low oil viscosity helps
200 ///80% minimize fire danger by aiding in removing the heated oil from the
part surface more quickly.
I I I I
In addition to these considerations, oil tanks must have an ade-
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150
quate drain in case of fire; fire extinguishers must be available;
Time (sec) or cool rate (°F/sec) safety covers, and other safety equipment must be considered during
design and construction. Flame and smoke are both minimized if the
Fig. 24-55 Cooling curves and cooling rate curves in a 1 in. oil boiling point exceeds 630 °F. Smoke formation during quench-
diameter stainless probe quenched in 10% PAG at 80,100, and
ing necessitates good ventilation over the quench tank, but the
120 °F and flowing at 50 fpm
ventilation should automatically cease in case of fire (40).
P o l y m e r S o l u t i o n s . The technology of polymer quenching has
1600 seen dramatic growth in the past 20 years. The principal quenchant
has historically been water, but with the discovery of petroleum,
1400 hydrocarbon products became a major quenching medium. More
recently, it has been established that certain water-soluble organic
1200 polymers are useful in modifying the cooling characteristics of
CD
1000 water to achieve properties between those of water and oil. Three
types of polymers are in prominent commercial use in the United
<D
States. These are: polyalkylene glycol (PAG), polyvinyl pyrrolidone
a (PVP), and polysodium acrylate. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) has been
E
a used but has only limited use in the United States at the present time
(40).
In general, it is the objective of polymer quenchant suppliers to
provide products that can be used to provide quench severities
ranging from those equivalent to oil to those that may be more
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 severe than water.
Polyalkylene glycol. Polyalkylene glycol, or polyalkylene glycol
Time (sec) or cool rate (°F/sec)
esters, were first introduced as commercial products in the early
Fig. 24-56 Cooling curves and cooling rate curves in a 1 in. 1940s. These materials are formulated by the copolymerization of
diameter stainless probe quenched in 20% PAG 110 °F and ethylene and propylene oxides although higher alkylene oxides
flowing at 0, 50, and 100 fpm and/or aryl oxides may also be used.
By varying the molecular weights and the ratio of alkylene oxides

used to manufacture the product, polymers having broad range of
x
properties may be produced. The proper selection of a PAG polymer Circ rate = 50 x
provides a product that is soluble in water at room temperature. s, Circ rate = 75 \
However, PAG polymers typically exhibit inverse solubility—that
is, they are soluble at room temperature but insoluble at elevated
temperatures. This phenomenon provides a mechanism for control-
ling the heat transfer from hot metal by producing a polymer-rich
layer around the part. Then, as the metal part cools and approaches
the temperature of the quenchant, the PAG redissolves in the quen-
chant bath.
Polyalkylene glycol quenchants have been particularly useful
because of the processing latitude they provide. Quench severities
from slow oil to brine may be possible by varying the bath tempera-
ture, agitation rate, and polymer concentration. Relatively diluted
solutions will provide a quench severity similar to water but reduce
cracking and distortion because of the slow cooling provided at low
temperatures.
PAG quenchants can also be selected to provide improved wetting
so that the cooling rates achieved are faster than water and approach
those achieved by brines. Thus, "brine quenching" is possible with-
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
out the hazards and corrosiveness attendant with the use of salts or
caustic solutions. Polymer concentration
Three principal parameters are recognized as controlling the rate
of cooling during polymer quenching: Fig. 24-57 Grossman hardenability factor of UCON quenchant E
• Quenchant concentration
• Quenchant temperature Industrial optical refractometers that employ an arbitrary scale
• Quenchant agitation may also be calibrated. Whereas such instruments prove valuable
for day-to-day monitoring of the quenchant concentration, the re-
The influence of PAG concentration on cooling rates in a 1 in. fractometer also registers other water-soluble components such as
diameter probe is illustrated in Figure 24-54 (40). The slower cool- salts in the quenchant. When the refractometer reading begins to
ing rates achieved at the higher concentrations correspond to an provide erroneous numbers, another analytical test is required to
increase in the thickness of the polymer layer that surrounds the part define the "effective" quenchant concentration.
during quenching. Polyalkylene glycol quenchants are not sensitive Kinematic viscosity measurements, which correlate with concen-
to minor changes in polymer concentration. This strong concentra- tration are also useful with PAG quenchants. Plots of concentration
tion dependency is a recognized deficiency of polyvinyl alcohol and of kinematic viscosity are available from quenchant manufacturers
some other "film-forming" polymers used as quenchants. and are similar to those for refractive index with one exception:
PAG solutions decrease in their cooling capability as the bath viscosity is usually a nonlinear function of polymer concentration.
temperature is elevated. The curves shown in Figure 24-55 are Therefore, higher order regression analyses must be used to relate
illustrative of the general trends that occur with changes in bath concentration to viscosity. Additional tests for pH, inhibitor level,
temperature. More detailed data would require specific identifica- and conductance also are useful adjuncts to a monitoring program
tion of the particular PAG quenchant employed. (40).
The use of poly glycol quenchants without agitation is not recom- Polyvinyl pyrrolidone. Polyvinyl pyrrolidone is derived from the
mended. In general, low to moderate agitation is essential to ensure polymerization of N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone. PVP is a water-soluble
that adequate replenishment of polymer occurs at the hot metal polymer characterized by its complexing and colloidal properties
surface and to provide uniform heat transfer from the hot part to the and by its physiological inertness. PVP is available as a white,
surrounding quenchant. Vigorous agitation may be essential to free-flowing powder, manufactured in four molecular-weight
achieve a rapid rate of cooling (for example, with a low hardenabil- grades.
ity steel) to avoid undesirable transformation products. As agitation Solutions of PVP in water were first introduced as quenchants in
is increased, the cooling rates rapidly increase, as clearly illustrated 1975. The quantity of polymer recommended for a solution concen-
in Figure 24-56. A contour plot illustrating the variation in Gross- trate is generally about 10% polymer solids and solution must
man H factor, with varying polymer concentration, bath tempera- contain a rust inhibitor and a bactericidal preservative.
ture, and circulation rates of an illustrative PAG quenchant is shown As with other polymer-type quenchants, concentration, bath tem-
in Figure 24-57 (40). perature, and agitation play a role in establishing the cooling char-
The refractive index of oxyalkylene glycol polymer solutions (in acteristics. The quenching rates tend to be faster with PVP quen-
the range employed for quenching) is almost linear with concentra- chants during the stable film and nucleate and boiling stages, but
tion. Thus, the refractive index of a PAG quenchant solution can slower during the convection stage. Since PVP is soluble up to the
serve as a measure of product concentration. Refractive index vs. boiling point of water, a broader working range of temperatures for
quenchant concentration calibration plots are usually available from quenching can be employed. Optical refractometer readings will
quenchant manufacturers. However, since this relationship is almost provide initial control of concentration, but backup with viscosity
linear, a calibration plot can be easily constructed by the heat treater measurements is strongly recommended (40).
by obtaining refractive index values at 0, 10, and 20% concentra- Polyacrylates. Sodium polyacrylates (PA) represent a third class
tions. A best fit line can be calculated by a linear regression analysis of polymers used to formulate aqueous polymer quenchants. The PA
of the data. The resulting equation can then be used to calculate the polymer can be produced by the homo-polymerization of sodium
quenchant concentration from a refractometer reading. acrylate, or the alkaline hydrolysis of a polyacrylate ester.
uuu 1000 1800 Fig. 24-58 Cooling

—1800
27 °C (80 °F) 45°C(110°F) rate of a polyacrylate
1600 1600 quenchant as a
ann k Cooling curves of Cooling curves of function of
t& polyacrylate solutions —1400 polyacrylate solutions 1400 concentration and
l'A concentration, wt% concentration, wt% temperature
h*\
o li »\
li i \
1200 "- 1200
o 600 CD
\l ' . \ 2.5% - 1000 = 2.5% 1000
£ 50% — 5.0%
\\ \ \ CO
k_
55 \\ \ \ 10.0% CD 10.0% CD
1 200% 800 Q. 800 a.
CD 400 -I '• \ E 20.0%
Q.
a> E
E II 1 \ CD
It 1 \ 600 H 600 H
<D II 1I *1 \ \
I-
200
1 I
— It
t
»
\
\ - 400 400
\ * \
\ 1 * \
- 200 200
n 1 1 1 I
20 40 60 80 40 60 80
Time, s Time, s
1000 1800 1000 1800

60°C(140°F) 75°C(170°F)
1600 1600
Cooling curves of Cooling curves of
polyacrylate solutions 1400 polyacrylate solutions 1400
concentration, wt% concentration, wt%
LL
1200 "- 1200 o
2.5%
CD~
£ 5.0% i_
1000 a 1000
10.0%
E!
CD 20.0% CD
800 Q. 800 Q.
E E
CD CD
600
600 H
400 400
200 200
_L I
40 60 80 20 40 60 80
Time, s Time, s
Table 24-10 Grossman Numbers and Film Coefficients for Selected Quenchants
Grossman
Temperature Velocity number Effective film coefficient
Quenchant °F °c m/sec ft/min H = h/2k W/cm2 sec Btu/hft2°F
Water 90 32 0.00 0 1.07 0.46 300

90 32 0.25 50 2.07 0.89 621
90 32 0.51 100 2.70 1.17 810
90 32 0.76 150 2.76 1.19 828
Water 130 55 0.00 0 0.20 0.08 60
130 55 0.25 50 0.64 0.27 192
130 55 0.51 100 1.49 0.65 447
130 55 0.76 150 2.44 1.05 732
Fast oil 140 60 0.00 0 0.49 0.21 147
140 60 0.25 50 1.04 0.45 312
140 60 0.51 150 1.13 0.49 339
140 60 0.76 150 1.51 0.65 453
25% water soluble 110 43 0.00 0 0.81 0.35 243
polymer 110 43 0.25 50 1.33 0.58 399
no 43 0.51 100 1.50 0.65 450
no 43 0.76 150 1.77 0.77 531
Conventional oil 150 65 0.51 100 0.74 0.32 222
Martemperoil 300 150 0.51 100 1.21 0.52 363
Air 80 27 0.00 0 0.05 0.021 15
80 27 2.54 500 0.06 0.026 18
80 27 5.08 1000 0.08 0.034 24

Hardenability and Heat Treatment 24-:
Fig. 24-59 Curves of Du/D vs. D or HD for estimating severity of quench (H) for quenching baths.
Like PVP, aqueous sodium polyacrylate solutions are soluble up marquenching operations. Salt baths are controlled by periodically
to the boiling point of water. Their ability to reduce the rate of heat measuring electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, melting
removal is proportional to the molecular weight of the polymer and point, weight loss on drying, and using certain titration techniques.
its effect on solution viscosity. By varying the polymer molecular
weights, a whole family of quenchants can be designed to cover Q u e n c h i n g Variables. Quench facility operation involves the
applications ranging from water to oils. careful analysis of two intimately interrelated factors. The first is the
The effect of polymer concentration and temperature for one of type of quenchant and the operating conditions in use, and the
the commercially available sodium polyacrylate quenchants is second is the hardenability of the particular alloy(s) being heat
shown in Figure 24-58. The cooling curves obtained with polyacry- treated. The hardenability is a function of the chemical composition
late solutions can be almost linear with time, which is a result of the and grain size of the specific heat, as previously described.
extended A-phase cooling and reduced cooling rates during nucleate Water is an excellent quenchant, but its heat removal charac-
boiling. This property of the polyacrylate quenchants allows their teristics are variable depending on the bath temperature and the
use in hardening crack-prone parts made of high hardenability relative velocity between the water and the parts being quenched.
steels. Cooling curves obtained with polyacrylate quenchants are Water also can be a rather severe quenchant, so oils or polymer-
illustrated in Figure 24-58. Both the concentration of the polyacry- water solutions often are used to moderate the heat removal rates.
late in water and the water temperature can be varied to affect the Data on the effect of quenchant type, temperature, and quenchant
cooling rates in steel parts. velocity on the Grossman number and film coefficient produced by
With increasing PA concentration and bath temperature, the cool- water, a fast oil, a conventional oil, a martemper oil, a 25% water
ing rate can be reduced to such an extent that many ferrous metals soluble polymer solution and air are presented in Table 24-10 (36).
do not transform to martensite at all, but form bainite or fine pearlite. Water at 80 to 90 °F can produce film coefficients of over 1000
The "nonmartensitic" quenching can be utilized for achieving lower Btu/h ft °F depending on the extent of agitation. The film coeffi-
hardness values. cient decreases rather rapidly however, as the water temperature
As with all polymer quenchants, sodium polyacrylate solutions rises or as the water velocity past the part decreases.
require agitation, the degree of which depends on the specific The heat removal characteristics of water at 130 °F are substan-
application. As a general rule, a high degree of agitation is recom- tially reduced, especially at lower velocities, compared to 80 °F
mended for hardening operations. water. The film coefficient of 130 °F water without agitation was
only 60 Btu/h ft2 °F, but increased to approximately 730 Btu/h ft2 °F
The concentration control of the sodium polyacrylate quenchants
with a velocity of 150 fpm.
is based on kinematic viscosity. They also should be periodically
checked with other laboratory methods including cooling curve Thus, without agitation, water at 90 °F can remove heat approxi-
analysis to monitor the influence of contaminations. This service is mately 5 times faster than water at 130 °F without agitation. At 50
usually provided by the quenchant supplier (40). fpm, 130 °F water has less than 1/3 the heat removal capacity of 90
°F water at the same velocity. At a velocity of 100 fpm, the heat
S a l t s . Salt baths are usually made of mixtures of KNO3, NaN03, removal capacity of 130 °F water is approximately 1/2 that of 90 °F
and NaN02 with small amounts of dissolved water. Water levels are water.
typically in the range of 0.25-2.0% and the quench severity in- These data are perhaps sufficient to illustrate the variability of
creases with the water content. Salts can be used instead of oil, and water and water bond quenchants as a heat removal media. When
can operate at temperatures of 300-750 °F in austempering or quenching large castings, the localized temperature and relative
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END•

4 6 8 10 12 14
2.0
1 1 1 ~A—-7—1—7~r
H-VALUE (SEVERITY OF QUENCH )
1.8
5.00 STRONG BRINE QUENCH,
1.6 H-VALUE, 5.00 2.00
VIOLENT AGITATION
2.00 POOR BRINE QUENCH,

1.4
NO AGITATION
STILL WATER->
1.2 1.00 POOR WATER QUENCH,
NO AGITATION
1.0
0.70 STRONG OIL QUENCH,
UJ 0.8 VIOLENT AGITATION
t- 0.50 VERY GOOD OIL QUENCH,
5 0.6 GOOD AGITATION
Q 0.35 GOOD OIL QUENCH,
MODERATE AGITATION
0.4
0.20 POOR OIL QUENCH,
0.2 NO AGITATION
0
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END DATA ARE FOR
OF THE END-QUENCH HARDENABILITY SPECIMEN, CENTER HARDENING
CORRESPONDING TO CENTER OF ROUND BAR, SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH
Fig. 24-60 Grossman chart relating bar diameter, hardenability of steel, and severity of quench (H-value). See text for discussion of method
for using this chart to evaluate severity of quench (7).
velocity of water past parts have significant effects on heat removal As an example of the use of the chart, the hardness at the center of
rates. The hardenability of the specific alloy and the heat removal a 1.2 in. (30.5 mm) diameter bar quenched in still water (H = 1.0)
rate significantly affect the hardness that can be expected in will be the same as the hardness 4/16 in. (6.4 mm) from the
quenched parts. quenched end of the end-quench bar of the same alloy.
To determine the H value of a commercial quench, an end-quench
Measuring Quench Severity. Methods for determining the bar and cylinders of two different diameters are needed. The cylin-
ability of a quenching solution or facility to extract heat can be der diameters are chosen so that the center hardnesses fall on the
divided into two broad categories. The mechanical procedures for sloping part of the end-quench curve. The samples and the end-
evaluating quench severity usually employ hardness measurements quench bar can be made from a wrought steel bar. The analysis is
or etching procedures applied to quenched parts to determine the selected to give a usable end-quench curve.
depth of martensite formation in a particular alloy during quenching
under standardized conditions. Thermal techniques involve measur- The two cylinders are quenched with a load of castings. In the
ing the time required to cool between specified temperatures, deter- example in Figure 24-60 for still water quench, the hardness at the
mining the rate of cooling in a standard specimen, or defining by center of the 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) diameter bar equalled that at 5/16 in.
some other thermal means, the ability of a quenchant to extract heat. (8 mm) from the end of the end-quench bar. The hardness at the
Grossman Technique. The Grossman technique has been used for center of the 1 in. (25.4 mm) diameter bar was equivalent to 3/16 in.
many years to evaluate the quench severity "H" provided by a (4.8 mm) from the quenched end of the end-quench bar. These two
quenchant. The use of this procedure is based on the observation that points and a line joining them are plotted in Figure 24-60. The H
with increasing bar diameter, the unhardened core diameter in- value of this quench is slightly over 1.0. The curves for oil and hot
creases more rapidly with the use of less severe quenchants. Deter- salt were determined in the same way.
mining the Grossman "H" value involves quenching a series of bars Rushman Technique. The Rushman method is a variation of the
of different diameters (D) in a particular quenchant or quench bar quenching technique. Two bars having the same composition,
facility. The bars are then sectioned and the cross section of the intermediate hardenability (typically 1141), and different diameters
unhardened diameter (Du) determined by either hardness measure- are quenched in the facility of interest. The bars are then cut in two
ments or by chemical etching. and the hardness at the bar center measured. Using the bar diameter
A graph on the appropriate scale is made of Du/D for the several and the equivalent Jominy distance based on hardness achieved
quenched bar sizes (8). This Du/D curve can be superimposed in when the two bars were quenched, the data points are placed on a
Figure 24-59 and matched with the best fitting curve. The HD factor Lamont diagram illustrated in Figure 24-61 (39,46). The use of this
on the abscissae is the product of the Grossman H factor times the procedure involves:
bar diameter D. This value is read from the scale and divided by the
actual bar diameter to obtain the quench severity factor H. One 1. Quenching 2 bars (typically 1141) of different diameters (typi-
limitation on this procedure is that it may not be possible to match a cally 1/2 and 1 in.) in the quenchant or quench facility of interest
curve if there is a large difference between the bar diameter and the 2. Determining the Jominy curve for the steel used in the bars
depth of hardening (8,44,45). 3. Comparing center hardnesses in the bar with the Jominy curve
The Grossman chart illustrated in Figure 24-60 can be used to and assigning a Jominy distance to the cooling rate at the bar
obtain H values for quench severity under operating conditions (38). center
Distance from water-cooled end, mm

Fig. 24-61 (a) Location on
end-quenched Jominy har- 10 20 30 40 50
7.0
denability specimen corre- 175 I I I I I
sponding to the center of 5.0 (0.2)
round bars (30) (b) Location 2.0 (0.08)
150 - 6.0 1.5
on end-quenched Jominy
- (\ 1.0(0.04)
- LJ
hardenability specimen cor-
0.70
responding to the half-radius - ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^ .-^n"*""
position in round bars (30) 125 _ 5.0

0.50 (0.02) ~
F
E ' R ' 0.35 c
100 — CO 4.0
Bar diamet
CO
E 0.20(0.008) o
CO
75 _ T3
3.0 CO
CO
m
50 2.0
CO
>
CO
25 1.0 CO
B^l I I I I I I
0.25 0.50 0.75 1 1.25 1.50 1.75
Distance from water-cooled end, in.
(a)
Distance from water-cooled end, mm

10 20 30 40
250
200
5.0 (0.2)
2.0 (0.08)
1.5
1.0(0.04) ~
E 0.70 £
E 150
E
CO
0)
0.50 (0.02) ~
E 0.35 .£
to
T3
CO 100
CO 0.20(0.008) c
50
L
0
0.5 1 1.5
Distance from water-cooled end, in.
(b)
4. By comparison with Figure 24-61 or Table 24-6 an "H" value for under a variety of conditions. Typical cooling curves were illus-
the quenchant can be assigned trated in Figures 24-53 and 54. Generally, a specimen is machined
from a non-scaling non-transforming material such as silver, nickel,
Cooling Curves. Informative data can also be obtained by or an austenitic stainless steel. The test specimen is usually cylindri-
measuring the actual cooling rates in a test specimen, and the cal with a diameter ranging between 1/2 to 2 inches or longer and a
resulting data can be used to characterize the quenchant behavior length-to-diameter ratio greater than 4. Two positions in the speci-
Table 24-11 Hardenability Data on 4130 value and can be defined in terms of the desired martensite content,
i.e. 99%, 95%, 90%, etc.
Chemical composition Quench Factor Calculation. Quench factors can be calculated
Low Actual High from time-temperature (cooling curve) data and the equation de-
specification composition specification scribing the transformation kinetics of the alloy of interest (CT
function).
Carbon (%) 0.250 0.315 0.350
Silicon (%) 0.150 0.379 0.400 The CT function is usually described with an equation of the form:
Manganese (%) 0.400 0.576 0.700
Nickel (%) 0.000 0.103 0.103
CT = - Ki * K2 * exp (R3*^) : (Eq5)
Chromium (%) 0.800 1.140 1.500 exp R*T
R*T(K4 - Ty
Molybdenum (%) 0.150 0.244 0.250
Copper (%) 0.000 0.125 0.125
Vanadium (%) 0.000 0.014 0.014
Boron (%) 0.000 0.000 0.000 where CT = critical time required to form a constant amount of a new
phase or reduce the hardness by a specified amount (the locus of the
Alloy factors
critical time values as a function of temperature forms the TTP curve),
Carbon 0.135 0.170 0.189 Ki = constant which equals the natural logarithm of the fraction untrans-
Silicon 1.105 1.265 1.280 formed during quenching, i.e. the fraction defined by the TTP curve, K2
Manganese 2.333 2.920 3.333
= constant related to the reciprocal of the number of nucleation sites, K3
Nickel 1.000 1.035 1.035
Chromium 2.728 3.462 4.240
= constant related to the energy required to form a nucleus, K4 =
Molybdenum 1.450 1.732 1.750 constant related to the solvus temperature, K5 = constant related to the
Copper 1.000 1.046 1.046 activation energy for diffusion, R = 8.3143 J/(°K mol), and T= tempera-
Vanadium 1.000 1.024 1.024 ture °K.
Ideal diameters (in.)
The constants Ki, K2, K3, K4, and K5 define the shape on the TTP
curve.
1.38 4.18 6.63
An incremental quench factor, q, for each time step in the cooling
Martensite hardness (Re) curve is calculated using Eq 6:
M(99) 47.3 51.2 53.3
M(95) 43.9 47.9 49.9 At
M(90) 41.5 45.5 47.4 q= (Eq6)
c7
M(80) 38.2 42.0 43.9
M(50) 34.7 38.3 40.0
where q = incremental quench factor, and t = time step used in cooling
Transformation temperatures (°F)
curve data acquisition.
A(3) 1507.9 1509.1 1500.0 The incremental quench factor, q, represents the ratio of the
A(l) 1350.7 1363.3 1370.8
amount of time a steel was at a particular temperature divided by the
B(s) 1216.5 1092.6 1009.3
M(s) 756.0 691.9 653.7 time required for a specified amount of transformation, typically
M(90) 570.6 506.5 468.3 1%, at that temperature.
The incremental quench values are summed over the entire trans-
formation range between Ar3 and M s to produce the cumulative
quench factor, Q, according to Eq 7:
men, one near the surface and one in the center, are instrumented
with thermocouples to provide information on the cooling rates r=M5
At
actually achieved. The thermocouple and recording system used Q = Sq = X (Eq7)
must be capable of measuring rapid temperature changes, especially CT
r=Ar3
if a thermocouple is placed near the surface of a probe. This type of
equipment has been used to study quenchants, spray quenching,
agitation, bath temperature, and effects of surface condition on heat The cumulative quench factor reflects the heat extraction charac-
extraction from metal. teristics of the quenchant as a function of the quenchant type,
velocity, and temperature over the transformation range of the steel
Q u e n c h F a c t o r s . Jominy curves have been used to represent being quenched. This factor includes section thickness effects on
hardenability of various grades of steel for many years, and the cooling rate and the transformation rate of the alloy as a function of
Grossman "H" value has been used to provide information about the temperature.
ability of a quenchant to extract heat from parts. A more recently The calculated quench factor can be used to predict the as-
introduced method for quantifying quenchant and steel interactions quenched hardness in steel using the following equation:
is that of quench factors (40,47,48).
Hp = Hmin + (Hmax - Hmin ) exp (KiQ) (Eq8)
Quench factor analysis provides a single number that interrelates
the cooling rate as produced by the quenchant, the section thickness
of the part, and the transformation rate of the alloy as reflected by where H p = predicted hardness, Hmin = minimum hardness for alloy,
the time-temperature-property (TTP) curve. The TTP curve is the Hmax = maximum hardness for alloy, exp = base of the natural loga-
mathematical representation of the start of transformation curve and rithm, Ki = In (0.995) = -0.00501, and Q = quench factor.
reflects the amount of transformation required to reduce the as-
quenched hardness or strength from the maximum value by a fixed Hardenability of Cast 4130 Steel
percentage. The alloy composition and quench conditions must be Some calculated hardenability data on cast 4130 steel is presented
controlled so the maximum quench factor corresponding to the in Table 24-11 (47). The first column in Table 24-11 provides
minimum acceptable as-quenched hardness is not exceeded. composition and hardenability data on a cast 4130 steel assuming all
Lower quench factor values are associated with higher as- elements to be at the low end of the composition range. While it is
quenched hardness values. The critical value of the quench factor unrealistic for all of the alloy elements in a particular grade of steel
(Q) is the maximum value that will result in the desired hardness to lie on the lower specification limit, nevertheless the calculation is
made to illustrate the potential extremes that can be encountered. Table 24-12 Calculated Jominy Hardness on 4130
The carbon range has been expanded from the normal AISI range of MTL#25
0.28 to 0.33% to cover the range normally accepted in castings, i.e.
0.25 to 0.35% carbon. The second column provides data on a cast Low Actual High
steel composition actually tested, and the third column provides data j specification composition specification
assuming all elements to be at the high end of the composition range. position (Re) (Re) (Re)
The composition data is followed by calculated alloy factors and
1 47 51 53
ideal diameters for the low, actual, and high end compositions. 44 51 53
2
The next data group in Table 24-11 contains calculated martensite 3 38 51 53
hardness data. At 99% martensite, a 4130 steel containing 0.25% 4 28 51 53
carbon can be expected to have a maximum hardness of Rockwell 5 23 50 53
C 47.3, and steel containing 0.31% carbon is expected to have 6 21 49 53
maximum martensite hardness of Re 51. As the martensite content 7 20 45 53
decreases, the as-quenched hardness decreases to a value of Re 38.3 8 19 44 53
at 50% martensite. The Ms temperature for the steel was calculated 9 18 42 53
to be 692 °F, and the temperature at which the steel had transformed 10 17 41 53
to 90% martensite was 506 °F using equations published by Atkins 12 16 38 53
(3). 14 15 37 51
16 15 34 50
Calculated and experimental Jominy hardness values for the low 18 14 33 50
specification composition, the actual composition, and the high 20 13 32 49
specification composition 4130 are presented in Table 24-12. The 24 12 30 46
predicted Jominy hardness for the low end composition, the actual 28 12 29 46
composition, and the high composition are illustrated in Figure 32 11 27 44
24-62 (47).
The solid lines represent the calculated (predicted) Jominy hard-
ness distribution using the methods, procedures, and coefficients Experimental hardness data
described in Caterpillar Tractor Company Specification 1E38. The J Hardness
stars on Figure 24-62 illustrate the experimental Jominy hardness position (Re)
measurements on the steel after austenitizing and quenching from 1 52
1575 °F. There was reasonably good agreement between the pre- 2 52
dicted Jominy hardness and the measured hardness in this alloy. 3 51
4 50
TTP Curves for Cast 4130 Steel 5 50
Most published TTT curves were developed for specific steel 6 49
compositions and do not take into account the possible variations in 7 47
8 45
composition and shifts in TTT curve position that can occur within 42
9
the allowable composition range. Using quench factor analysis it is 10 42
possible to calculate the start of the transformation curve for a steel 12 39
where a modest amount of data exists. 14 38
The approximate TTP curves have been developed for the upper 16 36
and lower limit compositions of cast 4130 steel given in Table 18 35
24-11. The shift in "C curve" with composition is clearly evident in 20 34
Figure 24-63 (47). These "C curves" are plotted for times to 1000 24 33
28 31
32 30
70
65 -
60
_ 55 _
|-
£ 50 _t*«.
Hi spec
<g 45 ~\ ^*S
C 40
"2 • « - \ ^ v * _•_•
as oo • Actual
X
30 - \ "---^—-J
25
20
15 Lo spec
10 i i i i i i i i I l r~ i i i
101 102
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Jominy distance, 16th's Critical time (sec)
Fig. 24-63 TTP curves for cast 4130 steel, (a) Low specification
Fig. 24-62 Calculated and experimental Jominy data on cast 4130 composition, (b) Actual composition, and (c) High specification
steel composition

Table 24-13 Measured and Predicted Hardness at 60

17 Positions in Water Quenched 4130 Steel 54
Cooling
48
rate Predicted Measured
Casting at 1300°F Quench hardness hardness 42
position (°F/sec) factor (Re) (Re)
36
1 205.4 7.2 51.8 52
2 121.7 12.4 50.9 51 a: 30 o Measured hardness
3 72.1 18.5 49.9 50 i — Predicted hardness
4 52.9 25.6 48.8 50 24
5 38.8 33.1 47.7 49
6 31.3 41.5 46.4 47 18
7 23.8 50.1 45.2 45
8 19.9 58.7 44.1
12
42
9 17.0 67.3 43.0 42 6
10 12.7 86.8 40.7 39 Cast 4130 MTL 25J 20-Aug-90 13:46:36
11 9.8 103.1 38.9 38 I I
12 8.1 119.1 37.3 36 10-1 10° 101 102 103
13 6.8 134.8 35.8 35 Quench factor
14 5.9 150.1 34.5 34
15 4.6 175.3 32.5 33 Fig. 24-64 Correlation between predicted hardness and measured
16 3.9 197.6 31.0 31 hardness at 18 locations in a quenched part (Mt1 25)
17 3.3 215.6 29.9 30
(a) (b) WlA£
100X 250X
Fig. 24-65 (a) Ferrite-pearlite structure (light and dark constituents, respectively) of normalized 0.2% C steel, (b) Martensite structure of quenched
and tempered Ni-Cr-Mo (8635) steel
'.V V.V A ,"S.-» : :

-••.•••.-•/*••.• - 5
(a) (b)
«s^s
100X 100X
Fig. 24-66 (a) Ferrite-pearlite structure of 1 in. (25.4 mm) thick plate casting of 0.20% C steel obtained by normalizing, (b) Same as in (a), but
finer, obtained by quenching and tempering
Representative Properties:
Cv - Impact Energy
UTS YS El RA NDTT RT 0°F(-18°C) -60°F(-51°C)
BHN ksi MPa ksi MPa ft lb ft lb ft lb J
A 149 77 531 51 352 31 60 -45 -43 80 108 65 88 28 38

B 163 81 558 57 393 27 61 -65 -54 100 136 78 106 29 39

Mri*
'1P»
'4-a^'
I /
'•vll I
%%:
S
<s?S* V
' . - ^ • • J ^
Surface
V4T
y*-** ""Sr^
Center
100x 500x
Fig. 24-67 The ferrite-peariite structure of a quenched and tempered 4 in. (102 mm) thick, A-216-WCC type, carbon steel plate casting
seconds (16.7 minutes) rather than the usual 1,000,000 seconds (20 Microstructureand Properties
days) used in many published diagrams. Transformations that occur
over a 20 day period are of little interest in heat-treating operations. The type of metallurgical structure which produces a given heat
At 1100 °F, the transformation begins in about 0.15 second in the treatment depends to a large extent on alloy content, quench prac-
low specification composition, in one second in the actual compo- tice, section size being heat treated, and the location within a given
sition, and after about 3 seconds in the high specification composi- section.
tion. A ferrite-peariite structure will form during normalizing most
The "C curves" illustrate the shift in the start of transformation carbon steels and many low alloy steels (Figure 24-65 A); martensite
with alloy content, and the mathematical expression describing the forms during quenching provided the cooling rate is high enough for
curves allows hardness predictions to be made under a wide variety the particular alloy composition (Figure 24-65B).
of quenching conditions. Some correlations between quench factor Even though quenching may not produce martensite, the resulting
and predicted hardness and measured hardness in cast 4130 are structure is usually finer and has superior toughness compared to air
presented in Table 24-13 and graphically illustrated in Figure 24-64. cooled parts. These differences are illustrated in Figure 24-66A and
The solid line in Figure 24-64 represents the predicted hardness as B for low hardenability carbon steel.
a function of quench factor, and the data points are measured The location within a given component, or section, may have an
hardness values at locations in a quenched part where cooling curves effect on the structure and properties depending on hardenability of
were available. the particular alloy. For carbon steel (Figure 24-67) minor differ-
••<• 'Jf-'S
(a) 250X (b) 250X
Fig. 24-68 (a) The martensitic microstructure at the surface of a quenched and tempered Ni-Cr-Mo (cast 8635) 17 in. (432 mm) thick gear
blank, (b) The acicular, ferrite-pearlite structure of the casting in A—at the center of the 17 in. (432 mm) thick section
Representative Properties:
UTS YS El RA C, - Impact Energy at RT
ksi MPa ksi MPa % BHN ft lb J
A 160 1103 146 1007 14 38 345 30 41
B 110 758 — — 2 2 280 4 5
tively. The toughness, in terms of Nil Ductility Transition Tempera-

ture, NDTT, was -40, -30, and -20 °F (-40, -34, and -29 °C),
respectively (49).
UNIFORMLY HOT Quite pronounced microstructural and mechanical property gradi-
ents can be expected when parts are quenched and do not through
harden because of insufficient hardenability. An example involving
a 17 in. (432 mm) thick gear blank of cast 8635 steel that was
quenched and tempered is illustrated in Figure 24-68. Near-surface
HOT UPSET areas were martensitic while a structure of acicular ferrite, the
pearlite was observed at locations 8.5 in. (216 mm) from the surface.
The gradient had relatively small effects on strength, but major
changes in ductility and toughness as shown by the data in Figure
24-68.
SHRINKING Residual Stress Distortion and Cracking

Distortion and cracking during quenching often limits the severity
of the quenchant and equipment that may be used. A more severe
SHORT-TENSION
quench produces martensite to a greater depth (with a steel of given
hardenability), but it also increases the likelihood of cracking.
Distortion is a result of three general phenomena:
UNIFORMLY COLO
1. Warping during heating or during holding at the austenitizing
temperature
2. Thermally induced deformation caused by high thermal gradi-
LONG - COMPRESSION ents between thick and thin sections and from surface to center
of a part
Fig. 24-69 Warpage caused by nonuniform quenching of a 30%
3. Transformation induced stresses caused by the volumetric
nickel steel block (10)
changes, especially when austenite transforms to martensite
ences are found in the ferrite-pearlite structure of a 4 in. (101.6 mm) Warping is generally considered to be the result of nonuniform
thick A216-WCC type carbon steel plate that was quenched and heating or deformation caused by excessive weight on the part.
tempered as illustrated in Figure 24-67. The hardness at the surface, Warping can sometimes be reduced by lowering the rate of heating
1/4 T, and center locations was BHN 163, 142, and 137, respec- to minimize thermal gradients during heating. Warping can also be
B —
MACHINING THE SMCU OFF MMOVES TWSItf

STIESS FIOM COIf AILOWINC n TO SHOITEN
Fig. 24-70 Effect of quenching on 30% nickel steel cylinder—water

quenched from 1425 °F (774 °C) (10) 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16
Temperature -Hundreds of degrees Fahrenheit
reduced by changing the racking procedure to reduce the amount of Fig. 24-71 Dilatometric studies show that when cooling a steel
stress on a part and by supporting parts properly on the tray or rack. from a high temperature it experiences reversals of its dimensional
contractions which vary, depending on the quenching rate (12)
Thermally induced distortion is a result of nonuniform thermal
contraction during cooling. Warping during nonuniform cooling of
a part is schematically illustrated in Figure 24-69(A). Assume that
the bar in Figure 24-69(A) was initially at a uniformly high tempera-
ture. If the bar is quenched nonuniformly principally from one side,
as illustrated in Figure 24-69(B), the more rapidly cooled side will
contract quicker and at a higher rate than the more slowly cooled
side. Since the rapidly cooled side becomes shorter and stronger as
it cools, it causes plastic deformation to occur in the hot side, which
has a lower flow stress. The deformation is followed by cooling and
contraction on the more slowly cooled side.
When the part finally cools to a uniform temperature, the part is
warped in the opposite direction to the initial warpage, as illustrated
in Figure 24-69(C), with the slowly cooled side being shorter and
the surface being concave on the more slowly cooled side. The
plastic deformation on the hot side results in compressive stresses
on the rapidly cooled side and tensile stresses on the more slowly 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.4
cooled side (50). Carbon, %
Deformation resulting from nonuniform thermal contraction is
also illustrated in Figure 24-70. If a part is initially uniformly hot, as Fig. 24-72 Linear expansion in steel after quenching to produce a
illustrated in Figure 24-70A, and is rapidly quenched, the outer fully martensitic structure
surface shrinks while the center is still relatively hot. This process
puts the outer surface into tension and the inside into compression, Deformation also occurs frequently in steel parts being hardened
causing plastic flow in the softer core (Figure 24-70B). As the center partly as a result of the volumetric changes associated with marten-
of the part cools and the temperature reaches a uniformly low value, site formation. The expansion that occurs on heating 4340 steel from
thermal contraction in the center of the bar occurs, which reverses room temperature to 1600 °F is illustrated in Figure 24-71 (40).
the stress state and places the center in tension, as illustrated in When the steel is rapidly cooled, the austenite transformation tem-
Figure 24-70C. Any machining on the part will partially relieve the perature is suppressed to a relatively low value where martensite
stress resulting in distortion (Figure 24-70D). begins to form. As martensite forms, there is a volumetric expansion
Table 24-14 Specific Volume of Phases Present in Carbon Tool Steels

Range of
carbon Calculated specific volume
Phase or phase mixture (percent) at68°F,cm3/g
Austenite 0to2 0.1212 +0.0033 (%C)
Martensite 0to2 0.1271+0.0025 (%C)
Ferrite 0 to 0.02 0.1271
Cementite 6.7 ±0.2 0.130±0.001
Epsilon carbide 8.5 ±0.7 0.140±0.002
Graphite 100 0.451
Ferrite plus cementite 0to2 0.1271+0.0005 (%C)
Low-carbon martensite plus epsilon carbide 0to2 0.1277 +0.0015 (%C-0.25)
Ferrite plus epsilon carbide 0to2 0.1271+ 0.0015 (%C)
Size Changes on Hardening Carbon Tool Steels

Volume change Dimensional change
Reaction (percent) in/in.
Spheroidite—austenite ^1.64 + 2.21 (%C) -0.0155 + 0.0074 (%C)
Austenite—martensite 4.64- 0.53 (%C) 0.0155-0.0018 (%C)
Spheroidite—martensite 1.68 (%C) 0.0056 (%C)
Austenite—lower bainite(a) 4.64-1.43 (%C) 0.0155-0.0047 (%C)
Spheroidite—lower bainite(a) 0.78 (%C) 0.0026 (%C)
Austenite—aggregate of ferrite and cementite(b) 4.64-2.21 (%C) 0.0155-0.0074 (%C)
Spheroidite—aggregate of ferrite and cementite(b) 0 0
(a) Lower bainite is assumed to be a mixture of ferrite and epsilon carbide, (b) Upper bainite and pearlite are assumed to be mixtures of ferrite and cementite.
1425 °F caused expansion in the center of the bar, resulting in a

0.0015 in. increase in diameter. If the hardened surface of the bar
were ground to a final diameter of 0.3 in. to relieve the internal stress
the bar would be 0.008 in. shorter than the as-quenched length. A
wide variety of similar experiments have been conducted to demon-
strate that the stresses developed during quenching and martensite
(a) WATER QUENCHED 1425°F. formation can result in significant deformation of steel parts.
The formation of other phases can also contribute to distortion
because of volumetric change associated with specific transforma-
tions. The specific volume of several phases present in carbon tool
HARD-77% steels is presented in Table 24-14 (51).
+ .0015"
TOUGH-23% In general, the amount of distortion occurring during quenching
depends on the size and shape of the part, the part composition, and
3.000' the characteristics of the quenchant employed. Parts with section
(b) size ratios greater than 1 to 4; large parts with relatively thin cross
ROCKWELL C-68. sections; and parts containing slots, keyholes, drilled holes, or
grooves cause problems because of the difficulty of achieving uni-
form heating and cooling rates. Some of these difficulties are illus-
WET GROUND TO J00"0. trated in Figure 24-74 (50).
Distortion occurring in a track shoe, because of the presence of a
lightening groove, is illustrated in Figure 24-74a. Flanges and
TOUGH CORE-ROCKWELL C - 4 6 T 3 0 0 " bosses also create conditions making it difficult to achieve uniform
!- — -T~ cooling rates, as illustrated in Figure 24-74b. The thin, large diame-
ter flange is difficult to cool at a rate consistent with the bar, and
(O h — CONTRACTS .008" H
almost invariably produces quench cracks.
Fig. 24-73 Strains produced by hardening a cylinder of 1.10% Keyholes and grooves often cause a shaft to distort during heat
carbon tool steel (10) treating, and keyways with sharp corners often initiate cracks. The
keyway cracking problem can be minimized to some extent with
generous radii, as illustrated in Figure 24-74c.
in the metal that results in the finished part dimensions being larger The steel composition can also have a significant effect on warp-
than the initial dimensions. The volumetric expansion associated ing and distortion. Higher carbon alloys expand more during
with martensite formation as a function of carbon concentration in martensite formation and those with higher hardenabilities are prone
steel is illustrated in Figure 24-72 (36). to more distortion than lower hardenability alloys. Similarly, high
When rapid cooling a through hardening steel, the outer surface is austenitizing temperatures and low martensite start (Ms) tempera-
quenched to martensite and the subsequent contraction of the core tures aggravate distortion.
produces surface compression and center tension, as illustrated in The characteristics of the quench procedure, particularly condi-
Figure 24-73 (50). This figure schematically illustrates a bar that tions promoting high rates of cooling through the transformation
was initially 3 in. long and 5/8 in. diameter. Water quenching from range, aggravate distortion and cracking. Rapid quenching to a
^ 100
Lightening groove d>

oo
J 80
o
(0
° 60
o
c
CD
& 40 - o •
• C-Mn steels
- Distortion due to lightening groove o o Ni, Cr, Mo
o 20 ~~ steels
(a) o
(0
"- 0
I I I
L.J I
320 340 360 380 400 420
(a)
100- a»qp—•-OO-ÔD-
80 o0
• C-Mn steels
60 o Ni, Cr, Mo
(b) steels
£ 40 • 0 * Not fully
martensitic
•2 20-
I k ill
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
(b)
Fig. 24-75 (a) Relation between the fraction of the test specimens
that quench cracked and M s temperature, (b) Relation between
fraction of the test specimens that quench cracked and Ceq (60)
Cutter changed to produce

radius in bottom of keyway The tendency for cracking tends to decrease as the martensite start
temperature increases. The martensite start temperature can be ap-
proximated by using the following equation (51):
(c)
Ms = 521-353C-225Si-24.3Mn-17.3Ni-17.7Cr-25.8Mo (Eq9)
Fig. 24-74 (a) This track shoe of SAE 1037, water quenched,
distorted up to 0.010 in. due to lightening of groove. Redesign to
remove grooves (which improved uniformity of section) reduced The correlation between the occurrence of quench cracks and the
distortion to 0.003 in. max (1). (b) In this design, the flange will M s temperature calculated using Eq 9 in two steels is illustrated in
invariably crack during quenching, (c) Grooves will cause a shaft to Figure 24-75a (7).
warp in heat treating. A keyway with sharp corners often initiates Cracking has been also related to composition using the equation:
cracks in quenching. The problem is avoided with a radius, as
shown. 0 ^ = 0 + Mn/5 + Mo/5 + Cr/10 + Ni/50
where Ceq is the carbon equivalent. Quench cracks were prevalent at

carbon equivalent values above 0.525, as illustrated in Figure 24-75b.
Quench cracking also becomes more prevalent as the ideal diame-
temperature just above the M s , followed by slow cooling through ter increases (53,54,55). The danger of cracking a part is at a
the martensite formation range, where volumetric expansion occurs, maximum when the martensite skin thickness is about 50-60% of
minimizes distortion. Uniform rates of heat removal per unit of the cross sectional area (53).
surface area also tend to minimize distortion (50,51,52,53). Cracking is commonly associated with nonuniform quenching.
Cracking occurs for the same reasons as distortion, but cracks Uniform surface compressive stresses produced by a uniform rate of
form when the localized strain exceeds the failure strain in the heat removal help suppress cracks. However, as the quench severity
material. Usually the cracks follow austenite grain boundaries, but increases, maintaining a uniform rate of heat extraction over the
cracking does not appear to be related to the austenite grain size. entire part surface becomes more dufficult (26,27,56,57).
REFERENCES 31. S.E. Feldman, "The Minitech Computerized Alloy Steel Informa-
tion System," Proc. of Metallurgical Soc. of AIME Heat Treatment
1. Troiano and Greninger, Metal Progress, Vol 50,1946, p 303 Committee/ASM Activity on Phase Transformation Symposium,
2. Grange and Stewart, "The Temperature Range of Martensite For- Chicago, IL, Oct 24-26,1977, p 546-567
mation," Trans. AIME167, New York, 1946, p 467 32. J.M. Hodge and M.A. Orehoski, "Relationship Between Har-
3. M. Atkins.Af/as of Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams denability and Percentage of Martensite in Some Low-Alloy
for Engineering Steels, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, Steels," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining and
1980 Metallurgical Engineers, Vol 167,1946, p 627
4. Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling Transformation 33. M.A. Grossman and E.C. Bain, Principles of Heat Treatment, 5th
Diagrams, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1979 ed., American Society for Metals
5. U.S. Steel, Atlas of Isothermal Transformation Diagrams, 3rd ed. 34. "Hardenability Calculations and Data," Steel Casting Design, En-
Pittsburgh, PA gineering Data File, Section 12, Steel Founders' Society of Amer-
6. G. Krauss, Principles ofHeat Treatment of Steels, ASM, 1980 ica, Rocky River, OH
7. Source Book on Heat Treating, Vol I, Materials and Processes, 35. "Calculating Hardenability Curves from Chemical Composition,"
ASM, 1975 Metal Progress, June 1977, p 114
8. Siebert, Doane, and Breen, The Hardenability ofSteels, ASM, 1977 36. C.E. Bates, "Predicting Properties and Minimizing Residual Stress
9. K. Sachs, "Presentation of Transformation Data," Heat Treatment in Quenched Steel Parts," Journal of Heat Treating, Vol 6 (No. 1),
ofMetals, Vol 1,1974, p 43-57 p 27^15
10. K.E. Thelning, "CCT Continuous Cooling Transformation Dia- 37. M.A. Grossman, Elements of Hardenability, American Society for
grams with Natural Cooling," Scandinavian Journal ofMetallurgy, Metals, OH, 1952
1978, p 252-263 38. "Quenching of Steel," Metals Handbook, Vol 2,8th ed., American
11. Climax Molybdenum Company, Austenite Transformation Kinet- Society for Metals, 1964, p 15
ics of Ferrous Alloys,Vol 1 and 2, Greenwich, CT 39. J.L. Lamont, "How to Estimate Hardening Depth in Bars," Iron
12. The Making, Shaping, andTreating ofSteel, U.S. Steel Corporation, Age, Vol 152, Oct 14,1943, p 64-70
7th ed., 1957 40. C.E. Bates, G.E. Totten, and R.L. Brennan, "Quenching of Steel,"
13. Nickel Alloy Steels Data Book, 3rd ed., International Nickel Com- ASM Metals Handbook, 10th ed., Vol 4, ASM International, Aug
pany, Inc., Bulletin A, Section 2 1991, p 67-120
14. R.A. Granger and N.M. Steward, "The Temperature Range of 41. S.B. Lasday, "Metal Quenching with Oils and Synthetic Media,"
Martensite Formation," Trans., Vol 167, AIME, 1946, p 467 Industrial Heating, Vol 43,1976, p 8-19
15. R.C. Voigt, M. Blair, and J. Rassizadehghani, "High Strength Low 42. N.F. Squire, "Modem Quenching Oils and Techniques for Foundry
Alloy Cast Steels," Proc. 1990 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Heat Treating," Modem Casting, p 30-34
Conference, Nashville, TN, 17-21 June 1990, p 147-154 43. "Heat Treatment Problems Solved by New Medium," Metal Work-
16. R.C. Voigt, "Analysis of Intercritical Heat Treatment of Cast ing Production, Vol 111 (No. 4), 1976, p 64-65
Steels," J. Heat Treat, (No. 7), 1989, p 95-105 44. M.A. Grossman, Principles ofHeat Treatment, ASM, 1935
17. R. Molnar, "A Literature Survey on Certain Aspects of Austenitic 45. B.D.Wakefield, "Agitation Quenching: AGood Way to AvoidHigh
Alloying Costs," Iron Age, Oct 1,1970, p 54-55
Manganese Steels," Steel Castings Institute of Canada, June 1974
46. WF. Rushman, "How to Determine the Quench Severity in Oil and
18. G. Coletta, et al., "Contributions a l'Etude des Transformations des
Salt Baths," Metal Progress, Dec 1963, p 91
Austenites a 12 pour cent Mn," Revue de Metallurgia, Vol 54 (No.
47. C.E. Bates, "Effects of Composition and Quenching Practice on the
6), June 1957, p 433^86
As-Quenched Hardness of Cast 4130 Steel," Proceedings of 44th
19. K.J. Irvine, D.J. Crow, and F.B. Pickering, "The Physical Metal-
Steel Founders' Society of America Technical and Operating Con-
lurgy of 12% Chromium Steels," Journal of the Iron and Steel
ference, Chicago, IL, Nov 8-10,1990, p 1-38
Institute, Aug 1960, p 386 48. C.E. Bates, T. Landig, and G. Seitanakis, "Quench Factor Analysis:
20. J. Beech, "Metallurgy of 13% Cr Steel Castings," Foundry Trade A Powerful Tool Comes of Age," Heat Treating, Vol 85, Dec 1985,
Journal, Nov 3,1960, p 569 p13-17
21. P. Shahinian and J.R. Lane, "Modifying 12% Cr Steel for Better 49. Steel Castings Handbook, 5th ed., Steel Founders' Society of Amer-
Properties," Iron Age, Oct 1956, p 106 ica, 1980, Chapt 21, p 15
22. E.E. Thum, Ed., The Book of Stainless Steels, 2nd ed., American 50. Palmer, et al., Tool Steel Simplified, 4th ed., Chilton, 1978
Society for Metals, 1935 51. R. W Edmonson, Dimensional Changes in Steel During Heat Treat-
23. H.D. Solomon and T.M. Devine, Jr., "Duplex Stainless Steels—A ment," Metal Treating, Vol 20 (No. 6), 1969-1970, p 3-19
Tale of Two Phases," ASM Metals/Materials Technology Series 52. D.M. Nakhimov and D.I. Bron, "Deformation of Steel During
8201-089 Quenching," Metal Science and Heat Treatment ofMetals, 1966, p
24. E. Hornbogen and R.C. Glenn, "A Metallographic Study of Precipi- 540-545
tation of Copper from Alpha Iron," Trans. AIME, Vol 218, Dec 53. N.I. Kobasko, "Intensification of the Quenching Process in Steel,"
1960, p 1064-1069 Metal Science and Heat Treatment ofMetals, 1970, p 153-155
25. E. Hornbogen, "Precipitation from Binary Substitutional Solid 54. T. Kunitake and S. Sugisawa, "Quench Cracking Susceptibility of
Solutions of Alpha Iron," Proc. Metallurgical Society AIME, Vol Steel," Sumimoto Search, 1971, p 16-25
28, Cleveland, OH, Oct 1965, p 1-69 55. M. Hetehyi, Handbook of Experimental Stress Analysis, John
26. R.F. Kerr, "Thinking Through to Successful Heat Treatment," Met- Wiley, 1950
al Engineering Quarterly, 1971, p 1-4 56. Bogatyrev, et al., "Influence of Cooling Rate on the Formation of
27. Source Book on Heat Treating, Vol U, Production and Engineering Cracks During Quenching of Steel," Metal Science and Heat Treat-
Practices, ASM, 1975 ment ofMetals, 1967, p 255-261
28. ASTMA-255,JominyTest 57. Golovin, et al., "Cooling Conditions and the Formation of Quench
29. "Hardenability Slide Rule," United States Steel Corp., 1970 Cracks," Metal Science and Heat Treatment of Metals, 1969, p
30. Stecal computer program from ASM International, OH 912-913

CHAPTER 25
Weldability and Welding

Page
Introduction 25-2
Weldability of Cast Steels 25-2

Carbon and Low Alloy Steels 25-2
Nickel-Base Alloys 25-3
Wear-Resistant High Austenitic Manganese Steels 25-3
Weld Overlay and Facing 25-3
Welding Processes 25-4

Shielded Metal-Arc Welding, SMAW 25-4
Air Carbon Arc Cutting Process, AAC 25-4
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding, GTAW 25-4
Gas Metal-Arc Welding Process, GMAW 25-5
Flux-Cored Arc Welding, FCAW 25-5
Submerged Arc Welding, SAW 25-5
Electroslag (ESW) and Electro-Gas (EGW) Welding 25-5
Plasma Arc Cutting and Plasma Arc Welding, PAC and PAW 24-5
Power Supply 25-6
Process and Equipment Summary 25-7
Specifications and Standards 25-7

References 25-8

This formula usually is combined with terms that also give an index of
Introduction the hydrogen content and level of restraint in a weld.
Steels having the same carbon equivalent will have approximately
Welding, whether utilized to finish a casting, overlay or buildup, the same weldability and require similar preheating and other pre-
or fabricate several castings into a single component, is an integral cautions. Alloy steels of higher hardenability, for example the cast
and vital part of the casting manufacturing process. One of the items nickel chrome molybdenum, 4300 series, and CA-15 stainless se-
of concern with respect to the welding of steel castings is the ries, require more care and must be preheated in the range of
definitions which can be used. ISO and CEN have developed a set 400-600 °F (204-316 °C). It should be noted that a few of the ASTM
of definitions which are used to describe welding in the production specifications state preheat temperatures which must be employed.
of steel castings. These definitions are: ASTM A217 and ASTM A487 are typical examples. Preheat tem-
Production welding... Any welding carried out during manufac- peratures so specified are on the low side, based on those preheats
turing before final delivery to the purchaser. This includes joint normally used in fabrication of pipe assemblies where stresses
welding of castings and finishing welding. resulting from weld shrinkage and restraint of the assembly must be
Joint welding... Production welding used to weld cast components considered.
together to obtain an integral unit.
Interpass temperature control is required for material thicknesses
Finishing welding... Production welding carried out to ensure the
in excess of 1-1/2 inch and for low alloy steels which are subject to
agreed quality of the casting.
toughness property requirements. The interpass temperature be-
Repair welding... Any welding carried out after delivery to the end
tween weld bead deposits must be maintained within a prescribed
user, i.e., after the casting has been in service.
range to prevent embrittlement of the base metal.
Most of the cast grades are readily weldable, however, the ease
with which they can be welded depends on their chemical composi- Post weld stress relief is as important as weld preheat for castings
tion, heat treatment, and to some degree, the section thickness having a high carbon equivalent. Stress relieving performs a dual
involved. Base metal preparation and details of welding, defect function of reducing the hardness of the HAZ and relieving me-
removal, and some of the problems associated with the various chanical stresses. A hardness differential in a HAZ can result in
classes are covered by two SFSA Handbook Supplements. This cracking if bending stresses are imposed on this area of the weld.
chapter will cover the basics of weldability. Solidification stresses resulting from fabrication welds frequently
result in residual stresses near the yield strength of the material.
Most commonly used welding electrodes have a low carbon
Weldability of Cast Steels content (typically <0.10%). The strength of the weld metal is devel-
oped by adding alloying elements. This low carbon content in the
deposit results in welds which do not readily respond to heat treat-
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels ment. If complete reheat treatment after welding is desired, an
electrode must be utilized having either a much higher alloy content
The weldability of carbon and low alloy steel castings is primarily
dependent upon chemical composition and heat treatment. Carbon than the base metal or a higher carbon content. A typical example is
steels having low manganese and silicon contents (1.60% Mn, the AISI-4340 electrode which deposits approximately 0.38% C and
1.00% Si), and a carbon content below 0.30%, can be welded an alloy roughly equivalent to the base metal. Due to this higher
without any special precautions. When the carbon content exceeds carbon content there is greater weld crack sensitivity while welding;
0.30%, preheating of the casting prior to welding is advisable. The therefore, close adherence to preheat and interpass temperature
low-temperature preheat (250-400 °F, 121-204 °C) reduces the rate recommendations is critical.
at which heat is extracted from the heat affected zone (HAZ) adja- Most welding electrodes are designed to produce the strength
cent to the weld. Preheating helps to relieve mechanical stresses thus indicated by their designation in the as-welded condition. The
preventing underbead weld cracking. Hydrogen, a common focus strength after stress relieving may not always equal the designated
on underbead cracking, is still relatively mobile in hot metal and can minimum strength. Stress relieving is performed by heating the
diffuse away from the last areas to undergo a metallurgical transfor- welded casting or assembly to temperatures ranging from 600 to
mation. Preheating minimizes the chances of a hardening transfor- 1300 °F (316-704 °C), depending on the alloy content and the
mation occurring in the HAZ and thus reduces the hardness adjacent hardness desired. Some of the construction specifications, such as
to the weld. The metallurgical notch, which could result from the the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, state the minimum
hardened area, can be eliminated in this manner. Generally speak- stress-relieving temperature which must be employed.
ing, if the hardness of the HAZ after welding does not exceed 35
HRC or 327 BHN, preheating of the casting for welding is not Corrosion-Resistant High Alloy Steels
required.
Most of the corrosion-resistant stainless steels, such as CF3, CF8,
As additional alloy is added to the steel, the need for preheat CF8M, etc. (approximate cast equivalents of 304L, 304, 316, etc.)
increases. Most of the low alloy steels, such as the cast Chrome are readily weldable, especially if their microstructure contains a
Molybdenum, 8630, 8730, or 4130 steels, require preheating to be small percentage of ferrite. These grades of stainless can become
readily welded. A comparison between the weldability of two steels sensitized and lose their corrosion resistance if subjected to tempera-
may be made by comparing their carbon equivalent, CE. Of the tures above 800 °F (427 °C). Care must be exercised when welding
various formulas which may be utilized, one which appears to be to be certain that the casting or fabricated component is not heated
most useful is: excessively. For this reason, these stainless steels are seldom pre-
heated. For close control of interpass temperature the base metal
%Mn (%Cr + %Mo + %V) (%Cu %Ni + %Si) must be allowed to cool to 300 °F (149 °C), to ensure that the
temperature does not exceed 800 °F (427 °C). Welding performed
on the corrosion-resistant grades may affect the corrosion resistance
of the casting, but for many services, the castings will perform
Another carbon equivalent formula that is widely used was devel- satisfactorily in the as-welded condition. Where severe corrosive
oped by Ito and Bessyo: conditions exist, or where stress corrosion cracking may be a prob-
lem, complete reheat treatment may be required after welding.
Where maximum corrosion resistance is desired, and reheat treat-
„„ „„ %Mn (%Cr + %Cu) %Mo %Ni %Si %V _,„„
ment (solution annealing) cannot be performed, alloying elements
Wettability and Welding 25-3
may be added to form stable carbides. Columbium and titanium are considered. Thermit welding, with its high heat input and its char-
both stabilizing elements, however, titanium is seldom used because acteristically slow cooling rate is generally not used unless austeni-
it oxidizes during the casting operation. The columbium-stabilized tic manganese filler is applied along with subsequent heat treatment.
grade, CF-8C (cast equivalent of wrought type AISI-347) is the Resistance welding is practiced on a commercial basis usually
commonly used cast grade. The stability of the columbium carbides joining small castings to sheet metal. Electroslag and electrogas
prevents the formation of chromium carbides and consequent chro- welding, using specially alloyed manganese steel filler wire, has
mium depletion of the base metal. Grade CF-8C may be welded been perfected for cast-weld construction.
without a subsequent solution anneal. Where heat treatment after For detailed welding guidelines and information on electrodes,
welding is undesirable or impossible, the carbon content should be the reader may consult AWS References. Common welding applica-
below 0.03% as in the CF-3, CF-3M, and CF3MN grades. At this tions are casting finishing, restoration of worn parts by overlaying
low carbon level, the depletion of the chromium due to carbide areas which have worn during service, and in fabrication. Joining
precipitation is so slight that the corrosion resistance of the grade is includes austenitic manganese steel to itself, or to mild and low alloy
unaffected by the welding operation. The addition of nitrogen in the steel. Manganese steel can be shaped for welding by oxy-fuel,
CF3MN grade further retards the carbide precipitation. For a full plasma arc, and arc carbon and thermal cutting processes. The brief
explanation see Chapter 20. application of heat in these applications does not create noticeable
AWS (American Welding Society) stainless steel welding elec- embrittlement. Moderate cold forming is possible in the shop or
trodes are designated "L" (i.e., E-308L, 316L etc.) which specifies field, but heat assistance for forming produces a britde structure and
0.03% maximum carbon content. As the alloy content of the corro- should be avoided. Joint preparation and welding techniques are
sion grades is increased to produce a fully austenitic structure, similar to those described for repair welds.
welding without cracking becomes more difficult. Fully austenitic Dissimilar metals subject to a high degree of expansion and
low carbon grades form microfissures adjacent to the weld. This contraction require careful selection of filler metal. Austenitic man-
tendency toward microfissuring increases as the nickel and silicon ganese steel filler metals containing over 0.025% phosphorus are
content increase and the carbon content decreases. Microfissuring is unsuitable no matter how they are modified. Low phosphorus
most evident in coarse-grained alloys with carbon contents around austenitic manganese steel filler metal can undergo oxy-fuel cutting
0.10% to 0.20% and nickel contents in excess of 13%. The microfis- and is frequently the preferred material for this reason.
suring is reduced by extremely low sulfur contents. Sulfur and other Finishing welding is employed to ensure that the castings are
tramp element levels can be reduced by careful selection of charge supplied to the required quality level. Weld preparations for finish-
materials or refining with such processes as AOD. When welding ing welds can be made by air carbon arc, chipping, or grinding. The
these grades, low interpass temperatures, low heat inputs, and peen- cavity is then inspected visually. This inspection may be supple-
ing of the weld to relieve mechanical stresses are all effective. mented by nondestructive examination methods where appropriate.
Where strength is not a great factor, and the weld is not in an area The cavity is then welded with an electrode or filler wire having the
which will be in contact with the corrosive, an initial weld deposit necessary attributes for'the service condition and property require-
or "buttering of the weld" with type AWS E-308 electrode or ments.
ER-308 weld wire can produce satisfactory results.
In the case of low alloy steel castings, the composition of the weld
Nickel-Base Alloys deposit is usually higher in alloy content than that of the base metal.
This higher alloy content compensates for the lower carbon content
Most nickel-base alloys are weldable provided adequate precau- (0.10%) of the weld metal. Where the analysis of the casting has
tions are taken. The most important variable in the successful weld- been chosen for some desired property, as in the case of the high
ing practice is the base metal composition and the level of tramp alloy grades for corrosion resistance or strength at high temperature,
elements. All nickel-base alloys form low melting eutectics with the alloy composition of the weld metal must be such that it provides
several tramp elements such as lead, tin, silver, bismuth, sulfur, etc. those properties in the weld. Welding performed on a casting used
If these elements are present in the base material, welding is ex- for cryogenic service or other services where low-temperature
tremely difficult. The producers of these alloys take many precau- toughness is required, must have a composition capable of meeting
tions to ensure that these harmful elements are not present. the toughness requirements of the parent casting. Where low alloy
When welding these alloys extreme caution must be taken to steel castings must be reheat treated after welding, electrodes which
ensure that the weld area is clean and dry. A small amount of deposit a higher carbon or have additional alloy content, will ensure
machining oil will cause cracking in the weld or heat effected zone. the weld will match the casting properties after heat treatment.
Since these alloys are used for their corrosion resistance, the weld
The completed finishing weld is visually examined when castings
rod composition should match the base metal. To impart maximum
corrosion resistance to the Ni-Cr-Mo and Ni-Mo alloys a solution are purchased to visual standards only. When nondestructive testing
anneal heat treatment should be performed after welding. is specified for castings, the completed weld is examined in the same
manner. This testing may include radiography when specified.
Heat-Resistant High Alloy Steels
The heat-resisting grades are also subject to microfissuring in
heavy sections, but to a lesser extent than the high nickel, lower
Weld Overlay and Facing
carbon corrosion grades. The same precautions, low heat input, low Surface properties vastly different from those of the main struc-
interpass temperature, and weld peening, used for the high alloy ture can be obtained by weld overlays. For example, where extreme
corrosion grades, should also be applied. abrasion resistance is required, in conjunction with toughness of the
main structure, that combination of properties may be obtained
Wear-Resistant Austenitic Manganese through the application of hard facing to the surface of steel cast-
Steels ings. The hard facing may be deposited through the use of the
Arc welding is recommended for manganese steel (3). Since manual shielded metal-arc or, if production warrants, through one of
prolonged reheating of toughened austenitic manganese steel results the automated welding processes. The same technique may also be
in rapid loss of tensile strength and ductility, any welding process used to impart corrosion resistance by overlaying with a corrosion-
that requires related long periods of heating is not advisable, and resistant material. Current welding processes used for automated
preheating should be avoided. For this reason, oxy-acetylene weld- overlay are submerged arc, gas metal arc, gas tungsten arc, plasma
ing is not recommended. There are other welding processes to be arc, plasma powder spray, thermal spray, oxy-fuel metallizing, elec-
Fig. 25-1 Air carbon

arc process (1)
STICKOUT 7
i ELECTRODE
TORCH HEADS (+)

DCEP ON DC
ALWAYS UNDER THE ELECTRODE
WORKPIECE (-
tron beam, resistance brazing, induction brazing, and laser welding. The shielded metal-arc process (stick welding) has many advan-
When using an arc welding process or any process which results in tages. Since coated electrodes are available in a variety of sizes, the
a homogeneous structure, a multipass weld procedure is required for process is suitable for welds ranging from small repair welds to
highest deposit integrity. The first pass will be diluted by the mix of cast-weld construction and fabrication. Because the electrodes can
the base material. The second pass will have a minimum trace of the be produced with a low hydrogen coating, the danger of cracking or
base casting and the third pass should be clear hardface or overlay porosity due to hydrogen pickup is minimized. The electrodes are
material. In the case of castings which handle highly corrosive suitable for both alternating and direct current operation. In many
media, the overlay is usually one of the corrosion-resistant stainless cases, the same welding power source is coupled to a carbon-arc
grades. A reverse of this application is found in vessels or pots used torch for both, SMAW and for defect removal. Shielded metal-arc
to hold molten lead for tempering strip steel. The pots, in this electrodes are available in most of the more commonly used alloys.
instance, require high strength at high temperatures, plus oxidation While standard commercial coatings are normally extruded to the
resistance to an impinging flame. Unfortunately, the corrosion-resis- core rod, small quantities of a special analysis may be produced with
tant and heat-resistant stainless grades cannot resist the attack of coatings applied by dipping, permitting additional alloys to be
molten lead, therefore, the pots are commonly cast in a heat-resist- added to the coatings to meet special requirements.
ing steel (HH grade) and lined with a low carbon steel overlay.
Among the varied hard surfacing and overlay applications used on Air Carbon Arc Cutting Process, AAC
steel castings are surfacing and resurfacing of pulverizing rolls, The AAC is a cutting gouging process which requires similar
earth-moving equipment, repair of highway equipment, mining and
equipment to shielded metal-arc welding. A primary DC constant
drilling augers, pressure vessel and valve cladding and hopper and
current or a constant voltage power supply is the electrical source
track reclamation.
and is used in conjunction with an electrode holder which is
equipped with a concentric cable combining electric arc power and
compressed air (>90 psi). The specially designed insulated welding
Cast-Weld Construction electrode holder, commonly referred to as a torch, is used for manual
AAC work to channel a high flow of compressed air to the arc and
Weldability considerations for cast-weld construction are the to hold the carbon electrode. A carbon electrode is inserted in the
same as in casting upgrading and fabrication welding. Examples of jaws of the electrode holder and air flows through a constricted
cast-weld construction, the welding together of two or more castings orifice directed in line with the carbon rod. An arc is established
or wrought parts to form a single component, are illustrated in between the carbon rod and the workpiece which melts the base
Chapter 11. metal. The compressed air stream blows the molten metal away thus
making a cut or a gouge. Steel foundries use this process extensively
for defect removal, pad washing, and cutting off gates and risers.
Welding Processes 3/8,1/2, 5/8, and 3/4 in. diameter copper clad carbon electrodes are
those most commonly used for foundry work. This inexpensive
highly efficient metal removal process is also used as a general tool
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding, SMAW throughout the welding industry for weld joint preparation, back
Castings can be welded by any of the processes used to weld other gouging in fuel tank and pressure vessel fabrication, and weld defect
product forms. While early electrodes depended on a gas shield removal. The process has been adapted to semiautomatic and auto-
generated by the combustion of a cellulose coating on the electrode, matic machine operations. See Figure 25-1 for an illustration of the
problems with hydrogen and gas pickup resulted in their replace- arc process.
ment by the low hydrogen electrode. A welding electrode coating is
designated "Low Hydrogen" when the manufacturer maintains a Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding, GTAW
moisture content of 5% or less by volume. The low hydrogen For stainless and high alloy castings, the gas tungsten-arc weld-
electrode is now used almost exclusively for casting repair in the ing, which utilizes a nonconsumable tungsten electrode with a
shielded metal-arc process, often referred to as "stick" welding. helium, argon, or helium argon mix gas shielding, is a suitable
Weldability and Welding 25-5
Fig. 25-2 Elements of the gas tungsten-arc process. If filler metal

Is required, It Is fed Into the pool from a separate filler rod (2).
Fig. 25-3 Elements of the metal-arc process. Continuous

process. The metal is melted by an arc struck between the tungsten solid-wire electrode is fed to the gas-shielded arc (2).
electrode and the base metal. A bare wire filler metal is added to the
molten weld pool in a similar manner to oxy-fuel gas welding
(Figure 25-2). The advantage of the GTAW process is the availabil-
ity of filler metal for stainless and high alloys. While many of the
common alloys are available in bare wire form, variations in alloy
content, or exotic alloys, may not always be available. Electrodes occurs in the SMAW process. The FCAW process is often auto-
may be cast in shell or permanent molds using the metal from the mated and interfaces well with a welding robot.
heat from which the castings were poured. Since there is practically
no loss of alloy in the GTAW welding process, an exact match with Submerged Arc Welding, SAW
the base metal may be obtained. Because of the relatively slow Submerged arc welding can be either a semiautomatic or an
deposition rate and the high cost of the shielding gases, the process automatic process. In submerged arc welding, a granular flux is
is confined primarily to the stainless foundry, or, in the case of deposited onto the base metal to encapsulate the weld pool. The
fabrication, to the production of root passes. electrode is fed from a spool at a controlled rate into the granular
flux cover; excess flux may be picked up and reused (Figures 25-5
Gas Metal-Arc Welding Process, GMAW and 25-6). Submerged arc welding is limited to the repair of very
The gas metal-arc welding process uses a continuously fed, bare large castings. Its primary use is in fabrication welding where the
consumable electrode wire shielded with carbon dioxide (CO2), weld preparation can be set up in the flat position, or where the
argon/C02 gas combination, and often with a low percentage addi- assembly can be rotated on a positioning device maintaining a flat
tion of oxygen and or helium addition (Figure 25-3). Semiautomatic position. The submerged arc process has a high deposition rate;
equipment is shown in Figure 25-4. Since flux is not used, the welds therefore, it is well suited for hardfacing and overlay applications.
produced by the process are free from slag inclusions. The process
lends itself to automatic and robotic welding. High deposition rates Electroslag (ESW) and Electro-Gas (EGW)
are possible though care must be exercised not to overheat thin Welding
sections. Since there is a tendency for the gas shield to be upset by
heavy air currents, gas metal-arc welding has been replaced to some Electroslag welding is used primarily for cast-weld fabrication.
extent by flux-cored arc welding. The process uses an automatically fed electrode or electrodes fused
by heat generated in a conductive slag. Since water-cooled, fitted
Flux-Cored Arc Welding, FCAW shoes are required, welding is confined to relatively simple shapes
in the vertical-up position. Welds are of very high quality with high
In the flux-cored arc welding process, the continuously fed elec-
deposition rates. Electro-gas welding is similar except a shielding
trode is actually a metal tube containing powdered metal, flux, and
gas media is used in lieu of a granular flux.
slag-forming materials. For most flux-cored welding in the foundry,
a gas shield supplements the protection provided by the flux. The
flux-cored process provides deep penetration, rapid deposition
rates, and elimination of stub loss. The slag cover over the weld bead Plasma Arc Cutting and Plasma
must be removed between welds in multipass welding. This flux Arc Welding, PAC and PAW
cover is not present in the gas metal-arc process. The advantage of
FCAW over the shielded metal-arc process is that the flux is con- Plasma arc cutting is a method of cutting metals with a combina-
tained within the electrode and, therefore, less affected by moisture. tion of an electric arc and an industrial gas or compressed air. The
Additionally, the flux does not spall off with high heat inputs as gas flows at high velocity through a constricted nozzle orifice where
SHIELDING GAS
REGULATOR
ELECTROOE FEED UNIT SHIELDING

GAS SUPPLY
WORKPIECE
Q) WORK LEAD (§) CABLE ASSEMBLY

(3) WATER TO GUN (7) SHIELDING GAS FROM CYLINDER
(3) WATER FROM GUN (§) WELDING CONTACTOR CONTROL
(4) GUN SWITCH CIRCUT © POWER CABLE
(D SHIELDING GAS TO GUN @ PRIMARY INPUT POWER
Fig. 25-4 GMAW and FCAW semiautomatic welding system
TRAVEL secondary gas enhances the ability to pierce the base material
^-ELECTRODE section and increases the life of consumable parts in the plasma arc
FEEDS DOWN TO ARC torch (Figure 25-7). Plasma arc cutting will cut all metals and can
AIR be used as a gouging process and for beveling preparation of weld
joints. It is a good process for high quality clean cutting of carbon
and low alloy steels, stainless steel, and other high alloys, alumi-
num, magnesium and other nonferrous alloys, but does have thick-
/ vSMOLTEN FLUX AND
1
' WWELD METAL ness restrictions. Plasma arc welding resembles gas tungsten arc
welding, in that there is a high frequency induced transferred arc
between a tungsten electrode (within a welding torch) and the
workpiece. The difference is that the arc is constricted by a nozzle
orifice, and the shielding gas is also a plasma gas swirled at high
velocity similar to plasma arc cutting. The plasma arc is "pinched"
so that it has a straight stream for high arc concentration. The
shielding gas is usually argon, argon/hydrogen, helium, helium
argon mix, helium/hydrogen, or argon/helium/hydrogen mix. Other
gas mixtures have been used on specific or experimental basis. The
Fig. 25-5 Elements of the submerged arc process. The arc and
advantage of plasma arc welding is greater energy concentration,
the molten weld metal are buried in the layer of flux, which protects
the weld metal from contamination and concentrates the heat into
high arc stability, higher heat enthalpy, and potentially high travel
the joint. The molten flux rises through the pool, deoxidizing and speeds. Another form of plasma arc welding utilizes a non-trans-
cleansing the molten metal, and forms a protective slag over the ferred arc where the arc circuit is established between the constrict-
newly deposited weld (2). ing orifice and the tungsten electrode within the welding torch. In
this case the workpiece is not part of the plasma arc secondary
circuit. Non-transferred arcs are useful in hardfacing, powder coat-
ing, and cladding operations. All plasma arc cutting and welding
processes work well in automated and robotic installations. See
it is ionized by the arc. The ionized gas is emitted at a high tempera- Figure 25-8 for illustrations of plasma arc welding transferred and
ture (20-30,000 °F) creating a high speed plasma stream through the non-transferred arc operation.
constricted nozzle. This develops high heat and high velocity which
melts the base metal and literally blows the molten metal away. The Power Supply
gas may be nitrogen, nitrogen/hydrogen, argon/hydrogen, or com- Two basic welding power supplies are used in steel foundries.
pressed air dependent upon the type and thickness of metal to be cut. They are direct current constant current (DC-CC) and direct current
Some plasma arc cutting equipment uses a secondary shielding constant voltage (DC-CV) or often called constant potential
gas in addition to the primary "plasma" gas to assist in molten metal (DCCP). Constant current, amperage adjustable, is used extensively
removal. This secondary gas may be CO2, oxygen, or argon. The for the SMAW, AAC, GTAW, plasma arc, and sometimes with
Wettability and Welding 25-7
ELECTRODE GUIDE TUBE

ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE ^KTJ /ORIFICE GAS
II
M O L T E N SLAG
MOLTEN
WELD
METAL WATER-COOLED CONSTRICTING
COPPER SHOES NOZZLE
SOLIDIFIED PLENUM
WATER OUT
WELD METAL ELECTRODE
SETBACK
ORIFICE THROAT
WATER IN LENGTH CONSTRICTING
ORIFICE
TORCH DIAMETER
STANDOFF JTJ
BASE
METAL
DISTANCE *"—i
^ ^ ^0
Fig. 25-7 Plasma arc torch (1)
Fig. 25-6 Elements of the electroslag welding process. An

electrode is fed automatically into the weld zone where it is melted
(fused) by heat generated in a conductive slag (2). CONSTRICTING NOZZLE
.ORIFICE G A S ,
submerged arc welding. Constant voltage is preferred for GMAW,

FCAW, ESW, EGW, and is also used extensively in AAC.
A constant voltage power supply, or multiples thereof, are also
used for multiple operator systems. More recent installations can
have a central welding power network so as to accommodate a
combination of the three most basic foundry weld processes,
SMAW, FCAW, and AAC. Mechanized wire feed systems are usu-
ally independent DC variable speed drives working in conjunction
with a semiautomatic welding gun (arc torch) with wire pulling from
a spool on reel and pushed through the welding gun conduit. These
wire feeders may be interfaced with a power supply and are de- TRANSFERRED NONTRANSFERRED
signed for semiautomatic, automatic, and robot installations for all
processes requiring filler wire addition. Fig. 25-8 Transferred and nontransferred arc modes (1)
Process and Equipment

Summary procedures and welders be qualified to produce the grades covered.
It is the intention of the ASTM Subcommittee responsible for this
In most cases the choice of the welding process can be based document to keep its provisions identical to those of the American
strictly on economics. All of the processes described are capable of Society for Mechanical Engineers Standards, Section LX, Welding
making satisfactory welds provided that qualified procedures are and Brazing, but at the present time, the ASME Code does not
used by qualified welders. Procedures must conform to recognized accept qualification under A488 for many grades.
standards and specifications. Because of this restriction, a foundry which produces castings to
Detailed information on the welding processes covered in this ASTM specifications such as A216, A217, A352, etc. subject to the
Handbook are further detailed in Volume 1 of the American Welding jurisdiction of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, must
Society Welding Handbook. qualify welders to Section IX of that code. The document, entitled
"Welding and Brazing Qualifications" is covered under Section DC
of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (ANSI/ASME
Specifications and Standards BPVIX). Qualification under ASME Section K is also acceptable
under ASTM A488 and the military standard MIL-STD-00248B
Specifications governing the welding of castings encompass the (Ships). Therefore, it is common practice for a foundry to qualify
qualification of procedures, welders and operators, automatic equip- according to the provisions of Section K , rather than to A488 of
ment, and consumables. The standard Recommended Practice for ASTM. While Section IX was originally designed strictly for fabri-
Qualification of Procedures and Personnel for the Welding of Steel cation welding, the weld test plates are identical to those in ASTM
Castings, ASTM A488, is the document referenced by ASTM and and the military standard. These test plates adequately simulate the
ASME specifications, especially those applying to alloys for struc- restraint encountered in casting repair.
tural castings and materials for use in pressure vessels. Referencing Section LX is divided into two sections. The first section covers
A488 in those documents makes it mandatory that the foundry weld the qualification of procedures. Briefly, it provides for a procedure
to be written that covers the details of the welding operation, The military standard, MIL-S-00248, entitled "Welding and Braz-
including the base material, electrode composition, deposition tech- ing Procedure and Performance Qualification," is written along
niques, voltages, amperages, and other parameters. This written lines similar to ASME Section IX, and provides that "qualification
procedure must be qualified by welding a plate and testing the procedures prepared for other government agencies, American Bu-
strength and ductility of the weld and parent metal. The toughness reau of Shipping (ABS) or American Society of Mechanical Engi-
of the weld, the heat affected zone, and the parent metal must be neers (ASME) may be used provided certified data meet the require-
tested if the material specification calls for impact testing. The ments of this standard. The details of the Section IX qualification
thickness of the plate is usually one-half the thickness of the plate to should be submitted for approval as required in Paragraph 4.2.3." If
be welded, but where welds are completely reheat treated after welding, subject to MIL-S-00248B is contemplated, then the provi-
welding, a thicker plate is required. For procedure qualification, sions of that standard should be studied carefully and qualifications
materials are separated into P number groups which may be of performed in such a manner as to satisfy the requirements of both
varying chemical compositions, but with similar weldability charac- Section IX and the military document.
teristics. Qualification of one material in a P number group normally The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the
qualifies for all materials listed under that particular P number American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and the mili-
group, though separate written procedures are required for each tary all have electrode specifications which coincide with the Ameri-
material. can Welding Society. Each of the specifications cover the analysis
The second section of ASME Section IX provides for qualifica- and mechanical properties of the electrodes and tests which must be
tion of the performance of a welder or welding machine operator. made by the manufacturer for product qualification. Electrodes and
The qualification test is designed to prove the ability of the welder filler wire are classified by a numbering system which designates
to use the foundry's procedures. Section IX specifies under which composition and the strength that will be produced in the as-welded
condition.
circumstances a welder must qualify. In general, the qualification
requirement is intended to prove the ability of the welder to weld
with a given electrode type rather than with a given material. A
REFERENCES
qualification test made with one material may qualify a welder for a
number of materials whose electrodes have similar welding charac- 1. Welding Handbook, Vol 2, 8th ed., p 334,483,489
teristics. For example, qualification to weld carbon steel qualifies 2. The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, 12th ed., The Lincoln
the welder to weld materials up to 6% total alloy content using Electric Co., Cleveland, OH, June 1973
electrodes of a similar type. A written record of the welder's per- 3. Welding Handbook, 6th ed., "Metals and Their Weldability,"
formance must be available for the purchaser of castings. American Welding Society, 1972

CHAPTER 26
Machinability
Definitions and Criteria 26-2
Factors of Machinability 26-2
Machining of Steel Castings 26-2

Microstructure Effects 26-3
Hardness and Strength Effects 26-4
Turning 26-4
Face Milling and Drilling 26-5
Casting Surface Effects 26-5
Weld Area Effects 26-6
Summary of Machining Factors 26-7
Machining Practices 26-8

Tool Life 26-8
Determination of Tool Life 26-8
Selection of Speed, Feed, and Depth of Cut 26-9
References 26-9

Carbon varies in its effect on machinability. Very low carbon

Definitions and Criteria steels, with less than 0.10% C, are difficult to machine because they
are very ductile and tough. Material build-up at the tool therefore
Machinability is a term used to indicate the relative ease with occurs and the surface exhibits a gouged and torn appearance.
which a material is shaped by cutting tools in operations such as
Above a carbon content of 0.30%, on the other hand, the cutting
turning, drilling, milling, broaching, threading, reaming, sawing, or
qualities of steel decrease due to increased hardness. The effect of
grinding. The machining operation includes efficient metal removal
manganese on machinability depends on the total carbon and sulfur
in roughing operations as well as high accuracy and good finish
content. The amount of manganese added to the steel is usually more
during final machining.
than that required to combine with the sulfur. This precludes the
Machinability involves tool performance, surface finish, machine
formation of harmful iron sulfides. Manganese in excess of these
speeds, feed and depth of cut, design of cutting tool, cutting fluid,
requirements increases hardenability and strength, and thus moder-
and the quality, composition, hardness, and microstructure of the
ately reduces machinability.
steel. Machinability may be evaluated commercially by several
criteria: tool performance as represented by tool life under given In general, the alloying elements which increase the hardenability
conditions; the speed at which the material can be cut under different and toughness of the steel decrease its machinability. However,
conditions, while maintaining a given tool life; the force, energy, or molybdenum, chromium, or vanadium, all carbide formers, de-
power required; and the surface finish produced, or the dimensional crease machinability to a lesser degree, when present in the amounts
accuracy maintained, among like pieces under given conditions. typical for low alloy steels, than the alloying elements nickel and
Values of machinability are comparative and usually only represent manganese which form solid solutions.
the behavior of the material under the given conditions. Whatever
the criteria, the most important consideration is economical metal
removal. Machining of Steel Castings
Many steel castings require a certain amount of machining before
Factors of Machinability they are incorporated in equipment or machinery. The amount and
type of machining will vary from the drilling of a few holes to
The factors affecting machinability are as follows: complete machining of all surfaces to specified tolerances. The
machining of as little as 25% of the total surface of a steel casting
1. The material being cut, including its composition, microstruc- will in many cases result in a machining cost about equal to the
ture, hardness, shape, and size casting cost.
2. The cutting speed and size, shape, and depth of cut Carbon and low alloy steel castings are often supplied in the
3. The cutting tool, including its material, treatment, shape, size, normalized condition. This is not necessarily the heat treatment
surface quality, and condition which produces best machining properties. Heat treatment specifi-
4. The condition of the machine tools on which the cutting is done cally for machinability may be justified only when the production
5. Rigidity of the tool and work-holding device requirements are large enough, and the tool and time savings more
6. Characteristics of the cutting fluid used and its cooling properties than offset the additional cost of subsequent heat treating. Strength
and property requirements of the casting outweigh machinability
Actual machining experience, correlated with metallurgical data, considerations in most cases. For example, castings requiring high
have resulted in much information on the fundamental factors which toughness and strength are typically quenched and tempered which
affect the machining of steel. However, factors which are confined produces a microstructure that does not give the best machining
to the mechanics of the cutting operation itself are not generally properties.
within the scope of this chapter; only certain examples will be given Low alloy steel castings which must be finish machined in the
to illustrate particular machining characteristics and requirements. fully hardened condition are sometimes first normalized to obtain a
The factors that will be considered in detail are metallurgical in
suitable microstructure for good machinability. After rough machin-
character and those inherent in cast steel. Many of the factors are
ing they are then hardened by quenching and tempering. Only a
also applicable to wrought steel.
small amount of metal removal may be required in the last machin-
The chemical composition of a steel has a major influence on the
ing operation, depending on tolerance requirements after heat treat-
machinability of the steel, since composition affects the properties
ment has been completed. As pointed out in Chapter 24, "growth"
and the structure of the steel.
due to volume expansion does occur in the hardening operation by
Elements which form inclusions that are hard or abrasive, such as
quenching and tempering, and must be compensated for in the
alumina or silica, or those which dissolve in ferrite, have deleterious
machining operations.
effects on the machinability of steel. Conversely, elements which
form relatively soft inclusions can have a beneficial effect because The risk of distortion and cracking upon quenching a machined
they influence chip size and because they may act as a lubricant component is avoided with age-hardenable steels. These steels are
during machining. quenched to produce a relatively soft condition, machined, and
Additions of sulfur, lead, selenium, or tellurium are known to be subsequently aged to the desired hardness and strength levels.
capable of improving machinability and can be used in the manu- Austenitic stainless Cr-Ni grades, such as CF-8, CF-8M, and
facture of free-machining steel. Castings, however, are rarely, if CN-7M, are machined in the solution treated and quenched condi-
ever, produced from free-machining steel because unlike free-mation. Heat treating at intermediate temperatures of 1000-1600 °F
chining wrought stock, produced for ease of machining miscellane- (538-877 °C) does not improve machinability, as in the case of some
ous components, castings of steel are manufactured for a specific carbon and low alloy steels. Instead, such heat treating will destroy
end use, with a specific shape to reduce the amount of machining the corrosion resistance of the stainless steels without benefitting
required. In addition, the elements which must be added to create machinability.
free-machining characteristics are harmful to the mechanical prop- For high carbon heat-resistant high alloy steels, such as the HK-40
erties, the corrosion resistance, weldability, and casting charac- grade, improved machinability is sometimes reported for various
teristics. Free-machining cast steels should therefore be considered high-temperature treatments. Such heat treatments, however, may
only when the gains in machinability clearly outweigh the other alter the carbide distribution and are then likely to reduce the creep
numerous disadvantages. life at elevated temperatures in service.
Machinability 26-3
Cutting speed - m/min.

Fig. 26-1 Cutting speed for
one-hour tool life vs. Brinell 10 20 30 40 50
hardness for cast carbon I I I I I 1 1 1 1
and low alloy steels o— _ 4340 QT
400 400 BHN
A Annealed
375 N Normalized
NA Normalized and annealed
NN Double normalized
350 -
NT Normalized and tempered
NS Normalized and spheroidized
325
NOQ Normalized and oil quenched
QT Quenched and tempered
300 - .o
i
CQ
I 275 —
CO
CO
CD 4340 QT
c 250 300 BHN
T3
\ o 8630 N N . . 4340 NS
225 > \ 1 0 4 0 N 0 C > X C ^ - 8430 NT - 1200 °F
-""^X. / 8430 NT - 1275 °F
m 200 4340 NA O v °*ST 7^/1040N
1330 N ° . / O ^ V o r - 1 °40 NN
>v4130N ^<sP ^s^-1040NA
175 _ \ p\ s 4 o
13 0A ^c^8630 A ^ \ ^ ^
150 — ^ 1330 N r V ^ ^ ^ ^
^ N . ° ^ \ 1020 A
125 \ ^ 1 0 2 0 N ^ \ p
100 I I I I 1 1 1 i i r ^ i i ^ ^
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Cutting speed - fpm
90
Microstructure Effects 0.30 % carbon cast steel
The machinability of cast steel depends not only on its chemical • 0.40 % carbon cast steel
composition, toughness, and hardness, but also on its microstructure
Cast 4150 resul. steel
(U).
Ferrite, which is typically present in as-cast carbon and low alloy
steel, is a soft, ductile material, which is easily cut with little tool Cast 4140
wear. Free ferrite is readily sheared from the steel during machining
and tends to build up on a tool causing poor machinability and poor
surface finish.
Lamellar pearlite, consisting of alternate layers of ferrite and iron
carbide plates, is a desirable structure from the standpoint of ma-
chinability. This structure is quite rigid, since the soft ferrite layers
prevent the hard carbide plates from breaking, while the iron carbide 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
plates prevent the ferrite layers from deforming. Best machinability Brinell hardness - BHN
of carbon and low alloy steels is obtained when the ideal ratio of
ferrite to pearlite is 60:40. Fig. 26-2 Relative machinability vs. hardness for several cast
Grain size has a significant effect on the machinability of steel. It steels using carbide tools
is generally agreed that some improvement in machining occurs
with large grain size. A fine grain size produces excellent surface
finish, but reduces tool life. In medium carbon steels, these finer
grain steels develop more heat in machining which leads to more
frequent tool changes and a subsequent decrease in production manganese and nickel tend to be more difficult to machine than
occurs. plain carbon steels.
Low alloy steel castings may be produced with fine, medium, or Quenched and tempered carbon and low alloy steels develop their
coarse grain size, with a variety of microstructures, and various best machinability by obtaining a fully tempered martensitic struc-
degrees of hardness depending on the heat treatment employed and ture, free of retained austenite. Bainitic structures are usually diffi-
the properties required. These steels are generally more difficult to cult to machine.
machine than carbon steel castings because of their greater hardness. Martensitic stainless steels, such as the grades CA-15 and CA-40,
Alloying elements that form solid solutions strengthen the ferrite. have a machinability similar to low alloy steels of comparable
Therefore, low alloy steel castings alloyed with such elements as hardness and carbon content.
Table 26-1 Chemical Analysis

Alloy Mn Si Cr Mo Ni Cu Al
0.27% C 0.27 0.86 0.46 0.014 0.013 0.08 0.05 0.18 0.030
0.3%,MnCrMo 0.30 1.39 0.64 0.015 0.013 0.44 0.15 0.12 0.047
4135 0.36 1.19 0.43 0.021 0.014 0.89 0.19 0.08 0.07 0.095
4330 0.30 0.59 0.51 0.013 0.031 0.900 0.400 1.90 0.11 0.04
Table 26-2 Heat Treatment CUTTING SPEED -m/min.

250 300 350
Hardness T—
Alloy range BHN Heat treatment 380
27% C 170-179 Normalized at 1700 °F for three hours
159 No temper
Tempered at 1250 °F for three hours 340
30% 228 Normalized at 1700 °F for three hours
MnCrMoC 286 Tempered at 1225 °F for three hours
321 Tempered at 1100 °F for three hours #300 -
Tempered at 1000 °F for three hours • 1350T
Z
4135 214 Normalized at 1675 °F for three hours, air cooled
Tempered at 1200 °F o \o
4135 223 Normalized at 1675 °F for three hours, oil $260 CMnCrMo
283 quenched X Ô CMnCrMo QT
312 Tempered at 1300 °F for four hours 4330 NT
Z220|- O 413§NTOU-n*i«
Tempered at 1000 °F for four hours
CMnCrMo NT
Tempered at 800 °F for four hours E
4130 228 Normalized at 1650 °F for two hours, air cooled
Tempered at 1250 °F for two hours CD
235-241 Normalized at 1550 °F for two hours, oil quenched
180 r-
269 Tempered at 1275 °F for two hours
311-340 Tempered at 1200 °F for two hours I I I I I I I
Tempered at 1075 °F for two hours
700 BOO 900 1000 1100 1200
CUTTING SPEED-fpm
Table 26-3 Tool Life for Face Milling of 0.27C and Fig. 26-3 Correlation of 10 minuted tool life during face milling
MnCrMo Cast Steel (6) with hardness for various cast steel alloys
Cutting Tool Tool life • inches of Tool life,

speed, ft/min grade work travel minutes
(0.27 % C) N (170-179 BHN)

1100 518 972 15.5 Austenitic Cr-Ni stainless, such as the CF-8, CF-8M, and CN-7M
1200 518 636 9.3 grades, and Ni-base alloy castings exhibit coarse grains which
1400 518 108 1.3
adversely influence surface finish. These materials work harden
(0.27% C) NT (159 BHN) rapidly if cutting tools are allowed to rub or scrape the surface. The
1200 KC850 1020 14.9 tool must therefore continually enter the metal. Reheat treatment to
1400 KC850 504 6.3 eliminate the work-hardened condition is possible by employing the
1200 518 846 12.4 standard solution treatment and quench for these grades. Heat treat-
1400 518 336 12.4
ing at intermediate temperatures used for carbon and low alloy steels
(0.3% C) MnCrMo NT (225 BHN) is not applicable to these austenitic grades and usually leads to
800 570 1212 26.6 reduced service life.
1000 570 444 7.6
1200 570 252 3.7
Hardness and Strength Effects
(0.3 % C) MnCrMo QT (248 BHN)
Hardness alone is not an absolute criterion for predicting tool life
800 570 1332 29.2
1000 570 528 9.3
in the cutting of cast steels, because such items as composition,
1200 570 240 3.5 microstructure, and mechanical factors which have a bearing on
machinability are not always reflected in the Brinell hardness test.
(0.3% C) MnCrMo QT (286 BHN)
However, Brinell hardness may be regarded as a rough index of
700 570 1344 33.7 machining properties and a Brinell range from 170 to 229 usually
800 570 744 16.3
1000 570 288 5.0
gives the most satisfactory machining conditions for carbon and low
alloy cast steels.
(0.3% C) MnCrMo QT (321 BHN)
650 570 900 24.3
800 570 600
Turning
13.1
1000 570 228 4 Figure 26-1 is a plot of cutting speed for one-hour tool life versus
the Brinell hardness of cast steels. The plot indicates a wide range
4 in. diameter face mill with 6 teeth, SNG-433 insert. Feed: 0.010 in./tooth. correlation. For example, at a hardness range of 175 to 200 BHN,
Depth of cut: 0.100 in. Width of cut: 2 n. Cutting fluid: Dry
the cutting speed for one-hour tool life varies from 75 to 140 surface
Machinability 26-5
feet per minute (3.8 to 7.1 m/s). The plot indicates decreased cutting
speed for one-hour tool life as the hardness increases.
Table 26-4 Tool Life for Face Milling of 4135 and
The relative machinability decreases as hardness increases, as
4300 Cast Steel (6)
shown in Figure 26-2. The improvement in machinability with Cutting Tool Tool life • inches of Tool life,
resulfurized alloy cast steel is also shown. speed, ft/min grade work travel minutes
Face Milling and Drilling 4135 NT (229 BHN)

The results of a study of the machining characteristics of four cast 1000 570 972 13.9
steel alloys in face milling and drilling operations are summarized 1200 570 480 7.0
here in Table 26-1, along with the chemical composition. The heat 1400 570 240 3.0
treatments employed in this study were developed to give a range of 4135 QT (225 BHN)
hardness in each of the alloys tested (Table 26-2). The as-cast 1000 570 972 17.0
surface of the material was removed before testing. 1200 570 600 8.8
The face milling tests were performed on a No. 5 Cincinnati High 1400 570 420 5.3
Power Dial Type milling machine. This milling machine is equipped 4135 QT (302 BHN)
with a 40 HP variable speed DC motor. 600 570 996 29.1
The tools used for the face milling tests were SNG-433 coated 800 570 565 12.4
carbide inserts. The grades used were Carboloy 518, 545, and 570 1000 570 240 4.2
and Kennametal KC-850. The face mill used was a Valenite 4 in.
4135 QT (363 BHN)
diameter face mill with the following geometry:
600 570 912 26.7
800 570 420 9.2
• Axial Rake:-5° ECAE: 45°
1000 570 168 2.9
• Radial Rake: -5° Peripheral Clearance: 5°
• Corner Angle: 45° End Clearance: 5° 4330 NT (225 BHN)
1200 570 960 14.0
The inserts were used until 0.015 in. uniform or 0.030 in. localized wear 1400 570 432 5.4
developed on the side cutting edge. 4330 QT (235 BHN)
The results for face milling are given in Tables 26-3 and 26-4. The 1000 570 972 17.0
effect of hardness on cutting speed for turning is shown in Figure 1200 570 504 7.4
26-1; this trend is repeated for face milling, Figure 26.3. This figure 1400 570 252 3.2
represents the cutting speed used for a 10 minute tool life. The 4330 WT (275 BHN)
beneficial effects of sulfur on machinability are demonstrated by the 900 570 924 18.0
results on the 4330 cast material. The test pieces were machined in 1000 570 744 13.0
the normalized and tempered condition and had sulfur levels of 1200 570 360 5.3
0.013% and 0.031%. However, sulfur has a detrimental effect on
4330 QT (325 BHN)
mechanical properties, especially toughness. The machinability of
both cast and wrought steels becomes less as the sulfur level is 800 570 936 20.5
1000 570 480 8.4
lowered.
1200 570 228 3.3
The drilling tests were performed on a No. 2 BMA Avey drill press
equipped with a variable speed drive motor control. 4 in. diameter face mill with 6 teeth, SNG-433 insert. Feed: 0.010 in./tooth.
The drills used were high speed steel 1/4 in. diameter screw Depth of cut: 0.100 in. Width of cut: 2 in. Cutting fluid: Dry
machine length. The drills had the following geometry:
• Point Angle: 118° Clearance: 12°

• Helix Angle: 29° Point Type: Plain
These drills were used until 0.015 in. wear developed on the corner of
the cutting edge. The results of the drilling tests are given in Table 26-5.
Table 26-5 Tool Life for Drilling of Cast Steel
Casting Surface Effects
The casting surface or "skin" may contain scale and oxides. The Tool life—minute
Cutting 0.27% C 4135 4330 03% C
surface scale resulting from heat treatment has a detrimental effect
speed, ft/min steel steel steel MnCrMo
on machinability and must always be removed by abrasive blasting
prior to any machining operation. 150 0.98
Early studies on the machinability of cast steel indicated that, for 125 1.6
a skin cut, the machining operations should be performed at ap- 100 3.4 0.5 0.4
proximately one-half the cutting speed recommended for the base 75 6.2 9.7 4.2 1.4
metal in order to obtain equivalent tool life. In Figure 26-4 the 60 9.2 0.005 in. wear at 17.5 4.1
"solid" lines on the tool life graph indicate the results obtained in 300 holes 27.3
50 0.008 in. wear at 6.2
machining the casting skin. The machinability of the surface of cast
255 holes 27.8
steels that are free from scale is similar to that of the base metal. This 40 9.3
is illustrated in Figure 26-5 and Figure 26-6, in which tool life is 30 13.1
plotted against cutting speeds. In both of these figures, it can be 20 25.1
observed that the curves for skin cut and for the base metal cut
overlap each other. Drilling: High speed steel V4 in. diameter, screw machine length. Geometry:
Results from milling studies on the machinability of the casting Point angle, 118 ; Clearance angle, 12; Helix angle, 29°; Point type, Plain.
Feed: 0.006 in./rev. Depth of hole, V2 in. Cutting fluid: Soluble oil (1:20)
skin for both high-speed steel and carbide tools are illustrated in
CUTTING SPEED-m/min. CUTTING SPEED-m/mln

40 50 60 70 60 90 30 40 50
1 1 r- T- 60 1 1 1 — 1 " l
MATERIAL: CAST STEEL
TOOL : H S S ( 1 8 - 4 - 1 ) X
FEED : 0 . 0 0 5 i n . / TOOTH
OEPTH OF CUT : 0 . 1 2 5 i n .
SKIN 50 - \ -
0.25%Cl SKIN>- UNDER SKIN
\ ^ 0 . I 2 5 in. ( 3.2 mm)
,0.34%C(O.I25in. UNDER SKINT
° J f UNDER SKIN
V k 0.25%C(O.I25 in. UNDER SKIN)
40 -
c 40 -
1 x\
120 140
KiN)>~--y
0.34%C(SKIN)
I i
160 ISO 200 220
A—- — i r r i l
240 260 280 300
UJ
u. /\\ Y~ S K I N
30 - -
CUTTING SPEED- fpm
O
Fig. 26-4 Milling tests. Tool life of high-speed tools for cast 0.34 O
and 0.25% carbon steels. Conversion: 1 in. = 25.4 mm
20 -
- / \ \
50
CUTTING
40
SPEED-m/min
50
T T
60
10 - 0.250 in. ( 6.4 mm)
X\ v \ A
UNDER SKIN ^ m
SKIN i i i
40
75 100 125 150 175
CUTTING SPEED-fpm
E 0.I25 in. ( 3 . 2 mm) Fig. 26-6 Tool life of high-speed steel tools for cast 0.30% carbon
ui 3 0 UNDER SKIN steel
8 20
allows metal to be removed most efficiently in machining, i.e., a
large volume of metal can be removed per minute per horsepower.
This practice may be combined with low cutting speed to give long
tool life.
10 When machining steel, the depth of cut has the greatest influence
^ •9 on forces and power consumption. There are several factors which
set a limit on the maximum size cut that can be taken: 1) the
maximum power available from the machine tool, 2) the maximum
I _L force the cutter can withstand, 3) the maximum permissible deflec-
I00 I25 I50 175 200 tions of the machine tool and work consistent with the accuracy
required, and 4) the tendency to chatter.
CUTTING SPEED-fpm
Weld Area Effects
Fig. 26-5 Tool life of high-speed steel tools for 0.30% cast carbon
steel Repair welding is an acceptable and integral part of the steel
casting production. It is used also in the fabrication welding, cast-
weld construction, and composite fabrication of steel castings.
The welded areas can have an adverse effect on machining opera-
tions. The effect of weld deposit on the machinability of cast steel is
Figures 26-4 and 26-7, respectively. In Figure 26-7 the machinabil- graphically illustrated in Figure 26-8. The hardness of the as-welded
ity of the skin is about approximately the same as the base metal. deposits in these tests was equal to, greater than, and less than the
The first machining cut (hogging) for steel castings should be as 0.30% carbon base metal. The maximum hardness in the heat-af-
deep a hogging cut as possible, and the cutting speed should be less fected zone was 250 BHN. Figure 26-8 illustrates that regardless of
than for the lighter finishing cuts of the base metal. Deep cuts are the type of electrode used to make weld deposits or the hardness of
recommended because this allows the tool to cut under any surface the weld, machining operations will be adversely affected if the
imperfection. The use of high feed rates and large depth of cut welds are in the as-welded condition. Therefore, whenever possible,
Machinability 26-7
Table 26-6 High-Speed Tool Life Results on Welds at a Cutting Speed of 23 fpm (0.12 m/s) (5)
Brinell hardness
Test pieces Electrodes Weld HAZ Base Tool life, min
As-welded E9016 250 250-254 168 6.0

Tempered at 1250 °F (677 °C) E9016 234 234 149 10.5
As-welded E6012 170 220-254 164-170 15.5
Tempered at 1250 °F (677 °C) E6012 120-140 155-174 149 21.0
Base metal 0.30% carbon 170 28.0
CUTTING SPEED - m / min . CUTTING SPEED- m / m i n .

100 200 300 50 60 70 60 90
120 T T T 60 T 1 1 1 r
-r
MATERIAL : CAST STEEL CUTTER: HIGH-SPEED STEEL
100 - TOOL : 76 B CARBI0E FEED /TOOTH : 0 . 0 0 4 in.
FEED : 0.005 in. / TOOTH
c DEPTH OF CUT: 0.100 in.
DEPTH OF CUT: 0.125 in.
i so SKIN AWS CLASS 4510 ELECTRODE
UNDER SKIN 143 BHN
£ 60 -0.34 %C (0.125 in. UNDER SKIN)
-|0.25%C (0.125 in. UNDER SKIN)
CLASS 6012 ELECTRODE
170 BHN
o ( SKIN)
o \ yBASE METAL
h- 20 0.34 %C ( SKIN \ 170 BHN
0.25 %C ( SKIN)
200 400 600 600 1000

CUTTIN6 SPEED - fpm
AWS CLASS 9016
Fig. 26-7 Milling tests. Tool life of carbide tools for cast 0.34 and ELECTRODE 237 HB
0.25% carbon steels. Conversion: 1 in. = 25.4 mm I I
150 175 200 225 250 275 300
CUTTING SPEED-fpm
Fig. 26-8 The effect of transverse welds on the tool life of
weld deposits which are to be machined must be given a subsequent high-speed tools. Cutting tool machined seven welds, 14 heat-
affected zones and eight 1 in. (25.4 mm) sections of the base metal
heat treatment prior to machining. The hard areas in the heat-af- (0.30% C). Conversion: 1 in. = 25.4 mm
fected zone, adjacent to the weld, are the underlying reasons for a
shorter tool life.
A postweld heat treatment will reduce the hardness of the weld
and the heat-affected zone. It will also reduce the width of the
transition zone. Following postweld heat treatment the as-welded
deposits, which match the hardness of the base metal, will become the microstructure through heat treatment. However, it may not
softer than the base metal, while overmatched (harder) weld depos- be advisable to change the structure to improve machinability, as
its will approach the base metal hardness. The effect of tempering of mechanical property requirements and casting cost are not al-
welds on the life of high-speed steel tools is shown in Table 26-6. ways compatible with the best microstructure for machinability.
The microstructures of the weld, the heat-affected zone (HAZ), 2. Hardness alone cannot be taken as the general criterion for
and the base metal are different, and subsequent heat treatments will predicting tool life in the cutting of cast steels.
not completely eliminate the differences in microstructure. There- 3. For a given microstructure, the plain carbon steels usually pos-
fore, the machining characteristics of steel containing welds will not sess better machining properties than the low alloy steels.
equal the machinability of cast steel without welds. However, this 4. The machinability of carbon cast steel varies as the ratio of ferrite
condition can be markedly improved through heat treatment. to pearlite varies in its microstructure. The best ratio is 60:40.
5. The machinability of steel castings is influenced by the proper-
ties of the skin. The initial cut should therefore be as deep as
Summary of Machining Factors possible. For large castings this cut might be 1/4 in. (6.3 mm) to
3/8 in. (9.5 mm) deep.
The data on the machinability of cast steels, given previously in 6. The most significant factor in machining cast steel is freedom
this chapter, point to several conclusions which may be considered from abrasive oxide inclusions. The inclusions can result in
as guides for machining steel castings. premature tool wear or tool breakage. The inclusions must be
avoided by casting design and processing. The producer and user
1. The microstructure has a definite effect on the machinability of must cooperate to solve this problem.
steel castings. It is possible to improve machining characteristics 7. The machining of cast steel is facilitated by the post-weld heat
of carbon and low alloy steels as much as 100 to 200% by altering treatment of repair welds to reduce hardness variations.
c
E 4000 Fig 26-9 Tool life curves of
T 1 I I I 1—T-r
> 3000 */HEN typical tool materials, and effect
T= 1
CUTTING SPEED
of cutting speed on tool life
f 2000 'HEN V=C
O n = tan 8
ft 1000 CERAMIC
< < <

Ol
a 800
|2
CO 600
l\>
O 400 ^"""""""""•^J13
*•».
_
z log- log scole
4 6 6 10 20 40 100 200
TOOL LIFE - min. TOOL LIFE
Table 26-7 Typical Values of Constants n and C of Table 26-7 gives typical values of n and C for various cutting tool
the Tool Life Equation 23-1 materials in the tool life Equation 26-1 where V and T are expressed
in feet per minute and in minutes, respectively.
Tool material n This equation can be expanded to add the effects of feed, 5, and
depth of cut,/:
H.S.S. 0.12to0.15 200 to 300
Cemented carbides 0.25 to 0.30 600 to 1000 Vf^ =C (Eq26-2)
Ceramics 0.5 1000 to 2000
where: a, (3 = exponents for feed and depth of cut, and C = constant

values for a and P have to be established by test procedures. Ranges are
Machining Practices as follows:
a = 0.19to0.61and(3 = 0.3to0.4
Tool Life
Tool life is one of the most important factors in the evaluation of Tool life curves as shown in Figure 26-9 can be obtained from
machinability. It is generally defined as the cutting time in minutes various sources, e.g. The Machinability Data Center or they can be
to produce a given wearland for a set of machining conditions. In developed in-house.
machining operations it is essential to know the relation of tool life Another factor affecting tool life is the rigidity of the setup. Lack
to speed, feed, and depth of cut. These three factors determine metal of rigidity will lead to premature tool failure.
removal rates. The machine tool size and condition play an important part in
The cutting speed has the most pronounced effect on tool life. influencing tool life. If the size of the machine tool is inadequate or
Referring to Figure 26-4, note that minor increases in cutting speed looseness exists in the moving parts, such as spindle bearings or
result in large changes in tool life. Speed generates heat, which is the gibs, chatter will occur resulting in poor tool life.
major cause of tool wear. Excessive tool overhang is another cause of low tool life which in
The feed rate affects tool life, but to a lesser degree than speed. addition will cause difficulties in maintaining surface finish and
Depending on the operation and the range of feeds, the influence on dimensional accuracy.
tool life may be large or very slight. The application of high feed
rates for roughing cuts will generally require that the speed be Determination of Tool Life
decreased so that tool life is not reduced. The maximum feed to be Choosing a tool life that satisfies the requirements of both maxi-
used depends upon the rigidity of the machining setup, the power mum production rates and minimum cost is difficult. Tool life to
available, and the desired finish. yield minimum cost, Tmc, can be determined by Equation 26-3
Depth of cut will also affect tool life. When cuts of great depths below (5).
are taken in the roughing operations, it will be necessary to reduce
speeds to maintain tool life. The influence of depth of cut on tool life Tmc= - - 1 \(tc-Ce/Co) (Eq26-3)
is not as large as cutting speed, particularly within the range of
finishing and semifinishing cuts of 0.060 in. (1.5 mm) or less.
The relationship between speed, feed, and depth of cut on tool life where: n - exponent fortoollife in Taylor's equation, tc=tool changing
can best be explained by Taylor's equation. In simplified form, it is time, Ce = mean tooling cost per cutting edge, and Co = labor and
stated as follows: overhead rate of the machine shop.
Vf = C (Eq26-1) Tool life for the maximum production rate, Tmp, can be deter-
mined using Equation 26-4 (5).
where: V = cutting speed, T = tool life, n = exponent depending upon Tmp- 1 \tc (Eq26-4)
tool material, workpiece material, cutting conditions, and environment,
and C = constant depending upon tool material, workpiece material,
cutting conditions, and environment Because it is difficult to achieve both minimum cost per piece and
maximum production rate the usual practice is to find the optimum
A typical example of tool life data for various tool materials is condition representing a compromise between the two opposing
given in Figure 26-9. requirements.
Machinability 26-9
Selection of Speed, Feed, and Depth of Cut A general value for the exponent for feed is 0.25; for depth of cut
it is 0.36. Again, for more accurate values it will be necessary to run
Carbon, Low Alloy, and High Alloy Steels. Tables 26-8 tests.
through 26-12 have been extracted from the Machining Data Hand-
book, published by Metcut Research Associates (4). The tables N i c k e l - B a s e A l l o y s . These alloys are readily machinable pro-
cover speed and feed recommendations for cast steels for turning vided the machining parameters are selected in accordance with the
(26-8), face milling (26-9), slab milling (26-10), drilling (26-11), hardness and the metallurgical structure of the alloy to be machined.
and reaming (26-12). The speed and feed recommendations are to Practices for several types of nickel-base alloys and grades are
be considered as starting points. They are based on 30-60 minutes presented in Table 26-13.
of tool life.
The chart recommendations must work under a variety of limita-
tions such as old and worn machine tools and setups which are not REFERENCES
as rigid as desired. For this reason, the need for more accurate data
is quite important for long production runs. If the conditions which 1. Machinability Depends on Microstructure, Metcut Research,
are used are less than optimum, productivity may be reduced dras- McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1950
tically. For extended production runs, an economic analysis of the 2. N. Zlaten and L. Nowikowski, "Effects of Structure on Ma-
machining operation should be performed, but the accuracy of this chinability," Iron Age, Aug 12,1951, p 95-98
analysis depends on accurate tool life machining data. These data 3. R.C. Elliott and D.M. Koffman, "A Literature Survey on Treated
may have to be developed from tool life tests which can show the Steels," Department of Commerce, PB 111, 917, July 1955
effect on tool life of speed only, or of both speed and feed rate. 4. Machining Data Handbook, 3rd ed., Machinability Data Center,
Once the economic tool life is determined, Taylor's formula can Metcut Research Associates, Inc., Cincinnati, OH, 1980, p 1.28-
also be used to determine surface speed from the chart recommen- 1.33, 1.166-1.167, 2.23-2.28,2.66-2.68, 3.24-3.29, 3.194-3.198
dations. This can be done in the following manner: 5. A. Bhattacharyya and I. Ham, "Design of Cutting Tools," Ameri-
Equate the two cutting conditions, those on the chart, to those can Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, MI,
desired by assuming that feed and depth of cut are the same as the 1969,p 159
chart values. 6. R.W. Monroe, "Machining Steel Castings," Steel Founders' Re-
search Journal, Issue 1, Third Quarter 1984
Vi V"i = V2T% (Eq26-5)
V2=Vi(Ti/T2)" (Eq26-6) 1L \
Since the tool life stated for the charts is 30-60 min, use an average \ n = tan. e
time for T, such as 45 min. If carbide tools are used, take the value
of 0.25 for the exponent n. If more accurate values are needed,
cutting tests have to be performed on the tools used, and at the feed
FEED RATE.
rate and depth of cut that are planned. The tool life is then plotted
against speed on log-log graph paper to solve for n, the exponent n
of Equations 26-5 and 26-6 is the slope of the line in Figure 26-10.
The same logic can be applied to determine the velocity for
different feed rates and depths of cuts by using the expanded formu-
6 \
las 26-7 and 26-8.
Vi7-?s?t? = v 2 r 5 5 ? f 5 (Eq26-7)
•
a
V2=Vi(ri/r 2 )"(Si/s 2 ) ((i/f2) |i
(Eq26-8) TOOL LIFE
Fig, 26-10 Schematic plot of feed rate against tool life
Table 26-8 Machining Recommendations (4): Turning, Single Point, and Box Tools
Carbide tool
Uncoated Coated
High speed steel tool Speed Tool Tool
Depth Tool Index- material material
Hard- of Speed Feed material Brazed able Feed grade Speed Feed grade
ness cut fpm ipr AISI fpm fpm ipr C fpm ipr C
Material Bhn Condition mm m/min mm/r ISO m/min m/min mm/r ISO m/min mm/r ISO
15. Carbon steels, cast

Low carbon 100 Annealed, 0.040 160 0.007 M2.M3 475 625 0.007 C-7 800 0.007 CC-7
ASTMA426: Grade CP1 to 150 Normalized 0.150 120 0.015 M2.M3 400 485 0.020 C-6 625 0.015 CC-6
1010,1020 or 0.300 95 0.020 M2.M3 310 380 0.030 C-6 475 0.020 CC-6
Normalized 0.625 75 0.030 M2.M3 240 290 0.040 C-6
and 1 49 0.18 S4.S5 145 190 0.18 P10 245 0.18 CP10
Tempered 4 37 0.40 S4.S5 120 150 0.50 P20 190 0.40 CP20
8 29 0.50 S4.S5 95 115 0.75 P30 145 0.50 CP30
16 23 0.75 S4.S5 73 88 1.0 P40
(continued)
Table 26-8 Machining Recommendations (4): Turning, Single Point, and Box Tools (continued)
Carbide tool
Uncoated Coated
Medium Carbon Annealed, 0.040 145 0.007 M2,M3 500 575 0.007 C-7 750 0.007 CC-7
ASTM A352: Grades LCA, LCB, LCC 125 Normalized 0.150 115 0.015 M2.M3 360 450 0.020 C-6 600 0.015 CC-6
ASTMA356: Grade 1 to or 0.300 90 0.020 M2,M3 280 350 0.030 C-6 450 0.020 CC-6
1030,1040,1050 175 Normalized 0.625 70 0.030 M2.M3 220 275 0.040 C-6
and 1 44 0.18 S4.S5 150 175 0.18 P10 230 0.18 CP10
Tempered 4 35 0.40 S4.S5 110 135 0.50 P20 185 0.40 CP20
8 27 0.50 S4.S5 85 105 0.75 P30 135 0.50 CP30
16 21 0.75 S4.S5 67 84 1.0 P40
Annealed, 0.040 125 0.007 M2.M3 420 500 0.007 C-7 650 0.007 CC-7
175 Normalized 0.150 95 0.015 M2.M3 325 400 0.020 C-6 525 0.015 C06
to or 0.300 75 0.020 M2.M3 250 300 0.030 C-6 400 0.020 C06
225 Normalized 0.625 60 0.030 M2.M3 200 240 0.040 C-6
and 1 38 0.18 S4.S5 130 150 0.18 P10 200 0.18 CP10
Tempered 4 29 0.40 S4.S5 100 120 0.50 P20 160 0.40 CP20
8 23 0.50 S4.S5 76 90 0.75 P30 120 0.50 CP30
16 18 0.75 S4.S5 60 73 1.0 P40
250 Quenched 0.040 90 0.007 T15.M42 375 450 0.007 C-7 600 0.007 CC-7
to and 0.150 70 0.015 T15.M42 290 350 0.015 C-6 450 0.015 CC-6
300 Tempered 0.300 55 0.020 T15.M42 225 275 0.030 C-6 350 0.020 CC-6
0.625
1 27 0.18 S9.S11 115 135 0.18 P10 185 0.18 CP10
4 21 0.40 S9.S11 88 105 0.40 P20 135 0.40 CP20
8 17 0.50 S9.S11 69 84 0.50 P30 105 0.50 CP30
16
16. Alloy steels, cast
Low carbon Annealed, 0.040 130 0.007 M2.M3 475 600 0.007 C-7 775 0.007 CC-7
ASTM A217: Grade WC9 150 Normalized 0.150 100 0.015 M2.M3 380 465 0.020 C-6 600 0.015 CM
ASTMA352:GradesLC3,LC4 to or 0.300 80 0.020 M2.M3 300 375 0.030 C-6 475 0.020 CM
ASTM A426: GradesCP2, CP5, CP5b, CP11, 200 Normalized 0.625 60 0.030 M2,M3 230 290 0.040 C-6
CP12,CP15,CP21,CP22 and 1 40 0.18 S4.S5 145 185 0.18 P10 235 0.18 CP10
1320,2315,2320,4110,4120,4320, Tempered 4 30 0.40 S4.S5 115 140 0.50 P20 185 0.40 CP20
8020,8620 8 24 0.50 S4.S5 90 115 0.75 P30 145 0.50 CP30
16 18 0.75 S4.S5 70 88 1.0 P40
Annealed 0.040 120 0.007 M2.M3 450 525 0.007 C-7 675 0.007 CC-7
200 Normalized 0.150 95 0.015 M2.M3 350 410 0.020 C-6 525 0.015 CC-6
to or 0.300 75 0.020 M2.M3 275 325 0.030 C-6 425 0.020 CC-6
225 Normalized 0.625 60 0.030 M2,M3 225 250 0.040 C-6
and 1 37 0.18 S4.S5 135 160 0.18 P10 205 0.18 CP10
Tempered 4 29 0.40 S4.S5 105 125 0.50 P20 160 0.40 CP20
8 23 0.50 S4.S5 84 100 0.75 P30 130 0.50 CP30
16 18 0.75 S4.S5 69 76 1.0 P40
250 Quenched 0.040 85 0.007 T15.M42 350 450 0.007 C-7 575 0.007 CC-7
to and 0.150 65 0.015 T15.M42 275 350 0.015 C-6 450 0.015 C06
300 Tempered 0.300 50 0.020 T15.M42 225 275 0.020 C-6 350 0.020 CM
0.625
1 26 0.18 S9.S11 105 135 0.18 P10 175 0.18 CP10
4 20 0.40 S9, S11 84 105 0.40 P20 135 0.40 CP20
8 15 0.50 S9.S11 69 84 0.50 P30 105 0.50 CP30
16
Medium carbon Annealed, 0.040 120 0.007 M2,M3 450 540 0.007 C-7 700 0.007 CC-7
ASTM A27: Grades N1, N2, U-60-30,60-30, 175 Normalized, 0.150 90 0.015 M2.M3 350 425 0.020 C-6 550 0.015 CM
65-35,70-36,70-40 to or 0.300 65 0.020 M2.M3 275 335 0.030 C-6 425 0.020 CC-6
ASTMA148: Grades 8040,80-50,90-60, 225 Normalized 0.625 50 0.030 M2,M3 215 260 0.040 C-6
105-85,120-95,150-125,175-145 and 1 37 0.18 S4.S5 135 165 0.18 P10 215 0.18 CP10
ASTM A216: Grades WCA, WCB, WCC Tempered 4 27 0.40 S4.S5 105 130 0.50 P20 170 0.40 CP20
ASTM A217:GradesWC1, WC4, WC5, WC6 8 20 0.50 S4.S5 84 100 0.75 P30 130 0.50 CP30
ASTMA352:GradesLC1, LC2, LC2-1 16 15 0.75 S4.S5 66 79 1.0 P40
ASTMA356:Grades2,5,6,8,9,10 Normalized, 0.040 105 0.007 T15.M42 420 500 0.007 C-7 650 0.007 CC-7
ASTM A389: Grades C23.C24 Normalized 0.150 80 0.015 T15.M42 325 400 0.020 C-6 525 0.015 CC-6
ASTM A486: Classes 70,90,120 225 and 0.300 60 0.020 T15.M42 250 315 0.030 C-6 400 0.020 CC-6
ASTMA487:Classes1N,2N,4N,6N,8N,9N,10N, to Tempered 0.625 50 0.030 T15.M42 200 250 0.040 C-6
DN,1Q,2Q,4Q,4QA,6Q,7Q,8Q,9Q, 10Q 250 or 1 32 0.18 S9.S11 130 150 0.18 P10 200 0.18 CP10
1330,1340,2325,2330,4125,4130,4140, Quenched 4 24 0.40 S9.S11 100 120 0.50 P20 160 0.40 CP20
4330,4340,8030,80830,8040,8430,8440, and 8 18 0.50 S9, S11 76 95 0.75 P30 120 0.50 CP30
8630,8640,9525,9530,9535 Tempered 16 15 0.75 S9.S11 60 76 1.0 P40
(continued)
Machinability 26-11
Carbide tool
Uncoated Coated
High speed steel toot Speed Tool Tool
ness cut fpm ipr AtSI fpm fpm ipr C fpm ipr C
Medium carbon 250 Quenched 0.040 75 0.007 T15.M42 340 400 0.007 C-7 525 0.007 CC-7
(continued) to and 0.150 60 0.015 T15.M42 260 330 0.015 C-6 425 0.015 CC-6
300 Tempered 0.300 45 0.020 T15.M42 200 250 0.020 C-6 325 0.020 CC-6
0.625
1 23 0.18 S9.S11 105 120 0.18 P10 160 0.18 CP10
4 18 0.40 S9.S11 79 100 0.40 P20 130 0.40 CP20
8 14 0.50 S9.S11 60 76 0.50 P30 100 0.50 CP30
16
300 Quenched 0.040 70 0.007 T15.M42 315 370 0.007 C-7 475 0.007 CC-7
to and 0.150 55 0.015 T15.M42 240 290 0.015 C-6 375 0.015 CC-6
350 Tempered 0.300 40 0.020 T15.M42 190 230 0.020 C-6 300 0.020 C06
0.625
1 21 0.18 S9.S11 95 115 0.18 P10 145 0.18 CP10
4 17 0.40 S9.S11 73 88 0.40 P20 115 0.40 CP20
8 12 0.50 S9.S11 58 70 0.50 P30 90 0.50 CP30
16
350 Quenched 0.040 50 0.005 T15.M42 250 290 0.007 C-7 375 0.007 CC-7
to and 0.150 40 0.010 T15.M42 200 225 0.015 C-6 300 0.015 CC-6
400 Tempered 0.300 30 0.015 T15.M42 160 180 0.020 C-6 225 0.020 CC-6
0.625
1 15 0.13 S9.S11 76 88 0.18 P10 115 0.18 CP10
4 12 0.25 S9.S11 60 69 0.40 P20 90 0.40 CP20
8 9 0.40 S9.S11 49 55 0.50 P30 69 0.50 CP30
16
17. Tool steels, cast
Hot work 150 Annealed 0.040 110 0.007 M2.M3 330 390 0.007 C-7 500 0.007 CC-7
ASTM A597: Grades CH-12, CH-13 to 0.150 85 0.015 M2.M3 260 310 0.015 C-6 400 0.015 CC-6
200 0.300 65 0.020 M2.M3 200 240 0.020 C-6 300 0.020 C06
0.625 50 0.030 M2,M3 155 185 0.030 C-6
1 34 0.18 S4.S5 100 120 0.18 M10.P10 150 0.18 CM10.CP10
4 26 0.40 S4.S5 79 95 0.40 M20.P20 120 0.40 CM20.CP20
8 20 0.50 S4.S5 60 73 0.50 M30.P30 90 0.50 CM30.CP30
16 15 0.75 S4.S5 47 56 0.75 M40.P40
200 Annealed 0.040 90 0.007 M2.M3 320 380 0.007 C-7 500 0.007 CC-7
to 0.150 70 0.015 M2.M3 250 300 0.015 C-6 400 0.015 CC-6
250 0.300 55 0.020 M2.M3 200 230 0.020 C-6 225 0.020 CC-6
0.625 40 0.030 M2.M3 160 180 0.030 C-6
1 27 0.18 S4.S5 120 115 0.18 M10.P10 150 0.18 CM10.CP10
4 21 0.40 S4.S5 76 90 0.40 M20.P20 120 0.40 CM20.CP20
8 17 0.50 S4.S5 60 70 0.50 M30.P30 69 0.50 CM30.CP30
16 12 0.75 S4.S5 49 55 0.75 M40.P40
325 Quenched 0.040 60 0.007 T15.M42 165 190 0.005 C-7 250 0.005 CC-7
to and 0.150 50 0.015 T15.M42 130 150 0.010 C-6 200 0.010 CC-6
375 Tempered 0.300 40 0.020 T15.M42 100 120 0.015 C-6 150 0.015 CC-6
0.625
1 18 0.18 S9.S11 50 58 0.13 M10.P10 76 0.13 CM10.CP10
4 15 0.40 S9.S11 40 46 0.25 M20, P20 60 0.25 CM20.CP20
8 12 0.50 S9, S11 30 37 0.40 M30,P30 46 0.40 CM30.CP30
16
48 Ft Quenched 0.040 30 0.005 T15.M42 125 140 0.005 C-8
to and 0.150 25 0.010 T15.M42 100 110 0.010 C-8
50 Ro Tempered 0.300 80 85 0.015 C-7
0.625
1 9 0.13 S9.S11 38 43 0.13 P01
4 8 0.25 S9.S11 30 34 0.25 P01
8 24 26 0.40 P10
16
50 Re Quenched 0.040 25 0.003 T15.M42 95 110 0.005 C-8
to and 0.150 20 0.007 T15.M42 75 85 0.007 C-8
52 Re Tempered 0.300
0.625
1 8 0.075 S9.S11 29 34 0.13 P01
4 6 0.18 S9.S11 23 26 0.18 P01
8
16
(continued)
Carbide toot
Uncoated Coated
ness cut fpm AISI fpm fpm ipr C fpm "Pf C
Material Bhn Condition mm m/min mm/r ISO m/min m/min mm/r ISO m/min mm* ISO
Hot work 52 Ft Quenched 0.040 90 95 0.005 C-8

(continued) to and 0.150 70 75 0.007 C-8
0.625
1 27 29 0.13 P01
4 21 23 0.18 P01
8
16
54 Ft Quenched 0.040 85 90 0.005 C-8
to and 0.150 65 70 0.007 C-8
0.625
1 26 27 0.13 P01
4 20 21 0.18 P01
8
16
Cold work 200 Annealed 0.040 50 0.005 M2.M3 200 250 0.007 C-7 325 0.007 CC-7
ASTM A597:GradesCD-2, CD-5 to 0.150 40 0.010 M2.M3 160 200 0.015 C-6 250 0.015 CC-6
250 0.300 30 0.015 M2.M3 125 150 0.020 C-6 200 0.020 C06
0.625 25 0.020 M2.M3 95 120 0.030 C-6
1 15 0.13 S4.S5 60 76 0.18 M10.P10 100 0.18 CM10.CP10
4 12 0.25 S4.S5 49 60 0.40 M20.P20 76 0.40 CM20.CP20
8 9 0.40 S4.S5 38 46 0.50 M30.P30 60 0.50 CM30.CP30
16 8 0.50 S4.S5 29 37 0.75 M40.P40
ASTM A597: GradesCA-2, CO-1 to 0.150 70 0.015 M2.M3 260 310 0.015 C-6 400 0.015 CC-6
250 0.300 55 0.020 M2.M3 200 240 0.020 C-6 300 0.020 CC-6
0.625 40 0.030 M2.M3 160 185 0.030 C-6
1 27 0.18 S4.S5 100 120 0.18 M10.P10 160 0.18 CM10.CP10
4 21 0.40 S4.S5 79 95 0.40 M20.P20 120 0.40 MC20.CP20
8 17 0.50 S4.S5 60 73 0.50 M30.P30 90 0.50 CM30.CP30
16 12 0.75 S4.S5 49 56 0.75 M40.P40
Shock resisting 175 Annealed 0.040 100 0.007 M2.M3 390 480 0.007 C-7 625 0.007 CC-7
ASTMA597:GradeCS-5 to 0.150 85 0.015 M2,M3 300 375 0.015 C-6 500 0.015 C06
225 0.300 65 0.020 M2.M3 235 300 0.020 C-6 400 0.020 (X>6
0.625 50 0.030 M2.M3 180 230 0.030 C-6
1 30 0.18 S4.S5 120 145 0.18 M10.P10 190 0.18 CM10.CP10
4 26 0.40 S4.S5 90 115 0.40 M20.P20 150 0.40 CM20.CP20
8 20 0.50 S4.S5 72 90 0.50 M30.P30 120 0.50 CM30.CP30
16 15 0.75 S4.S5 55 70 0.75 M40.P40
18. Stainless steels, cast
Ferritic 135 Annealed 0.040 120 0.007 M2.M3 350 375 0.007 C-7 475 0.007 CC-7
ASTM A217: Grades C5.C12 to 0.150 100 0.015 M2.M3 300 325 0.015 C-6 425 0.015 CM
ASTM A743/744: Grades CB-30, CC-50, 185 0.300 75 0.020 M2.M3 225 250 0.030 C-6 325 0.020 CC-6
CE-30, CA6N, CA-6NM, CD4MCu 0.625 60 0.030 M2,M3 175 200 0.040 C-6
ASTM A297: Grade HC 1 37 0.18 S4.S5 105 115 0.18 P10.K10 145 0.18 CP10.CK10
ASTMA487:aassCA6NM 4 30 0.40 S4.S5 90 100 0.40 P10.K10 130 0.40 CP10.CK10
ASTM A608: Grade HC30 8 23 0.50 S4.25 69 76 0.75 P20.K20 100 0.50 CP20.CK20
16 18 0.75 S4.S5 53 60 1.0 P30.K30
Austenitic 140 Annealed 0.040 110 0.007 M2.M3 325 350 0.007 C-3 450 0.007 CC-3
ASTMA296:Grades to or 0.150 90 0.015 M2,M3 275 300 0.015 C-2 400 0.015 CC-2
CF-16F,CN-7M,CN-7MS 170 Normalized 0.300 70 0.020 M2.M3 200 225 0.020 C-2 300 0.020 CC-2
ASTMA351:GradeCN-7M 0.625 55 0.030 M2.M3 150 175 0.030 C-2
1 34 0.18 S4.S5 100 105 0.18 K01.M10 135 0.18 CK01.CM10
4 27 0.40 S4.S5 84 90 0.40 K10.M10 120 0.40 CK10.CM10
8 21 0.50 S4.S5 60 69 0.50 K10.M10 90 0.50 CK10.CM10
16 17 0.75 S4.S5 46 53 0.75 K20.M20
ASTM A743/744: Grades CF-3, CF-8, to or 0.150 65 0.015 M2.M3 275 300 0.015 C-2 400 0.015 CC-2
CF-8CCF-20 185 Normalized 0.300 50 0.020 M2.M3 200 225 0.020 C-2 300 0.020 CC-2
ASTM A351: Grades CF-3, CF-3A, CF-8, 0.625 40 0.030 M2.M3 150 175 0.030 C-2
CF-8A.CF-8C 1 24 0.18 S4.S5 100 105 0.18 K01.M10 135 0.18 CK01.CM10
ASTM A451: Grades CPF3, CPF3A, CPF8, 4 20 0.40 S4.S5 84 90 0.40 K10.M10 120 0.40 CK10.CM10
CPF8A, CPF8C, CPF8C (Ta max) 8 15 0.50 S4.S5 60 69 0.50 K10.M10 90 0.50 CK10.CM10
ASTM A452: Grades TP304H, TP347H 16 12 0.75 S4.S5 46 53 0.75 K20.M20
(continued)
Machinability 26-13
Carbide tool
Uncoated Coated
Austen itic 135 Annealed 0.040 80 0.007 M2.M3 275 300 0.007 C-3 375 0.007 CC-3
ASTM A743/744: Grades CF-3M, CF-8M, to or 0.150 65 0.015 M2.M3 225 250 0.015 C-2 300 0.015 CC-2
CG-8M,CG-12,CH-20,CK-20 185 Normalized 0.300 50 0.020 M2.M3 175 200 0.020 C-2 250 0.020 CC-2
ASTM A351: Grades CF-3M, CF-3MA, 0.625 40 0.030 M2.M3 125 150 0.030 C-2
CF-8M, CF-10MC, CH-8, CH-10, CH-20, 1 24 0.18 S4.S5 84 90 0.18 K01.M10 115 0.18 CK01.CM10
CK-20,HK-30,HK-40,HT-30 4 20 0.40 S4.S5 69 76 0.40 K10.M10 90 0.40 CK10.CM10
ASTM A451:GradesCPF3M, CPF8M, 8 15 0.50 S4.S5 53 60 0.50 K10.M10 76 0.50 CK10, CM10
CPF10MC, CPH8, CPH10, CPH20, CPK20 16 12 0.75 S4.S5 38 46 0.75 K20.M20
ASTMA452:GradeTP,316H
Austen rttc 160 As cast 0.040 70 0.007 M2.M3 225 250 0.007 C-3 325 0.007 CC-3
ASTM A297: Grades HD, HE, HF, HH, HI, HK, to 0.150 55 0.015 M2.M3 175 210 0.015 C-2 275 0.015 CC-2
HL,HN,HP,HT,HU 210 0.300 40 0.020 M2.M3 150 175 0.020 C-2 225 0.020 CC-2
ASTM A608: Grades HD50, HE35, HF30, 0.625 30 0.030 M2.M3 90 120 0.030 C-2
HH30, HH33, HI35, HK30, HK40, HL30, 1 21 0.18 S4.S5 69 76 0.18 K01.M10 100 0.18 CK01.CM10
HL40,HN40,HT50,HU50 4 17 0.40 S4.S5 53 64 0.40 K10.M10 84 0.40 CK10.CM10
6 12 0.50 S4.S5 46 53 0.50 K10.M10 69 0.50 CK10.CM10
16 9 0.75 S4.S5 27 37 0.75 K20, M20
Martensitic 135 Annealed 0.040 130 0.007 M2.M3 375 400 0.007 C-7 525 0.007 CC-7
ASTM A217: Grade CA-15 to 0.150 105 0.015 M2.M3 325 350 0.015 C-6 450 0.015 CC-6
ASTMA743/744:GradesCA-15,CA-15M, 175 0.300 80 0.020 M2.M3 250 275 0.030 C-6 350 0.020 CC-6
CA-40 0.625 65 0.030 M2.M3 175 200 0.040 C-6
ASTM A426: Grades CP7, CP9, CPCA15 1 40 0.18 S4,S5 115 120 0.18 M10.P10 160 0.18 CM10.CP10
ASTM A487: Classes CA15a, CA-15M 4 32 0.40 S4.S5 100 105 0.40 M10.P10 135 0.40 CM10.CP10
8 24 0.50 S4.S5 76 84 0.50 M20, P20 105 0.50 CM20.CP20
16 18 0.75 S4.S5 53 60 0.75 M30.P30
175 Annealed, 0.040 115 0.007 M2.M3 350 375 0.007 C-7 475 0.007 CC-7
to Normalized, 0.150 95 0.015 M2,M3 300 325 0.015 C-6 425 0.015 CC-6
225 or 0.300 75 0.020 M2.M3 225 250 0.030 C-6 325 0.020 CC-6
Normalized 0.625 60 0.030 M2.M3 175 200 0.040 C-6
and 1 35 0.18 S4.S5 105 115 0.18 M10.P10 145 0.18 CM10.CP10
Tempered 4 29 0.40 S4.S5 90 100 0.40 M10.P10 130 0.40 CM10.CP10
8 23 0.50 S4.S5 69 76 0.50 M20.P20 100 0.50 CM20.CP20
16 18 0.75 S4.S5 53 60 0.75 M30.P30
275 Quenched 0.040 75 0.007 T15.M42 275 300 0.007 C-7 400 0.007 CC-7
to and 0.150 60 0.015 T15.M42 225 250 0.015 C-6 325 0.015 CC-6
325 Tempered 0.300 45 0.020 T15.M42 175 200 0.020 C-6 250 0.020 CC-6
0.625
1 23 0.18 S9.S11 84 90 0.18 M10.P10 120 0.18 CM10.CP10
4 18 0.40 S9.S11 69 76 0.40 M10.P10 100 0.40 CM10.CP10
8 14 0.50 S9.S11 53 60 0.50 M20.P20 76 0.50 CM20.CP20
16
375 Quenched 0.040 50 0.005 T15.M42 150 175 0.005 C-7 225 0.005 CC-7
to and 0.150 40 0.010 T15.M42 125 150 0.010 C-6 200 0.010 CC-6
425 Tempered 0.300 30 0.015 T15.M42 100 120 0.015 C-6 150 0.015 CC-6
0.625
1 15 0.13 S9.S11 47 53 0.13 M10.P10 69 0.13 CM10.CP10
4 12 0.25 S9.S11 38 46 0.25 M10.P10 60 025 CM10.CP10
8 9 0.40 S9, S11 30 37 0.40 M20.P20 46 0.40 CM20.CP20
16
19. Precipitation hardening stainless steels, cast
ASTM A351: Grade C M M C u 325 Solution 0.040 55 0.007 T15.M42 260 300 0.007 C-7 400 0.007 CC-7
ACI Grade CB-7CU to Treated 0.150 45 0.015 T15.M42 225 260 0.015 C-6 350 0.015 CC-6
ACI Grade CD-4MCu, 17-A PH, AM-355 375 0.300 35 0.020 T15.M42 175 200 0.020 C-6 250 0.020 CM
0.625
1 17 0.18 S9.S11 79 90 0.18 P10.M10 120 0.18 CP10.CM10
4 14 0.40 S9.S11 69 79 0.40 P10.M10 105 0.40 CP10.CM10
8 11 0.50 S9.S11 53 60 0.50 P20.M20 76 0.50 CP20.CM20
16
400 Solution 0.040 40 0.005 T15.M42 160 200 0.005 C-7 250 0.005 CC-7
to Treated 0.150 35 0.010 T15.M42 140 175 0.010 C-6 225 0.010 CC-6
450 and 0.300 25 0.015 T15.M42 110 140 0.015 C-6 175 0.015 CC-6
Aged 0.625
1 12 0.13 S9.S11 49 60 0.13 P10.M10 76 0.13 CP10.CM10
4 11 0.25 S9.S11 43 53 0.25 P10.M10 69 0.25 CP10.CM10
8 8 0.40 S9.S11 34 43 0.40 P20.M20 53 0.40 CP20.CM20
16
(continued)
Carbide tool
Uncoated Coated
20. Austenitic manganese steels, cast

ASTM A128: Grades A B-1, B-2, B-3, B4, C, 150 Annealed 0.020 100 125 0.010 C-7
D,E-1,E-2,F to 0.040 75 85 0.015 C-7
220
0.50 30 38 0.25 P10

1.0 23 26 0.40 P10

Machinability 26-15
Table 26-9 Machining Recommendations (4): Face Milling

High speed steel Carbide tool
Tool Uncoated Coaled
Tool Tool
Depth Feed Tool Speed Feed material Feed material
Hard- of Speed per material Brazed Indexable per grade Speed per grade
ness cut fpm tooth AISI fpm fpm reed C fpm Feed C
Material Bhn Condition mm m/min mm ISO m/min m/min mm ISO m/min mm ISO

Low carbon 100 Annealed, 0.040 210 0.008 M2.M7 665 725 0.008 C-6 1075 0.008 C06
ASTM A426: Grade CP1 to Normalized, 0.150 160 0.012 M2.M7 500 560 0.012 C-6 725 0.012 CC-6
1010,1020 150 or 0.300 125 0.016 M2.M7 355 435 0.016 C-5 575 0.016 CC-5
Normalized 1 64 0.20 S4.S2 205 220 0.20 P20 330 0.20 CP20
and 4 49 0.30 S4.S2 150 170 0.30 P30 220 0.30 CP30
Tempered 8 38 0.40 S4,S2 110 135 0.40 P40 175 0.40 CP40
Medium Carbon 125 Annealed, 0.040 170 0.008 M2.M7 610 685 0.008 C-6 1025 0.008 CC-6
ASTM A352: Grades LCA, LCB, LCC to Normalized, 0.150 140 0.012 M2.M7 460 525 0.012 C-6 675 0.012 CM
ASTM A356: Grade 1 175 or 0.300 110 0.016 M2.M7 335 410 0.016 C-5 535 0.016 CC-5
1030,1040,1050 Normalized 1 52 0.20 S4.S2 185 210 0.20 P20 310 0.20 CP20
and 4 43 0.30 S4.S2 140 160 0.30 P30 205 0.30 CP30
Tempered 8 34 0.40 S4.S2 100 125 0.40 P40 165 0.40 CP40
175 Annealed, 0.040 150 0.008 M2.M7 510 550 0.008 C-6 825 0.008 CC-6
to Normalized, 0.150 110 0.012 M2.M7 400 460 0.012 C-6 600 0.012 CC-6
225 or 0.300 85 0.016 M2.M7 290 355 0.016 C-5 460 0.016 CC-5
and 4 34 0.30 S4.S2 120 140 0.30 P30 185 0.30 CP30
Tempered 8 26 0.40 S4.S2 88 110 0.40 P40 140 0.40 CP40
250 Quenched 0.040 110 0.006 M2.M7 440 480 0.007 C-6 725 0.007 CC-6
to and 0.150 90 0.009 M2.M7 350 365 0.010 C-6 475 0.010 CC-6
300 Tempered 0.300 70 0.012 M2.M7 230 285 0.014 C-5 375 0.014 CC-5
1 34 0.15 S4.S2 135 145 0.18 P20 220 0.18 CP20
4 27 0.23 S4.S2 105 110 0.25 P30 145 0.25 CP30
8 21 0.30 S4.S2 70 87 0.36 P40 115 0.36 CP40

Low carbon 150 Annealed, 0.040 180 0.008 M2.M7 530 580 0.008 C-6 875 0.008 CC-6
ASTMA217:GradeWC9 to Normalized, 0.150 140 0.012 M2.M7 405 445 0.012 C-6 575 0.012 CC-6
ASTM A352: Grades LC3.LC4 200 or 0.300 110 0.016 M2.M7 280 345 0.016 C-5 450 0.016 CC-5
ASTM A426: Grades CP2, CP5, CP5b, CP11, Normalized 1 55 0.20 S4.S2 160 175 0.20 P20 265 0.20 CP20
CP12,CP15,CP21,CP22 and 4 43 0.30 S4.S2 125 135 0.30 P30 175 0.30 CP30
1320,2315,2320,4110,4120,4320, Tempered 8 34 0.40 S4.S2 85 105 0.40 P40 135 0.40 CP40
8020,8620 200 Annealed, 0.040 150 0.008 M2.M7 460 510 0.008 C-6 775 0.008 CC-6
to Normalized, 0.150 110 0.012 M2.M7 350 390 0,012 C-6 500 0.012 CC-6
225 or 0.300 85 0.016 M2.M7 250 305 0.016 C-5 400 0.016 CC-5
and 4 34 0.30 S4.S2 105 120 0.30 P30 150 0.30 CP30
Tempered 8 26 0.40 S4.S2 76 95 0.40 P40 120 0.40 CP40
250 Quenched 0.040 90 0.006 M2.M7 375 400 0.007 C-6 600 0.007 CC-6
to and 0.150 75 0.010 M2.M7 275 310 0.010 C-6 400 0.010 CC-6
300 Tempered 0.300 60 0.014 M2.M7 195 240 0.014 C-5 300 0.014 CC-5
1 27 0.15 S4.S2 115 120 0.18 P20 185 0.18 CP20
4 23 0.25 S4.S2 84 95 0.25 P30 120 0.25 CP30
8 18 0.36 S4.S2 59 73 0.36 P40 90 0.36 CP40
Medium carbon 175 Annealed, 0.040 140 0.008 M2.M7 475 510 0.008 C-6 775 0.008 CC-6
ASTM A27: Grades N1, N2, U-60-30,60-30, to Normalized, 0.150 110 0.012 M2.M7 360 400 0.012 C-6 525 0.012 CC-6
65-35,70-36,7040 225 or 0.300 85 0.016 M2.M7 245 300 0.016 C-5 400 0.016 CC-5
ASTM A148: Grades 8040,80-50,90-60, Normalized 1 43 0.20 S4.S2 145 155 0.20 P20 235 0.20 CP20
105-85,120-95,150-125,175-145 and 4 34 0.30 S4.S2 110 120 0.30 P30 160 0.30 CP30
ASTM A216: Grades WCA, WCB, WCC Tempered 8 26 0.40 S4.S2 75 90 0.40 P40 120 0.40 CP40
ASTM A217: Grades WC1, WC4, WC5, WC6 225 Normalized, 0.040 120 0.006 M2.M7 425 450 0.008 C-6 675 0.008 CC-6
ASTM A352: Grades LC1, LC2, LC2-1 to Normalized 0.150 90 0.010 M2.M7 315 350 0.012 C-6 455 0.012 CC-6
ASTM A356: Grades 2,5,6,8,9,10 250 and 0.300 70 0.014 M2.M7 225 275 0.016 C-5 355 0.016 a-5
ASTM A389: Grades C23.C24 Tempered or 1 37 0.15 S4.S2 130 135 0.20 P20 205 0.20 CP20
ASTM A486: Qasses 70,90,120 Quenched 4 27 0.25 S4.S2 95 105 0.30 P30 140 0.30 CP30
ASTM A487: Qasses 1N, 2N, 4N, 6N, 8N, 9N and 8 21 0.36 S4.S2 69 84 0.40 P40 110 0.40 CP40
10N,DN,1Q,2Q,4Q,4QA,6Q,7Q, Tempered
8Q,9Q,10Q 250 Quenched 0.040 100 0.006 M2.M7 360 400 0.006 C-6 600 0.005 CC-6
1330,1340,2325,2330,4125,4130, to and 0.150 75 0.009 M2.M7 275 300 0.008 C-6 400 0.007 CC6
4140,4330,4340,8030,80B30,8040, 300 Tempered 0.300 60 0.012 M2,M7 190 235 0.010 C-5 300 0.009 CC-5
8430,8440,8630,8640,9525,9530,9535 1 30 0.15 S4.S2 110 120 0.15 P20 185 0.13 CP20
4 23 0.23 S4.S2 84 90 0.20 P30 120 0.18 CP30
8 18 0.30 S4.S2 58 72 0.25 P40 90 0.23 CP40
(continued)

Table 26-9 Machining Recommendations (4): Face Milling (continued)

Tool Uncoated Coated
Tool Tool
Depth rGGCl Tool Speed Feed material Feed material
Hard- of Speed per material Brazed Indexable per grade Speed P» grade
ness cut fpm tooth AISI fpm fpm Feed C fpm Feed C
Medium carbon 300 Quenched 0.040 80 0.005 T15.M42 290 310 0.005 C-6 475 0.004 C06
(continued) to and 0.150 60 0.008 T15.M42 225 250 0.007 C-6 325 0.006 CC-6
350 Tempered 0.300 45 0.010 T15.M42 160 195 0.009 C-5 250 0.008 CC-5
1 24 0.13 S9.S11 88 95 0.13 P20 145 0.102 CP20
4 18 0.20 S9.S11 69 76 0.18 P30 100 0.15 CP30
8 14 0.25 S9.S11 49 59 0.23 P40 76 0.20 CP40
350 Quenched 0.040 65 0.004 T15.M42 240 260 0.004 06 400 0.003 C06
to and 0.150 45 0.006 T15.M42 180 205 0.006 C-6 265 0.005 C06
400 Tempered 0.300 35 0.008 T15.M42 130 160 0.008 C-6 210 0.007 CC-6
1 20 0.102 S9.S11 73 79 0.102 P20 120 0.075 CP20
4 14 0.15 S9.S11 55 62 0.15 P20 81 0.13 CP20
8 11 0.20 S9.S11 40 49 0.20 P30 64 0.18 CP30
Hot work 150 Annealed 0.040 125 0.006 M2.M7 350 425 0.008 C-6 625 0.008 CC-6
ASTM A597: Grades CH-12, CH-13 to 0.150 90 0.010 M2.M7 280 340 0.012 06 450 0.012 C06
200 0.300 70 0.014 M2.M7 215 265 0.016 C-5 350 0.016 CC-5
1 38 0.15 S4.S2 105 130 0.20 P20 205 0.20 CP20
4 27 0.25 S4.S2 85 105 0.30 P30 135 0.30 CP30
8 21 0.36 S4.S2 66 81 0.40 P40 105 0.40 CP40
200 Annealed 0.040 105 0.006 M2.M7 345 420 0.008 C-6 625 0.008 C06
to 0.150 80 0.009 M2.M7 265 325 0.012 06 425 0.012 C06
250 0.300 60 0.012 M2.M7 220 250 0.016 C-5 325 0.016 CC-5
1 32 0.15 S4.S2 105 130 0.20 P20 190 0.20 CP20
4 24 0.23 S4.S2 81 100 0.30 P30 130 0.30 CP30
8 18 0.30 S4.S2 67 76 0.40 P40 100 0.40 CP40
325 Quenched 0.040 70 0.005 T15.M42 165 200 0.005 C-6 300 0.004 C06
to and 0.150 50 0.008 T15.M42 135 165 0.007 C-6 225 0.006 CC-6
375 Tempered 0.300 35 0.010 T15.M42 105 130 0.009 C-5 175 0.008 CC-5
1 21 0.13 S9.S11 50 60 0.13 P20 90 0.102 CP20
4 15 0.20 S2.S11 41 50 0.18 P30 69 0.15 CP30
8 11 0.25 S9.S11 32 40 0.23 P40 53 0.20 CP30
48 Re Quenched 0.040 40 0.002 T15.M42 125 155 0.002 C-6
to and 0.150 30 0.004 T15, M42 100 120 0.003 C-6
50 Re Tempered 0.300 25 0.006 T15.M42 75 95 0.004 C-6
1 12 0.050 S9.S11 38 47 0.050 P20
4 9 0.102 S9.S11 30 37 0.075 P30
8 8 0.15 S9.S11 23 29 0.102 P30
50 Re Quenched 0.040 35 0.002 T15, M42 155 190 0.002 C-2
to and 0.150 25 0.003 T15.M42 125 155 0.003 C-2
52 Re Tempered 0.300 20 0.0O4 T15.M42 100 120 0.004 C-2
1 11 0.050 S9.S11 47 58 0.050 K10
4 8 0.075 S9.S11 38 47 0.075 K10
8 6 0.102 S9.S11 30 37 0.102 K20
52 Re Quenched 0.040 100 125 0.002 C-2
to and 0.150 80 100 0.002 C-2
54 Re Tempered 0.300 65 80 0.003 C-2
1 30 38 0.050 K10
4 24 30 0.050 K10
8 20 24 0.075 ICO
54 Re Quenched 0.040 90 110 0.002 C-2
to and 0.150 70 90 0.002 C-2
1 27 34 0.050 K10
4 21 27 0.050 K10
8
ASTM A597: Grades CD-2, CD-5 to 0.150 50 0.009 M2.M7 180 220 0.010 C-6 285 0.010 CC-6
250 0.300 35 0.012 M2.M7 140 170 0.014 C-5 220 0.014 CC-5
1 20 0.15 S4.S2 69 84 0.18 P20 125 0.18 CP20
4 15 0.23 S4.S2 55 67 0.25 P30 87 0.25 CP30
8 11 0.30 S4.S2 43 52 0.36 P40 67 0.36 CP40
(continued)

Machinability 26-17

Tool Uncoated Coaled
Tool Tool
ASTM A597: Grades CA-2,00-1 to 0.150 80 0.009 M2.M7 280 340 0.012 C-6 440 0.012 CC-6
250 0.300 60 0.012 M2.M7 215 265 0.016 C-5 345 0.016 CC-5
1 32 0.15 S4.S2 115 135 0.20 P20 205 0.20 CP20
4 24 0.23 S4.S2 85 105 0.30 P30 135 0.30 CP30
8 18 0.30 S4.S2 66 81 0.40 P40 105 0.40 CP40
Shock resisting 175 Annealed 0.040 115 0.006 M2.M7 430 525 0.008 06 800 0.008 CC-6
ASTM A597: Grade CS-5 to 0.150 95 0.010 M2.M7 340 415 0.012 C-6 440 0.012 CC-6
225 0.300 70 0.014 M2.M7 26b 325 0.016 C-5 425 0.016 CC-5
1 35 0.15 S4.S2 130 160 0.20 P20 245 0.20 CP20
4 29 0.25 S4.S2 105 125 0.30 P30 135 0.30 CP30
8 21 0.36 S4.S2 81 100 0.40 P40 130 0.40 CP40
Ferritic 135 Annealed 0.040 140 0.008 M2.M7 325 400 0.008 C-6 600 0.008 CC-6
ASTMA217:GradesC5,C12 to 0.150 110 0.012 M2.M7 285 350 0.012 C-6 450 0.012 CC-6
ASTM A743/744: Grades CB-30, CC-50, 185 0.300 80 0.016 M2.M7 225 275 0.016 C-5 350 0.016 CC-5
CE-30, CA6N, CA-6NM, CD4MCu 1 43 0.20 S4.S2 100 120 0.20 P20, K20 185 0.20 CP20, CK20
ASTM A297: Grade HC 4 34 0.30 S4.S2 87 105 0.30 P30.K30 135 0.30 CP30.CK30
ASTM A487: Class CA6NM 8 24 0.40 S4.S2 69 84 0.40 P40, K40 105 0.40 CP40.CK40
ASTM A608: Grade HC30
Austen itic 140 Annealed 0.040 130 0.008 M2.M7 315 385 0.008 C-2 575 0.008 CC-2
ASTM A296: Grades CF-16F, CN-7M, CN-7MS to or 0.150 100 0.012 M2.M7 265 325 0.012 C-2 425 0.012 CC-2
ASTM A351: Grade CN-7M 170 Normalized 0.300 75 0.016 M2,M7 205 250 0.016 C-2 325 0.016 CC-2
1 40 0.20 S4.S2 95 115 0.20 K10.M20 175 0.20 CK10.CM20
4 30 0.30 S4.S2 81 100 0.30 K20, M30 130 0.30 CK20, CM30
8 23 0.40 S4.S2 62 76 0.40 K30,M40 100 0.40 CK30.CM40
ASTM A743/744: Grades CF-3, CF-8, CF-8C, to or 0.150 75 0.012 M2.M7 265 325 0.012 C-2 425 0.012 CC-2
CF-20 185 Normalized 0.300 55 0.016 M2.M7 205 250 0.016 C-2 325 0.016 CC-2
ASTM A351: Grades CF-3, CF-3A CF-8, 1 30 0.20 S4.S2 95 115 0.20 K10, M20 175 0.20 CK10.CM20
CF-8A.CF-8C 4 23 0.30 S4.S2 81 100 0.30 K20.M30 130 0.30 CK20.CM30
ASTM A451: Grades CPF3, CPF3A, CPF8, 8 17 0.40 S4.S2 62 76 0.40 K30, M40 100 0.40 CK30.CM40
CPF8A, CPF8C, CPF8C (Ta max)
ASTM A452: Grades TP304HJP347H
ASTM A743/744: Grades CF-3M, CF-8M, to or 0.150 80 0.012 M2,M7 225 275 0.012 C-2 355 0.012 CC-2
CG-8M,CG-12,CH-20,CK-20 185 Normalized 0.300 60 0.016 M2.M7 175 215 0.016 C-2 280 0.016 CC-2
ASTM A351: Grades CF-3M, CF-3MA, 1 30 0.20 S4.S2 81 100 0.20 K10.M20 145 0.20 CK10.CM20
CF-6M, CF-10MC, CH-8, CH-10, CH-20, 4 24 0.30 S4.S2 69 84 0.30 K20.M30 110 0.30 CK20.CM30
CK-20,HK-30,HK-40,HT-30 8 18 0.40 S4.S2 53 66 0.40 K30, M40 85 0.40 CK30.CM40
ASTM A451: Grades CPF3M, CPF8M,
CPF10MC, CPH8, CPH10, CPH20, CPK20
ASTM A452: Grade TP316H
Austenitic 160 As cast 0.040 90 0.008 M2.M7 225 275 0.008 C-2 400 0.008 CC-2
ASTM A297: Grades HD, HE, HF, HH, HI, HK, to 0.150 70 0.012 M2.M7 190 230 0.012 C-2 300 0.012 CC-2
HL,HN,HP,HT,HU 210 0.300 50 0.016 M2.M7 145 180 0.016 C-2 235 0.016 CC-2
ASTM A608: Grades HD50, HE35, HF30, 1 27 0.20 S4.S2 69 84 0.20 K10.M20 120 0.20 CK10.CM20
HH30, HH33, HI35, HK30, HK40, HL30, 4 21 0.30 S4.S2 58 70 0.30 K20.M30 90 0.30 CK20.CM30
HL40,HN40,HT50,HU50 8 15 0.40 S4.S2 44 55 0.40 K30.M40 72 0.40 CK30.CM40
Martensitic 135 Annealed 0.040 150 0.008 M2.M7 360 440 0.008 C-6 650 0.008 C06
ASTMA217:GradeCA-15 to 0.150 120 0.012 M2,M7 315 385 0.012 C-6 500 0.012 CC-6
ASTM A743/744: Grades CA-15, CA-15M, 175 0.300 90 0.016 M2.M7 245 300 0.016 C-5 400 0.016 CC-5
CA-40 1 46 0.20 S4.S2 110 135 0.20 M20, P20 200 0.20 CM20.CP20
ASTM A426: Grades CP7, CP9, CPCA15 4 37 0.30 S4.S2 95 115 0.30 M30.P30 150 0.30 CM30.CP30
ASTM A487: Classes CA15a,CA-15M 8 27 0.40 S4.S2 75 90 0.40 M40, P40 120 0.40 CM40.CP40
175 Annealed, 0.040 135 0.008 M2.M7 340 415 0.008 C-6 625 0.008 CC-6
to Normalized, 0.150 110 0.012 M2.M7 290 355 0.012 C-6 460 0.012 CC-6
225 or 0.300 85 0.016 M2.M7 225 275 0.016 C-5 355 0.016 CC-5
Normalized 1 41 0.20 S4.S2 105 125 0.20 M20.P20 190 0.20 CM20.CP20
and 4 34 0.30 S4.S2 88 110 0.30 M30.P30 140 0.30 CM30.CP30
Tempered 8 26 0.40 S4.S2 69 84 0.40 M40, P40 110 0.40 CM40.CP40
(continued)


Tool Uncoated Coated
Tool Tool
Martensitic 275 Quenched 0.040 90 0.006 T15.M42 265 325 0.006 C-6 475 0.005 CC-6
(continued) to and 0.150 70 0.009 T15, M42 225 275 0.008 C-6 355 0.007 CC-6
325 Tempered 0.300 50 0.012 T15.M42 175 215 0.010 C-5 280 0.009 CC-5
1 27 0.15 S9.S11 81 100 0.15 M20.P20 145 0.13 CM20.CP20
4 21 0.23 S9.S11 69 84 0.20 M30.P30 110 0.18 CM30.CP30
8 15 0.30 S9.S11 53 66 0.25 M40.P40 85 0.23 CM40.CP40
375 Quenched 0.040 70 0.004 T15.M42 160 195 0.004 06 300 0.003 CC-6
to and 0.150 50 0.006 T15.M42 135 165 0.006 06 215 0.005 C06
425 Tempered 0.300 35 0.008 T15.M42 100 125 0.008 C-6 160 0.007 CC-6
1 21 0.102 S9.S11 49 59 0.102 M20.P20 90 0.075 CM20.CP20
4 15 0.15 S9.S11 41 50 0.15 M20.P30 66 0.13 CM20.CP30
8 11 0.20 S9.S11 30 38 0.20 M30.P40 49 0.18 CM30.CP40
ASTMA351:GradeCD-4MCu 325 Solution 0.040 75 0.005 T15.M42 265 325 0.005 C-6 475 0.004 CC-6
ACI Grade CB-7Cu to Treated 0.150 55 0.008 T15.M42 225 275 0.007 C-6 350 0.006 C06
ACI Grade CMMCu, 17-4 PH, AM-355 375 0.300 40 0.010 T15, M42 175 215 0.009 C-5 280 0.008 CC-5
1 23 0.13 S9.S11 81 100 0.13 P20,M20 145 0.102 CP20.CM20
4 17 0.20 S9.S11 69 84 0.18 P30.M30 105 0.15 CP30.CM30
8 12 0.25 S9.S11 53 66 0.23 P40.M40 85 0.20 CP40.CM40
400 Solution 0.040 55 0.003 T15.M42 185 225 0.004 C-6 325 0.003 CC-6
to Treated 0.150 45 0.005 T15.M42 155 190 0.006 C-6 250 0.005 CC-6
450 and 0.300 30 0.007 T15.M42 120 150 0.008 C-6 195 0.007 CC-6
Aged 1 17 0.075 S9.S11 56 69 0.102 M20.P20 100 0.075 CM20.CP20
4 14 0.13 S9.S11 47 58 0.15 M20.P20 76 0.13 CM20.CP20
8 9 0.18 S9.S11 37 46 0.20 M30.P40 59 0.18 CM30.CP40
ASTMA128: Grades A, B-1.B-2, B-3, B4, C 150 Annealed 0.025 110 135 0.007 C-6
D,E-1,E-2,F to 0.050 70 90 0.010 C-6
220
0.6 34 41 0.18 M20.P20
1.3 21 27 0.25 M20.P20

Machinability 26-19
Table 26-10 Machining Recommendations (4): Slab Milling

Dept HSStool
of Speed Feed/ material
Hardness cut fpm tooth AiSI
Material Bhn Condition mm m/min mm ISO

Low carbon 100 Annealed, Normalized 0.040 200 0.006 M2.M7
ASTM A426: Grade CP1 to or 0.150 160 0.008 S4.S2
1010,1020 150 Normalized and Tempered 0.300 125 0.010
1 60 0.15
4 49 0.20
8 38 0.25
Medium Carbon 125 Annealed, Normalized 0.040 180 0.006 M2.M7
ASTM A352: Grades LCA, LCB, LCC to or 0.150 150 0.008 S4.S2
ASTM A356: Grade 1 175 Normalized and Tempered 0.300 115 0.010
1030,1040,1050 1 55 0.15
4 46 0.20
8 35 0.25
175 Annealed, Normalized 0.040 150 0.006 M2.M7
to or 0.150 110 0.008 S4.S2
225 Normalized and Tempered 0.300 85 0.010
1 46 0.15
4 34 0.20
8 26 0.25
250 Quenched 0.040 110 0.005 M2.M7
to and 0.150 80 0.007 S4.S2
300 Tempered 0.300 60 0.009
1 34 0.13
4 24 0.18
8 18 023
Low carbon 150 Annealed, Normalized 0.040 160 0.006 M2.M7
ASTMA217:GradeWC9 to or 0.150 125 0.008 S4.S2
ASTM A352: Grades LC3.LC4 200 Normalized and Tempered 0.300 100 0.010
ASTM A426: Grades CP2, CP5, CP5b, CP11, 1 49 0.15
CP12,CP15,CP21,CP22 4 38 0.20
1320,2315,2320,4110,4120,4320, 8 30 0.25
8020,8620 200 Annealed, Normalized 0.040 140 0.006 M2.M7
to or 0.150 100 0.008 S4.S2
1 43 0.15
4 30 020
8 23 0.25
250 Quenched 0.040 95 0.005 T15.M42
to and 0.150 75 0.007 S9.S11
300 Tempered 0.300 55 0.009
1 29 0.13
4 23 0.18
8 17 0.23
Medium carbon 175 Annealed, Normalized 0.040 130 0.006 M2,M7
ASTM A27: Grades N1, N2, U-60-30,60-30, to or 0.150 90 0.008 S4.S2
65-35,70-36,7040 225 Normalized andTempered 0.300 70 0.010
ASTM A148: Grades 8040,80-50,90-60, 1 40 0.15
105-85,120-95,150-125,175-145 4 27 0.20
ASTM A216: Grades WCA, WCB, WCC 8 21 0.25
ASTMA217:GradesWC1,WC4,WC5,WC6 225 Normalized, 0.040 90 0.005 M2.M7
ASTM A352: Grades LC1, LC2, LC2-1 to Normalized and Tempered 0.150 70 0.007 S4.S2
ASTM A356: Grades 2,5,6,8,9,10 250 or 0.300 55 0.009
ASTM A389: Grades C23.C24 Quenched and Tempered 1 27 0.13
ASTM A486: Classes 70,90,120 4 21 0.18
ASTM A487: Classes 1N, 2N, 4N, 6N, 8N, 9N, 8 17 0.23
10N, DN, 1Q, 2Q, 4Q, 4QA, 6Q, 7Q, 8Q 250 Quenched 0.040 85 0.005 T15.M42
9Q.10Q to and 0.150 60 0.006 S9.S11
1330,1340,2325,2330,4125 300 Tempered 0.300 45 0.007
4130,4140,4330,4340,8030, 1 26 0.13
80B30,8040,8430,8440,8630 4 18 0.15
8640,9525,9530,9535 8 14 0.18
(continued)

Table 26-10 Machining Recommendations (4): Slab Milling (continued)

Dept HSStool
Hardness cut fpm tooth AISI
Material Bhn Condition mm m/min mm tso
Hot work 150 Annealed 0.040 125 0.006 M2.M7
ASTM A597: Grades CH-12, CH-13 to 0.150 90 0.008 S4.S2
200 0.300 70 0.010
1 38 0.15
4 27 020
8 21 0.25
200 Annealed 0.040 95 0.005 M2.M7
to 0.150 75 0.007 S4.S2
250 0.300 55 0.009
1 29 0.13
4 23 0.18
8 17 0.23
Cold work 200 Annealed 0.040 55 0.005 M2.M7
ASTM A597: GradesCD-2, CD-5 to 0.150 45 0.007 S4.S2
250 0.300 35 0.009
1 17 0.13
4 14 0.18
8 11 0.23
Cold work 200 Annealed 0.040 110 0.005 M2.M7
ASTM A597: Grades CA-2, CO-1 to 0.150 85 0.007 S4.S2
250 0.300 65 0.009
1 34 0.13
4 26 0.18
8 20 0.23
Shock resisting 175 Annealed 0.040 130 0.006 M2.M7
ASTM A597: Grade CS-5 to 0.150 105 0.008 S4.S2
225 0.300 80 0.010
1 40 0.15
4 32 0.20
8 24 0.25

Ferrrbc 135 Annealed 0.040 170 0.006 M2.M7
ASTMA217:GradesC5,C12 to 0.150 130 0.008 S4.S2
ASTM A743/744: Grades CB-30, CC-50, CE-30 185 0.300 100 0.010
CA6N,CA-6NM,CD4MCu 1 52 0.15
ASTM A297: Grade HC 4 40 0.20
ASTMA487:QassCA6NM 8 30 0.25
AustenrBc 140 Annealed 0.040 140 0.006 M2.M7
ASTM A296: Grades CF-16F,CN-7M,CN-7MS to or 0.150 115 0.008 S4.S2
ASTMA351:GradeCN-7M 170 Normalized 0.300 90 0.010
1 43 0.15
4 35 020
8 27 0.25
(continued)

Machinability 26-21
Table 26-10 Machining Recommendations (4): Slab Milling (continued)

Oept HSStool
Hardness cut fpm tooth ArSI
Material Bhn Condition mm m/min mm ISO
18. Stainless steels, cast (continued)

Austen itic 135 Annealed 0.040 110 0.005 M2.M7
ASTM A743/744: Grades CF-3, CF-8, CF-8C, to or 0.150 85 0.007 S4.S2
CF-20 185 Normalized 0.300 60 0.009
ASTM A351: Grades CF-3, CF-3A, CF-8, 1 34 0.13
CF-8A.CF-8C 4 26 0.18
ASTM A451: Grades CPF3, CPF3A, CPF8, 8 18 0.23
ASTM A452: Grades TP 304H, TP 347H
AusteniBc 135 Annealed 0.040 100 0.006 M2.M7
ASTM A743/744: Grades CF-3M, CF-8M, to or 0.150 80 0.008 S4.S2
CG-8M,CG-12,CH-20,CK-20 185 Normalized 0.300 60 0.010
ASTM A351: Grades CF-3M, CF-3MA, 1 30 0.15
CF-8M, CF-10MC, CH-8, CH-10, CH-20, 4 24 0.20
CK-20,HK-30,HK40,HT-30 8 18 0.25
ASTM A451: Grades CPF3M, CPF8M,
CPF10MC, CPH8, CPH10, CPH20, CPK20
Austenitic 160 As cast 0.040 90 0.006 M2.M7
ASTM A297: Grades HD, HE, HF, HH, HI, HK, to 0.150 70 0.008 S4.S2
HL,HN,HP,HT,HU 210 0.300 55 0.010
ASTM A608: Grades HD50, HE35, HF30, 1 27 0.15
HH30, HH33, HI35, HK30, HK40, HL30, 4 21 020
HL40, HN40, HT50, HU50 8 17 0.25
Martensitic 135 Annealed 0.040 150 0.006 M2.M7
ASTMA217:GradeCA-15 to 0.150 110 0.008 S4.S2
ASTMA743/744:GradesCA-15,CA-15M, 175 0.300 85 0.010
CA-40 1 46 0.15
ASTM A426: Grades CP7, CP9, CPCA15 4 34 0.20
ASTM A487: Classes CA15a, CA-15M 8 26 0.25
175 Annealed, Normalized 0.040 140 0.005 M2.M7
to or 0.150 100 0.007 S4.S2
1 43 0.13
4 30 0.18
8 23 0.23
275 Quenched 0.040 80 0.004 T15.M42
to and 0.150 60 0.005 S9.S11
325 Tempered 0.300 45 0.006
1 24 0.102
4 18 0.13
8 14 0.15

ASTM A351: Grade CWMCu 325 Solution Treated 0.040 75 0.004 T15.M42
ACI Grade CB-7Cu to 0.150 55 0.005 S9.S11
ACI Grade CD4MCu 375 0.300 40 0.006
17-4 PH 1 23 0.102
AM-355 4 17 0.13
8 12 0.15

Table 26-11 Machining Recommendations (4): Drilling

Feed Tool
ipr, mm/rev material
Speed Nominal hole diameter grade
Hardness fpm 1/16 in. 1/8 in. 1/4 in. 1/2 in. 3/4 in. 1 in. 1-1/2 in. 2 in. AlSlorC
Material Bhn Condition m/min 1.5 mm 3 mm 6 mm 12 mm 18 mm 25 mm 35 mm 50 mm ISO

Low carbon 100 Annealed, 65 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.009 0.012 0.014 0.018 0.022 M10,
ASTMA425:GradeCP1 to Normalized 90 M7.M1
1010,1020 150 or Normalized 20 0.025 0.075 0.13 0.23 0.30 0.36 0.45 0.55 S2.S3
and Tempered 27
Medium Carbon 125 Annealed, 65 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.009 0.012 0.014 0.018 0.022 M10,
ASTM A352: Grades LCA, LCB, LCC to Normalized 80 M7.M1
ASTM A356: Grade 1 175 or Normalized 20 0.025 0.075 0.13 0.23 0.30 0.36 0.45 0.55 S2.S3
1030,1040,1050 and Tempered 24
175 Annealed, 55 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.009 0.012 0.014 0.018 0.022 M10,
to Normalized 70 M7.M1
225 or Normalized 17 0.025 0.075 0.13 0.23 0.30 0.36 0.45 0.55 S2.S3
and Tempered 21
250 Quenched 55 0.001 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.018 M10,
to and 17 0.025 0.050 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.45 M7.M1
300 Tempered S2.S3
Low carbon 150 Annealed, 60 0.001 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.013 0.016 0.020 0.024 M10,
ASTMA217:GradeWC9 to Normalized 70 M7.M1
ASTM A352: Grades LC3.LC4 200 or Normalized 18 0.025 0.075 0.15 0.25 0.33 0.40 0.50 0.60 S2.S3
ASTM A426: GradesCP2, CP5, CP5b, and Tempered 21
CP11,CP12,CP15,CP21,CP22 200 Annealed, 60 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.018 M10,
1320,2315,2320,4110,4120,4320, to Normalized 18 0.025 0.075 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.45 M7.M1
8020,8620 225 or Normalized S2.S3
and Tempered
250 Quenched 50 0.001 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 M10,
to and 15 0.025 0.050 0.102 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.36 M7.M1
300 Tempered S2.S3
Medium carbon 175 Annealed, 60 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.014 0.016 0.020 0.023 M10,
ASTM A27: Grades N1, N2, U-60-30,60-30, to Normalized 18 0.075 0.15 0.25 0.36 0.40 0.50 0.60 M7.M1
65-35,70-36,7040 225 or Normalized S2.S3
ASTM A148: Grades 80-40,80-50,90#), and Tempered
105-85,120-95,150-125,175-145 225 Normalized, 50 0.003 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.018 M10,
ASTM A216:Grades WCA, WCB, WCC to Normalized 15 0.075 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.45 M7.M1
ASTM A217: Grades WC1, WC4, WC5, WC6 250 and Tempered S2.S3
ASTM A352: Grades LC1, LC2, LC2-1 or Quenched
ASTMA356:Grades2,5,6,8,9,10 and Tempered
ASTM A389: Grades C23.C24 250 Quenched 45 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.012 0.014 M10,
ASTM A486: Classes 70,90,120 to and 14 0.050 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.23 0.30 0.36 M7.M1
ASTM A487: aasses 1N, 2N, 4N, 6N, 8N, 9N, 300 Tempered S2.S3
10N, DN, 1Q, 2Q, 4Q, 4QA, 6Q, 7Q, 8Q, 9Q, 300 Quenched 35 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 M10,
10Q, 1330,1340,2325,2330,4125,4130, to and 11 0.050 0.075 0.13 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.28 M7.M1
4140,4330,4340,8030,80B30,8040,8430, 350 Tempered S2.S3
8440,8630,8640,9525,9530,9535
350 Quenched 25 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.010 T15.M42
to and 8 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.20 0.25 S9.S11
400 Tempered
Hot work 150 Annealed 50 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.011 0.014 0.016 M10,
ASTMA597:GradesCH-12, CH-13 to 15 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.15 0.23 0.28 0.36 0.40 M7.M1
200 S2.S3
200 Annealed 40 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.013 M10,
to 12 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.28 0.33 M7.M1
250 S2.S3
325 Quenched 30 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.011 M10,
to and 9 0.050 0.075 0.13 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.28 M7.M1
375 Tempered S2.S3
48 Ft Quenched 15 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 T15.M42
to 50 Re and Tempered 5 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.075 0.102 0.102 0.102 S9.S11
50 Re Quenched 10 0.005 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 T15.M42
to 52 Ft and Tempered 3 0.013 0.025 0.050 0.050 0.075 0.075 0.102 S9.S11
52 Re Quenched 70 0.001 0.001 0.0015 C-2
to 54 Re and Tempered 21 0.025 0.025 0.038 K10
54 Re Quenched 60 0.001 0.001 0.0015 C-2
to 56 Re and Tempered 18 0.025 0.025 0.038 K10
(continued)

Machinability 26-23
Table 26-11 Machining Recommendations (4): Drilling (continued)

Feed Tool
Hardness fpm 1/16 in. 1/8 in. 1/4 in. 1/2 in. 3/4 in. 1 in. 1-1/2 in. 2 in. AlSlorC
Material Bhn Condition m/min 1.5 mm 3 mm 6 mm 12 mm 18 mm 25 mm 35 mm 50 mm ISO
Cold work 200 Annealed 25 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.012 M10,
ASTM A597: Grades CD-2, CD-5 to 8 0.025 0.025 0.075 0.13 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.30 M7.M1
250 S2.S3
Cold work 200 Annealed 40 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.012 M10,
ASTM A597: Grades CA-2, CO-1 to 12 0.025 0.025 0.075 0.13 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.30 M7.M1
250 S2.S3
Shock resisting 175 Annealed 50 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.014 0.016 M10,
ASTM A597: Grade CS-5 to 15 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.18 0.23 0.28 0.36 0.40 M7.M1
225 S2.S3
Ferritic 135 Annealed 60 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.018 M10,
ASTMA217:GradesC5,C12 to 18 0.050 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.45 M7.M1
ASTM A743/744: Grades CB-30, CC-50, 185 S2.S3
CE-30, CA6N, CA-6NM, CD4MCu
ASTM A297: Grade HC
ASTM A487: Class CA6NM
Austen itic 140 Annealed 45 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.018 M10,
ASTM A743/744: Grades CF-16F, CN-7M, to or 50 M7.M1
CN-7MS 170 Normalized 14 0.025 0.075 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.45 S2.S3
ATM A351: Grade CN-7M 15
Austen itic 135 Annealed 55 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.018 M10,
ASTM A743ff44: Grades CF-3, CF-8, CF-8C, to or 17 0.050 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.45 M7.M1
CF-20 185 Normalized S2.S3
ASTM A351: Grades CF-3, CF-3A, CF-8,
CF-8A.CF-8C
ASTM A451: Grades CPF3, CPF3A CPF8,
ASTM A452: Grades TP 304H, TP 347H
Austen itic 135 Annealed 50 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.018 M10,
ASTM A743/744: Grades CF-3M, CF-8M, to or 15 0.050 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.45 M7.M1
CG-8M,CG12,CH-20,CK-20 185 Normalized S2.S3
ASTM A351: Grades CF-3M, CF-3MA, CF-8M,
CF-10MC, CH-8, CH-10, CH-20, CK-20,
HK-30.HK40.HT-30
ASTM 451: Grades CPF3M, CPF8M,
CPF1OMC, CPH8, CPH10, CPH20, CPK20
Austen itic 160 As cast 45 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.013 M10,
ASTM A297: Grades HD, HE, HF, HH, HI, HK, to 14 0.050 0.075 0.13 0.18 0.23 0.28 0.33 M7.M1
HL,HN,HP,HT,HU 210 S2.S3
ASTM A608: Grades
HD50, HE35, HF30, HH30, HH33, HI35, HK30,
HK40, HL30, HL40, HN40, HT50, HU50
Martensitic 135 Annealed 50 0.001 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.013 0.016 0.021 0.025 M10,
ASTMA217:GradeCA-15 to 70 M7.M1
ASTM A743/744: Grades CA-15, CA-15M, 175 15 0.025 0.075 0.15 0.25 0.33 0.40 0.55 0.65 S2.S3
CA-40 21
ASTM A426: Grades CP7, CP9, CPCA15 175 Annealed, 60 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.013 0.016 0.021 0.025 M10,
ASTM A487: Classes CA15a, CA-15M to Normalized 18 0.075 0.15 0.25 0.33 0.40 0.55 0.65 M7,M1
225 or Normalized S2.S3
and Tempered
275 Quenched 50 0.003 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.012 0.015 0.018 M10,
to and 15 0.075 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.45 M7.M1
325 Tempered S2.S3
375 Quenched 40 0.002 0.003 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.013 T15.M42
to 425 and Tempered 12 0.050 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.23 0.28 0.33 S9.S11
ASTM A351: Grade CD-4MCU 325 Solution 30 0.002 0.003 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.013 T15.M42
ACI Grade CB-7Cu to 375 Treated 9 0.050 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.23 0.28 0.33 S9.S11
ACI Grade CD4MCU, 17-4PH.AM-355 400 Solution 20 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 T15.M42
to Treated 6 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.102 0.102 0.102 S9.S11
450 andAqed
(continued)

Table 26-11 Machining Recommendations (4): Drilling (continued)

Feed Tool
Hardness fpm 1/16in. 1/8 in. 1/4 in. 1/2 in. 3/4 in. 1 in. 1-1/2 in. 2 in. AlSlorC
Material Bhn Condition ni/min 1.5 mm 3 mm 6 mm 12 mm 18 mm 25 mm 35 mm 50 mm ISO

ASTMA128: Grades A, B-1, B-2, fr3, B-4, C, 150 Annealed 20 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 T15.M42
D,E-1,E-2,F to 70 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 C-2
220 6 0.050 0.075 0.075 0.102 S9.S11
21 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.075 K10

Machinability 26-25
Table 26-12 Machining Recommendations (4) Reaming

Roughing Finishing
Feed Tool Feed Tool
ipr material ipr material
mm/rev grade mm/rev grade
Hard- Speed Reamer diameter AISI Speed Reamer diameter AISI
ness fpm 1/8 in. 1/4 in. 1/2 in. 1 in. 1.5 in. 2 in. orC fpm 1/8 in. 1/4 in. 1/2 in. 1 in. 1.5 in. 2 in. orC
Material Bhn Condition m/min 3 mm 6 mm 12 mm 25 mm 35 mm 50 mm ISO m/min 3 mm 6 mm 12mm 25 mm 35 mm 50 mm ISO

Low carbon 100 Annealed, 100 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1,M2,M7 40 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.025 0.030 0.035 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA426: Grade CP1 to Normalized 115 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2 50 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.025 0.030 0.035 C-2
1010,1020 150 or Normalized 30 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3, S4, S2 12 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.65 0.75 0.90 S3,S4,S2
and Tempered 35 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20 15 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.65 0.75 0.90 K20
Medium Carbon 125 Annealed, 80 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1,M2,M7 35 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.025 0.030 0.035 M1,M2,M7
ASTMA352: Grades to Normalized 95 0.0O4 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2 45 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.025 0.030 0.035 C-2
LCA,LCB,LCC 175 or Normalized 24 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3,S4,S2 11 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.65 0.75 0.90 S3,S4,S2
ASTMA356: Grade 1 and Tempered 29 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20 14 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.65 0.75 0.90 K20
1030,1040,1050 175 Annealed, 70 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1,M2,M7 30 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1,M2,M7
to Normalized 85 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2 40 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2
225 or Normalized 21 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3,S4,S2 9 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3,S4,S2
and Tempered 26 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20 12 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20
250 Quenched 50 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 M1,M2,M7 25 0.003 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 M1,M2,M7
to and 65 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 C-2 35 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 C-2
300 Tempered 15 0.075 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 S3,S4,S2 8 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 S3,S4,S2
20 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 K20 11 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 K20
Low carbon 150 Annealed, 80 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1,M2,M7 35 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA217: Grade WC9 to Normalized 95 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2 45 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2
ASTMA352: Grades 200 or Normalized 24 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3,S4,S2 11 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3.S4.S2
LC3.LC4 and Tempered 29 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20 14 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20
ASTMA426: Grades 200 Annealed, 75 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 M1,M2,M7 30 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1.M2.M7
CP2,CP5,CP5b, to Normalized 90 0.004 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 C-2 40 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2
CP11,CP12,CP15, 225 or Normalized 23 0.075 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 S3, S4, S2 9 0.102 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3,S4,S2
CP21.CP22 and Tempered 27 0.102 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 K20 12 0.102 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20
1320,2315,2320, 250 Quenched 60 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 M1,M2,M7 25 0.004 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 M1.M2.M7
4110,4120,4320, to and 75 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 C-2 35 0.004 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 C-2
8020,8620 300 Tempered 18 0.075 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 S3, S4, S2 8 0.102 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 S3,S4,S2
23 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 K20 11 0.102 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 K20
Medium carbon 175 Annealed, 65 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1.M2.M7 35 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA27: Grades N1, to Normalized 80 0.004 0.007 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2 45 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2
N2.U-60-30,60-30, 225 or Normalized 20 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3,S4,S2 11 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3.S4.S2
65-35,70-36,70-40 and Tempered 24 0.102 0.18 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20 14 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20
ASTMA148: Grades 225 Normalized, 60 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 M1.M2.M7 30 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 M1.M2.M7
80-10,80-50,90-60, to Normalized 75 0.004 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 C-2 40 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 C-2
105-85,120-95, 250 and Tempered 18 0.075 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 S3,S4,S2 9 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 S3.S4.S2
150-125,175-145 or Quenched 23 0.102 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 K20 12 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 K20
ASTMA216: Grades and Tempered
WCA,WCB,WCC 250 Quenched 50 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 M1,M2,M7 25 0.003 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 M1,M2,M7
ASTMA217: Grades to and 65 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 C-2 35 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 C-2
WC1,WC4,WC5,WC6 300 Tempered 15 0.075 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 S3.S4.S2 8 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 S3,S4,S2
ASTMA352: Grades 20 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 K20 11 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 K20
LC1,LC2,LC2-1 300 Quenched 35 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 M1.M2.M7 25 0.002 0.005 0.006 0.010 0.012 0.015 M1,M2,M7
ASTMA356: Grades to and 50 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.015 C-2 35 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.015 C-2
2,5,6,8,9,10 350 Tempered 11 0.050 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 S3, S4, S2 8 0.050 0.13 0.15 0.25 0.30 0.40 S3,S4,S2
ASTMA389: Grades 15 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 K20 11 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 K20
C23.C24 350 Quenched 25 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 T15.M42 20 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 T15.M42
ASTMA486: Classes to and 40 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.012 C-2 30 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.012 C-2
70,90,120 400 Tempered 8 0.050 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.20 S9.S11 6 0.050 0.102 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.20 S9.S11
ASTMA487: Classes 12 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.28 0.30 K20 9 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.28 0.30 K20
1N,2N,4N,6N,8N,9N,10N,
DN,1Q,2Q,4Q,4QA,6Q,
7Q,8Q,9Q,10Q
1330,1340,2325,2330,
4125,4130,4140,4330,
4340,8030.80B30,8040,
8430,8440,8630,8640,
9525,9530,9535
(continued)

Table 26-12 Machining Recommendations (4) Reaming (continued)

Roughing Finishing
Feed Tool Feed Tool
ness fpm 1/8 in. 1/4 in. 1/2 in. 1 in. !l.5in. 2 in. orC fpm 1/8 in. 1/4 in. 1/2 in. 1 in. 1.5 in. 2 in. orC
Material Bhn Condition m/min 3 mm 6 mm 12 mm 25 mm 135 mm 50 mm ISO m/min 3 mm 6 mm 12 mm 25 mm 35 mm 50 mm ISO

Hot work 150 Annealed 60 0.003 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 M1.M2.M7 35 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA597: Grades to 75 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 C-2 45 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2
CH-12.CH-13 200 18 0.075 0.15 020 0.30 0.40 0.50 S3,S4,S2 11 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3.S4.S2
23 0.102 0.15 020 0.30 0.40 0.50 K20 14 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20
200 Annealed 50 0.003 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 M1.M2.M7 30 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 M1.M2.M7
to 65 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 C-2 40 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 C-2
250 15 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 S3,S4,S2 9 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 S3.S4.S2
20 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 K20 12 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 K20
325 Quenched 30 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 M1.M2.M7 25 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.010 0.012 0.015 M1.M2.M7
to and 45 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.015 C-2 35 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.015 C-2
375 Tempered 9 0.050 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 S3,S4,S2 8 0.075 0.13 0.15 0.25 0.30 0.40 S3.S4.S2
14 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 K20 11 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 K20
48 Re Quenched 15 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 T15, M42 15 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 T15.M42
to and 30 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.006 C-2 25 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.006 C-2
50 Re Tempered 5 0.025 0.038 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 S9.S11 5 0.025 0.038 0.050 0.075 0.075 0.075 S9.S11
9 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.15 K20 8 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.15 K20
50 Re Quenched 10 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 T15.M42 10 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 T15.M42
to and 25 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.006 C-2 20 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.006 C-2
52 Re Tempered 3 0.025 0.038 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 S9.S11 3 0.025 0.038 0.050 0.075 0.075 0.075 S9.S11
8 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.15 K20 6 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.15 K20
52 R= Quenched
to and 20 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 C-2 15 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 C-2
54 Re Tempered
6 0.050 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.102 0.102 K20 5 0.050 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.102 0.102 K20
54 Re Quenched
to and 20 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 C-2 15 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 C-2
56 Re Tempered
6 0.050 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.102 0.102 K20 5 0.050 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.102 0.102 K20
Cold work 200 Annealed 25 0.003 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 M1,M2,M7 20 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA597:Grades to 40 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 C-2 30 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 C-2
CD-2.CD-5 250 8 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 S3.S4.S2 6 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 S3.S4.S2
12 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 K20 9 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 K20
Cold work 200 Annealed 40 0.003 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 M1.M2.U7 30 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA597:Grades to 55 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 C-2 40 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 C-2
CA-2.CO-1 250 12 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 S3.S4.S2 9 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 S3.S4.S2
17 0.102 0.15 020 0.30 0.40 0.50 K20 12 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 K20
Shock resisting 175 Annealed 55 0.004 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 M1.M2.M7 35 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA597:Grade to 70 0.004 0.006 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 C-2 45 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.020 0.025 0.030 C-2
CS-5 225 17 0.102 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 S3.S4.S2 11 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 S3.S4.S2
21 0.102 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 K20 14 0.13 0.20 0.30 0.50 0.65 0.75 K20
Ferritic 135 Annealed 70 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 M1.M2.M7 35 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA217: Grades C5.C12 to 85 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024 C-2 45 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.012 C-2
ASTMA743/744:Grades 185 21 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 S3.S4.S2 11 0.102 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.23 025 S3.S4.S2
CB-30,CC-50,CE-30,CA6N, 26 0.102 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 K20 14 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.28 0.30 K20
CA-6NM,CD4MCu
ASTMA297: Grade HC
ASTMA487:aassCA6NM
ASTMA608: Grade HC30
Austenrtic 140 Annealed 65 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.015 M1.M2.M7 35 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.008 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA743/744:Grades to or 80 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024 C-2 50 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 C-2
CF-16F,CN-7M,CN-7MS 170 Normalized 20 0.075 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 S3.S4.S2 11 0.075 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.18 020 S3.S4.S2
ASTMA351:GradeCN-7M 24 0.102 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 K20 15 0.075 0.102 0.15 020 0.23 0.25 K20
Austenrtic 135 Annealed 55 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.015 M1.M2.M7 30 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.008 M1.M2.M7
CF-3,CF-8,CF-8C,CF-20 185 Normalized 17 0.075 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 S3.S4.S2 9 0.075 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.18 0.20 S3.S4.S2
ASTMA351:GradesCF-3, 21 0.102 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 K20 12 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.23 025 K20
CF-3A.CF-8.CF-8A.CF-8C
ASTMA451:Grades
CPF3,CPF3A,CPF8,CPF8A,
CPF8C,CPF8C(Tamax)
ASTMA452: Grades
TP304HJP347H
(continued)

Machinability 26-27
Table 26-12 Machining Recommendations (4) Reaming (continued

Roughing Finishing
Feed Tool Feed Tool
ness fpm 1/8 in. 1/4 in. 1/2 in. 1 in. 1.5 in. 2 in. orC fpm 1/8 in. 1/4 in. 1/2 in. 1 in. 1.5 in. 2 in. orC
Material Bhn Condition m/min 3 mm Jimm 12 mm 25 mm 35 mm 50 mm ISO m/min 3 mm 6 mm 12 mm 25 mm 35 mm 50 mm ISO
AustenWc 135 Annealed 55 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.015 M1.M2.M7 30 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.008 M1.M2.M7
CF-3M,CF-8M,CG-8M, 185 Normalized 17 0.075 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 S3,S4,S2 9 0.075 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.18 0.20 S3,S4,S2
CG-12,CH-20,CK-20 21 0.102 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 K20 12 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.23 0.25 K20
ASTMA351: Grades CF-3M,
CF-3MA,CF-8M,CF-10MC,
CH-8,CH-10,CH-20,CK-20,
HK-30,HK-40,HT-30
ASTMA451: Grades CPF3M,
CPF8M,CPF10MC,CPH8,
CPH10,CPH20,CPK20
ASTMA452:GradeTP316H
AustenWc 160 As cast 50 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.015 M1,M2,M7 25 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.008 M1.M2.M7
ASTMA297: Grades HD, HE, to 65 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024 C-2 35 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 C-2
HF,HH,HI,HK,HL,HN,HP, 210 15 0.075 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 S3,S4,S2 8 0.075 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.18 0.20 S3,S4,S2
HT.HU 20 0.102 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 K20 11 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.23 0.25 K20
ASTMA608: Grades HD50,
HE35,HF30,HH30,HH33,
HI35,HK30,HK40,HL30,
HL40, HN40, HT50, HU50
Martensitic 135 Annealed 70 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 M1,M2,M7 35 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 M1,M2,M7
ASTMA217:GradeCA-15 to 85 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024 C-2 45 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.012 C-2
ASTMA743/744: Grades 175 21 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 S3,S4,S2 11 0.102 0.102 0.15 0.20 023 0.25 S3,S4,S2
CA-15,CA-15M,CA-40 26 0.102 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 K20 14 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.28 0.30 K20
ASTMA426: Grades 175 Annealed, 65 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 M1,M2,M7 30 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 M1,M2,M7
CP7,CP9,CPCA15 to Normalized,
ASTMA487: Classes 225 Normalized 80 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024 C-2 40 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 C-2
CA15a,CA-15M or Normalized 20 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 S3,S4,S2 9 0.102 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.23 0.25 S3,S4,S2
and Tempered 24 0.102 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 K20 12 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.23 025 K20
275 Quenched 50 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 M1,M2,M7 25 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.008 M1,M2,M7
to and 65 0.004 0.006 0.009 0.015 0.018 0.020 C-2 35 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 C-2
325 Tempered 15 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 S3,S4,S2 8 0.075 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.18 0.20 S3,S4,S2
20 0.102 0.15 0.23 0.40 0.45 0.50 K20 11 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.20 K20
375 Quenched 40 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.012 T15.M42 20 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.008 T15.M42
to and 55 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 C-2 30 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 C-2
425 Tempered 12 0.050 0.102 0.13 0.20 0.25 0.30 S9.S11 6 0.075 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.18 0.20 S9.S11
17 0.075 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 K20 9 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.18 020 K20
19. Precipitation hardening iitainlesss steels, cast
ASTMA351: Grade 325 Solution 30 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.012 M1,M2,M7 15 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.008 M1.M2.M7
CD-4MCU to Treated 45 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.014 0.016 C-2 30 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 C-2
ACI Grade CB-7Cu 375 9 0.050 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.28 0.30 S3,S4,S2 5 0.075 0.075 0.102 0.15 0.18 0.20 S3.S4.S2
ACI Grade C M M C u 14 0.102 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.36 0.40 K20 9 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.20 K20
17-4 PH 400 Solution 25 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.007 0.010 0.012 T15.M42 10 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 T15.M42
AM-355 to Treated 40 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 C-2 30 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 C-2
450 and 8 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.18 0.25 0.30 S9, S11 3 0.050 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.18 S9.S11
Aqed 12 0.075 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 K20 9 0.075 0.102 0.13 0.15 0.18 020 K20
Table 26-13 Machining Recommendations, f pm(a)—Cast Nickel-Base Alloys

High speed steel tools Cemented carbide tools
Alloy type Grade TUrning Milling(5) Drilling(6) Threading Turning
CastNi CZ-100(1) 50-60(3) 40-60 50-90 15-25 150-275

Ni-Cu M-35-l&2,Comp.A,B 40-50(4) 40-50 40-70 15-25 130-225
Composition C 25-40(4) 25-35 40-60 10-20 90-200
Comp. D annealed(2) 25-35(4) 25-35 25-35 10-15 85-150
Comp. D as cast or aged(2) 15-25(4) 15-25 10-20 8-12 60-125
Ni-Cr CY-40 25-40(3) 25-35 25-35 15-25 70-180
(a) Conversion: 1 fpm = 0.0509 m/s. (1) Machining speeds are for CZ-100 containing 0.75% carbon in the form of spheroidal graphite. (2) Machinability of Compo-
sition D will vary with silicon content. At 3.8% Si, use high side of range; at 4.2% Si, use low side of range. (3) Roughing feeds are on the order of 0.010 to 0.015 in.
(0.25-0.28 mm). Finishing feeds commensurate with desired finish. For boring, decrease these speeds 25%. (4) Roughing feeds are on the order of 0.012 to 0.018 in.
(0.30-0.46 mm); finishing feeds commensurate with desired finish. (5) Use feeds 0.003 to 0.009 in. (0.08-0.20 mm) per cutter tooth. (6) Use feeds commensurate with
drill diameter 1/16 to 1/4-in. (1.56-6.34-mm) diameter drills—O.OOlto 0.003-in. (0.02-0.08-mm) feed; 1/4 to 1/2-in. (6.35-12.70-mm) diameter drills—0.003 to
0.005-in. (0.08-0.13-mm) feed and 0.005 to 0.008-in. (0.13-0.20-mm) feed for larger diameter drills

^

CHAPTER 27
Physical Properties
Density 27-2
Modulus of Elasticity 27-3
Poisson's Ratio 27-5
Shear Modulus 27-5
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 27-6
Thermal Conductivity 27-6
Specific Heat 27-9
Thermal Diffusivity 27-11
Electrical Resistivity 27-11
Magnetic Properties 27-13
References 27-16

27-2 Part 5C: Physical Properties
-
1 IT I I 8200 0.27 1 1 1 1 1 7500
68*F ( 20*C )y^ W
- 8100
Fig. 27-1 The influence of
2912*F ( 1 6 0 0 * 0 7400 alloying elements on the
0.29 8000 7300 density of iron at 68 °F (20 °C)
and 2912 °F(1600 °C)(1)
r> yS Ni - 7900 0.26 7200 ""g
K> IO
7800 E 7100 v
£ 0.28 c
7700 7000 *
i
> 7600 -
.o 0.25 6900 £
Si
(/>
2
\ 7500 \ \ Si
- 6800 2
0.27
UJ
O 7400 6700 O
0.24 \ \AI
\ Al 7300 6600
1 l 1 i l 1 1 1 \ 1 1
0.26 7200 '6500
1 2 3 4 5 ( 1 2 3 4 5 6
PERCENT PERCENT
TEMPERATURE-°C
100 300
300 500 700 900
30
28
I *=^-i-w. i i r~ i—r 200
o
tn tn _ 0.10 %C
0_
26 1.06 %C 2E
24 0 50 %Mo 160 "b
OO T 22 0.50 %Cr,0.50 % M o _
>• 2 uj I % C r , 0 . 5 0 % Mo Ul
20
18 N 2 % C r . 0 . 5 0 % Mo
2 . 2 5 % Cr, 1% Mo
- 120
13 3 % Cr,0.50%Mo.l.50> S
n- 2? "» 12 5 % Cr,0.50%Mo,Cb 90 o
0.
< -i«) 5 % Cr,0.50%Mo,Ti_
II
hiZ> o IO
i d ; 10 —A 70 2
to O '
9
CA-15 oI
CC •50
8 HC
50
en 0 .. 3 5
CF-8
go 0 .30
0. 2 5
-V- JV CF-8C
CH-20
5°= 0. 2 0
0 .15 -£-
CK - 2 0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

TEMPERATURE-
Fig. 27-2 Variation of Poisson's ratio, shear modulus, and modulus of elasticity with temperature for wrought carbon, low alloy, and high alloy
steels. For high alloy steels the nearest cast steel designations are used in this figure to indicate the type of alloy stee (9).
annealed steel will exhibit a value that is slightly higher than the
Density value recorded after quenching in water. The density value and the
heat treatment of several cast carbon and low alloy steels are listed
The density, p, is the mass per unit volume and is expressed in the in Table 27-1.
units lb/in. orkg/m. The density of a steel casting is affected slightly by section size.
Data listed in Table 27-2 from radiographically sound sections of the
Carbon, and Low Alloy Steels and same carbon steel indicate decreasing density with increasing sec-
Manganese Steels tion size.
Carbon and low alloy steels have densities in the range of 0.2818 The effect of temperature on density is illustrated in Table 27-3 by
to 0.2843 lb/in.3 (7800 to 7870 kg/m3) at 68 °F (20 °C). The density data for pure iron.
of austenitic manganese steel has been reported as 0.2836 lb/in.
(7870 kg/m ). Within the nominal composition range, the alloying High Alloy Steels
elements exhibit only minor effects on density (Figure 27-1). The Densities of cast high alloy steels are given in Table 27-4. Carbide
density of cast steel varies slightly with heat treatment; a fully precipitation and/or sigma formation may occur in CF-type corro-
Table 27-1 Compilation of Density and Elastic Modulus Data for Cast Carbon and Low Alloy Steels (2,3,4)
Chem- Density
istry Refer- Composition, % Heat at68°F(20°C) Elastic modulus
No. ence C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo P S Other treatment(a) lb/in.3 (kg/m3) psixlu 3 (MPaxlO4)
1 2 0.06 0.38 0.01 A 0.2844 (7871)

2 2 0.08 0.31 A
3 3 0.11 0.35 0.40 0.24 0.07 0.10 0.016 0.028 N 0.2836 (7850) 31,160 (21.48)
4 3 0.15 0.74 0.46 0.19 0.07 0.03 0.030 0.030 N 0.2825 (7820) 30,490 (21.02)
5 3 0.15 0.80 0.36 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.027 0.029 N 0.2821 (7810) 30,120 (20.77)
6 3 0.17 0.74 0.45 0.50 0.021 0.018 NT 0.2840 (7860) 29,850 (20.58)
7 2 0.23 0.64 0.11 A 0.2839 (7859)
8 4 0.23 1.51 ... 0.11 Cu
9 3 0.25 1.38 0.51 0.43 0.71 0.40 0.021 0.026 NQT 0.2833 (7840) 30,450 (20.99)
10 3 0.25 1.55 0.34 0.09 0.31 0.022 0.040 NQT 0.2829 (7830) 29,430 (20.29
11 3 0.27 0.77 0.41 0.022 0.021 NQT 0.2836 (7850) 30,380 (20.95)
12 3 0.29 1.27 0.44 0.031 0.024 NQT 0.2825 (7820) 30,090 (20.75)
13 4 0.30 0.5 0.3 0.95 0.02 NQT
14 3 0.31 1.46 0.41 0.46 0.65 0.33 0.016 0.020 NQT 0.2836 (7850) 30,380 (20.95)
15 2 0.32 0.69 1.09 0.073 A
16 3 0.32 0.76 0.40 0.69 1.65 0.32 0.013 0.015 NQT 0.2821 (7810) 29,290 (20.19)
17 2 0.33 0.55 0.017 3.47
18 3 0.34 0.51 0.47 0.74 2.82 0.42 0.020 0.013 NQT 0.2833 (7840) 30,190 (20.82)
19 2 0.34 0.55 0.78 3.53 0.39 QT
20 2 0.35 0.59 0.88 0.26 0.20 A
21 4 0.39 0.79 1.03 NQT
22 3 0.40 0.56 0.46 0.030 0.025 A 0.2854 (7900) 29,580 (20.39)
23 3 0.40 0.64 0.36 0.019 0.019 NQT 0.2833 (7840)
24 4 0.41 0.67 1.01 0.23 NQT
25 4 0.41 1.07 1.43 0.26 NQT
26 2 0.42 0.64 A
27 4 0.49 0.90 1.98 ... 0.64Cu Unknown
28 3 0.58 0.79 0.39 0.02 0.12 0.03 0.024 0.028 NQT 0.2818 (7800) 31,420 (21.66)
29 2 0.80 0.32 A
30 2 1.22 0.35 0.16 A 0.2829 (7830)
31 2 1.22 13.0 0.22 0.03 0.07
(a) A, Annealed; N, Normalized; NQT, Normalized, water quench, and tempered; NT, Normalized and tempered
Table 27-2 The Effect of Mass Upon the Density of Table 27-3 Density of Pure Iron at Different
Cast Steel (7) Temperatures (8)
Section Density Temperature Density
(mm) lb/in.3 (kg/m3) op (°C) lb/in.3 (kg/m3)
(25) 0.2832 (7838) 68 (20) 0.2843 (7870)

(51) 0.2829 (7831) 212 (100) 0.2837 (7852)
(127) 0.2826 (7823) 392 (200) 0.2826 (7822)
(203) 0.2822 (7812) 752 (400) 0.2802 (7754)
1112 (600) 0.2774 (7678)
0.25% C, 0.63% Mn, 0.23% Si, density measured at the center of the cube 1472 (800) 0.2754 (7622)
casting 1832 (1000) 0.2741 (7587)
2012 (1100) 0.2724 (7540)
2192 (1200) 0.2707 (7492)
2372 (1300) 0.2690 (7446)
2552 (1400) 0.2667 (7383)
sion-resistant alloys as the result of exposure to temperatures above
2732 (1500) 0.2652 (7339)
800 °F (427 °C) and cause a decrease in the density (5,6).
Nickel-Base Alloys
The density of various cast nickel-base alloys is shown in Table
27-5.
Carbon and Low Alloy and Manganese
Modulus of Elasticity Steels
The value most commonly used is 30,000,000 psi (21 x 104 MPa).
The modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus, is defined as the Typical values for a variety of cast carbon and low alloy steels are
ratio of mean stress to the corresponding mean strain for stresses listed in Table 27-1. For standard manganese austenitic steels the
below the yield point. The modulus of elasticity, E, is expressed in elastic modulus has been reported as 23,992,000-29,992,000 psi
the units of psi or MPa. (16,542 x 104-20,679 x 104 MPa).
The modulus of elasticity is independent of heat treatment and High Alloy Steels
composition for carbon and low alloy steels but decreases with
Room-temperature values of modulus of elasticity for cast corro-
increasing temperature as shown in Figure 27-2.
sion and heat-resistant alloys are listed in Table 27-6. The modulus
Nickel-Base Alloys of elasticity is sensitive to the structure type (equiaxed versus
columnar) and orientation. For example, a value of 27,000,000 psi
The density of various cast nickel-base alloys is shown in Table 27-5.
Table 27-4 Density of Cast High Alloy Stainless

Steels at Room Temperature
Density
Alloy type Reference lb/in.3 (kg/m3)
CA-6NM 0.278 (7700)

CA-15.CA-40 0.275 (7610)
CB-30.CC-50 0.272 (7530)
HC 0.272 (7530)
CB-7Cu, CD-4MCu, CF-3, CF-8, CF- 0.280 (7750)
20, CF-3M, CF-8M, CF-12M, CF-
• 8C,CF-16F,CG-8M,CK-20
HF.HK 0.280 (7750)
HE 0.277 (7670)
CE-30 0.277 (7670)
HA,HH,HI,HL 0.279 (7720)
CH-20 0.279 (7720)
CN-7M 0.289 (8000)
HD 0.274 (7580)
HN 0.283 (7840) 10 20 30
HP 0.284 (7860)
0.286 (7920) FERRITE NUMBER
HT
HU 0.290 (8030)
0.294 (8140) Fig. 27-3 The manner in which the modulus of elasticity of CF-8
HW,HX type alloy varies with ferrite content and temperature (12)
Table 27-5 Physical Properties of Cast Nickel-Base Alloys

Alloy type CastNi Ni-Cu Ni-Cu Ni-Cu Ni-Cu Ni-Cu Ni-Cr-Fe Ni-Cr-Mo Ni-Mo
ASTM494 QQ-N-288 QQ-N-288 QQ-N-288 QQ-N-288
Grade CZ-100 M35-1&2 Composition A&E Composition B Composition C Composition D CY-40 CW-12M N-12M
Melting Point
°F 2510 2400 2400 2350 2330 2540 2310-2450 2400-2460
(°C) (1377) (1316) (1316) (1288) (1277) (1393) (1266-1343) (1316-1349)
Density
lb/in. 3 0.301 0.312 0.312 0.302 0.305 0.300 0.323 0.334
(kg/m 3 ) (8340) (8630) (8630) (8360) 8480) (8300) (8940) (9240)
Mean Coef. of Thermal Expansion(a)
uin./(in. • °F) 8.85<3) 9.1 (2) 9.1(2) 8.9® 8.8C) 8.9°> 8.07(4) 6.41(1>
[um/(m • °K)] (15.64) (16.08) (16.08) (15.72) (15.55) (15.72) (14.26) (11.33)
Modulus of Elasticity
psi 21.5 x 1 0 s 23x10* 23x10* 24x10* 24x10* 23x10* 29.8x10*
(MPa) (15.1 x (16.1 x 104) (16.1 x 104) (16.8 xlO 4 ) (16.8 xlu 4 ) (16.1 xlO 4 ) (20.8 xlO 4 )
104)
Thermal Conductivity
BTU/(ft • h • 34.16 15.50 15.50 12.08 11.33 8.67 6.50 7.08
[W/(m • °K)] (59.57) (26.78) (26.78) (20.88) (19.58) (14.97) (11.23) (12.38)
Mean Specific Heat(a)
BTU/(lb°F) 0.13(5> 0.13<5> 0.13<s 0.13(5) 0.13<s 0.11(5)
[J/(kg°K)] (544) (544) (544) (544) (544) (460)
Electrical Resistivity
ui2 • m 0.208 0.532 0.532 0.615 0.632 1.164
(a) These values were recorded over one of the following temperature ranges: (1)70-600 °F (21-316 °C). (2) 70-1100 °F (21-593 °C). (3) 70-1400 °F (21-760 °C). (4)
70-1500 °F (21-816 °C). (5) 80-750 °F (27-399 °C).

was reported for equiaxed HK and only 20,000,000 psi for the Increasing temperature will lower the modulus of elasticity of cast
columnar structure when tested normal to the long direction of the corrosion and heat-resistant alloys (Figures 27-3 and 27-4). How-
columnar grain (10,11)- Cast austenitic stainless steels tend to be ever, structural changes, such as the formation of new phases at
coarse grained; their elastic modulus values tend to scatter consid- elevated temperatures, may produce reversals to the normal tem-
erably because of grain orientation and size relative to the test perature effects as shown in Figure 27-4.
specimen.
Increasing ferrite content in austenitic-ferritic alloys increases the Nickel-Base Alloys
modulus of elasticity as shown in Figure 27-3 for CF-8 type stain-
less steels. Values for various cast nickel-base alloys are shown in Table
27-5.
Poisson's Ratio
TEMPERATURE- °C Poisson's ratio, v, is the negative ratio of diametral strain to
0 200 400 600 800 1000
longitudinal strain below the elastic limit. Reported values range
1 1 1 1 1 1 - 200 from 0.303 to 0.333, but 0.3 is considered adequate for engineering
\ purposes. Variation in Poisson's ratio for carbon, low alloy and high
alloy steels are shown in Figure 27-2. The variation in Poisson's
- \ ^ - 150 a ratio for one of the most common heat-resistant grades, H, is shown
20
— \ •— — N a. in Figure 27-5.
HN 5
- 100 m
O \ O
10 \ Shear Modulus
1
\ - 50 >.
\HH
>•
1
O
The shear modulus is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain below
1 1 1 1 1
h- the elastic limit with the units of psi or MPa. The shear modulus, G,
W 200 600 1000 1400 1800 to
< TEMPERATURE- *F is related to the modulus of elasticity, E, and Poisson's ratio, v
TEMPERATURE - °C
< according to the formula:
200 400 600 800 1000
30 1
o
1 1 1 i i 200 £
G=-
to to 2(1+v)
_1
20 -
150 3
o fThere is some disagreement concerning the actual value, but in
o a general the value for carbon and low alloy steels is about 2/5 of the
~~. " 100
o
modulus of elasticity or approximately 12,000,000 psi (84 x 103
10 - HF
Hf
^ ^ H P
HT
MPa) for low alloy steels. Figure 27-2 shows the reduction of this
50 value with increasing temperature.
i i i i i i 1 1 1 1
200 600 1000 1400 1800 Table 27-6 Room-Temperature Modulus of
TEMPERATURE-°F Elasticity Values for Cast Corrosion and Heat-
Resistant Stainless Steels
Fig. 27-4 Variation of modulus of elasticity with temperature for six
cast heat-resistant grades (10) Modulus of elasticity
Alloy type Reference psi x 106 (MPa x HP)
CA-6NM 2 29 (200)
CA-15 2 29 (200)
TEMPERATURE - °C CA-40 2 29 (200)
200 400 600 800 CB-30 2 29 (200)
I I I I I CA-4MCu 2 29 (200)
CK-20 2 29 (200)
CB-7Cu 2 28.5 (197)
O 0.36
H CE-30 2 25 (172)
< CF-3,CF-8,CF-3M 2,5 28 (193)
rr 0.34 CF-8M,CF-12,CF-8C 2 28 (193)
to
- ^ - 2 28 (193)
CF-16F.CG-8M
z CF-20,CH-20 2 28 (193)
° 0.32 ^ — •
CN-7M 2 24 (165)
Vi
HA,HC 29 (193)
O
Q_ HD 27 (186)
0.30 HE 25 (172)
HF 28 (193)
I I I I I I HH 27 (186)
400 800 1200 1600 HK
Equiaxed 27 (186)
TEMPERATURE
Columnar 20 (138)
HL 29 (200)
Fig. 27-5 Variation of Poisson's ratio with temperature for HI,HN,HP,HT,HU 27 (186)
equiaxed HK-40 material (10)
Table 27-7 Mean Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion, |xm/(m ° K)(a) of Cast Carbon and Low Alloy
Steels (2)
Temperature range, °F(°C)
Chemistry No. 68-212 68-392 68-572 68-752 68-932 68-1112
as in Table 27-1 Heat treatment(b) (20-100) (20-200) (20-300) (2<W00) (20-500) (20-600)
14 NQT 12.5 12.7 13.0 13.4 13.9 14.4

16 NQT 12.0 12.3 12.6 13.0 13.5 13.9
18 NQT 11.8 12.1 12.5 12.8 13.3 13.6
9 NQT 12.2 12.7 13.1 13.6 14.2 14.5
22 A 12.5 12.8 13.2 13.7 14.1 14.4
22 N 11.8 12.2 12.8 13.2 13.7 14.2
22 NQT 11.9 12.4 12.9 13.3 13.8 14.3
28 A 11.78 12.36 13.04 13.36 13.74 14.14
3 A 11.5 12.5 13.1 13.6 14.0 14.3
3 N 12.2 12.6 13.2 13.6 13.9 14.2
4 A 11.91 12.61 12.90 13.39 13.49 13.86
31 NT 18.0 19.4 21.7 19.9 21.9 23.1
6 NT 12.4 12.8 13.1 13.4 13.8 14.2
10 NQT 13.04 12.32 13.83 14.44 14.92 16.28
12 NQT 12.4 12.8 13.3 13.9 14.6 15.0
5 A 12.8 13.1 13.4 13.6 13.8 14.1
5 N 12.5 12.9 13.3 13.8 14.1 14.5
11 A 12.5 12.7 13.1 13.5 13.9 14.3
11 N 12.5 12.6 13.4 13.7 14.0 14.14
23 A 10.8 12.2 12.7 13.4 13.9 14.2
23 N 11.4 12.2 12.6 13.1 13.5 13.9
23 NQT 11.7 12.4 12.8 13.2 13.8 14.1
(a) To obtain values inuin./(in. • °F), multiply the values by 0.566. (b) A, Anneal; N, Normalize; T, Temper; Q, Quench
Table 27-8 Mean Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion, a, of Cast Standard Manganese Austenitic Steel
(13)
Temperature range, °F (°C)
32-212 (0-100) 32-392 (0-200) 32-752 (0400) 32-1112 (0-600) 32-1472 (0-800) 32-1832 (0-1000)
a-um/(m • °KXa) 18.0 19.4 21.7 19.9 21.9 23.1
(a) To convert to uin./(in. • °F), multiply the values by 0.566.
Coefficient of Thermal High Alloy Steels

Expansion In general, cast austenitic stainless steels have mean coefficients
of thermal expansion about 50% higher than cast ferritic stainless
The coefficient of thermal expansion is the change in a unit steels. Figures 27-6 and 27-7 show the variation in the mean coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion with temperature for cast heat- and
measure of material occasioned by a change of 1° in temperature.
corrosion-resistant stainless steels.
The coefficient of linear expansion is thus the slope of the dilation-
temperature curve. The instantaneous coefficient of linear expan-
sion is the slope at a specific temperature; the mean coefficient is the
mean slope between two designated temperatures. Coefficients of
Thermal Conductivity
expansion may be expressed in either volumetric or linear terms, Thermal conductivity is a measure of the rate at which material
with the latter being most commonly used. To convert volumetric to transmits heat. It is expressed in units of BTU/(ft h °F) or W/(m)(°K)
linear expansion, the approximate relation of the linear coefficient (Note: W = watt).
being equal to one-third of the columetric coefficient may be used.
The units of the coefficient of linear thermal expansion, a, are Carbon, Low Alloy and Austenitic
uin./(in. °F) or u.m/(m °K) (Note: \i = micro = 10"6).
Manganese Steels
Carbon, Low Alloy and Austenitic The thermal conductivity varies strongly with carbon content
(Figure 27-8) and is also influenced by alloy content. Data for a
Manganese Steels variety of carbon and low alloy steels in Table 27-9 reflect the
The mean coefficients of linear thermal expansion for several cast decrease in thermal conductivity with increasing temperature. Cast
carbon and low alloy steels are shown in Table 27-7. Similar data and wrought steels of the same chemical composition (Table 27-10)
are presented for standard austenitic manganese steels in Table 27-8. exhibit comparable thermal conductivities (Figure 27-9). For stan-
TEMPERATURE-°K
TEMPERATURE - ° K o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 o
CVJ
O 10.5 -
19.0 R
O
DC 10.0 -
1 8 . 0 CVJ LL
o O
cr £ 9-5 -
17.0 u. CO
Z
z
o 9 0
16.0 CO
Sir - ^
z
TYPE CN-7M/
s.
x ~- 1= 8.5 -
15.0 LU ^
< c 1
TYPE CK-20- x <=
8.0
85 >, cr — =i 8 . 0
14.0 x "• cr
x .E UJ
7.5 f
cr
< 1 -. 7.5 -
z TYPE CA-6NM 13.0 cr LL
7.0 O
< 7.0 -
LL
TYPE CD-4 12.0 O
LU
6.5 O
TYPE CC-50 z LL
LL
6.5 -
o ii.o
LU
y
LU
LL 6.0 O
LL U. O
LU TYPE CB- LU
O -40 0 400 800 1200 1600
o
o 5.5 10.0 CJ
LU TEMPERATURE-°F
z
< <
LU LU
_L _L J_ _L
0 400 800 1200 1600
5 Fig. 27-7 Mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion as a
function of temperature for cast heat-resistant high alloy steels (10)
T E M P E R A T U R E - °F
Fig. 27-6 Mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion from 70 °F

(21 °C) as a function of temperature for cast corrosion-resistant
stainless steels (11)
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE-°C
— o 50 100 150 200« 0 50 100 150 200
LL ~1 1 1 1 1 : r- 60
CAST CONDITION WROUGHT CONDITION
50 ^
I
>-
_ ?A >
> 40 h-
(J
CT
.22
-> Q
Q ?0 z
7 o
O o
O .18 30
_,
_l
< .16 <
^-T.I2~ cr
s
cr .14 LU
LU
T I
I- .12
100
_1_
200 300 400y- _!_
100
_L
200 300 400 20 •-
TEMPERATURE-°F TEMPERATURE-°F
CARBON - %
Fig. 27-9 The variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for
Fig. 27-8 The variation of thermal conductivity with carbon content equivalent cast and wrought steels. The steel compositions and
of plain carbon steels at room temperature (14) heat treatments are listed in Table 27-7 (15).
Table 27-9 Thermal Conductivity of Cast Carbon and Low Alloy Steels W/(m)(°K)(a) (2,4)
Temperature,'•F(°C)
Chemistry No. 32 212 392 572 752 932 1112 1292 1472 1832 2192
as in Table 27-1 (0) (100) (200) (300) (400) (500) (600) (700) (800) (1000) (1200)
2 59.5 57.8 53.2 49.4 45.6 41.0 36.8 33.1 28.5 27.6 29.7
7 51.9 51.1 49.0 46.1 42.7 39.4 35.6 31.8 26.0 27.2 29.7
8 46.0 45.8 45.0 42.6 40.1 37.4 34.4 30.6 26.6 27.2
13 42.7 40.6 37.3 31.0 28.1 30.1
15 48.6 46.5 44.4 42.3 38.5 35.6 31.8 28.9 26.0 28.1 30.1
17 36.4 37.7 38.9 39.4 36.8 35.2 32.7 26.4 25.1 27.6 30.1
19 33.1 33.9 35.2 35.6 35.6 33.5 30.6 28.1 26.8 28.5 30.1
20 42.7 42.7 41.9 40.6 38.9 36.4 33.9 31.0 26.4 28.1 30.1
21 44.8 43.5 37.7 31.4
24 42.7 42.3 37.7 33.1
26 51.9 50.7 48.2 45.6 41.9 38.1 33.9 30.1 24.7 26.8 29.7
29 47.8 48.2 45.2 41.4 38.1 35.2 32.7 30.1 24.3 26.8 30.1
30 45.2 44.8 43.5 41.0 38.5 36.0 33.5 31.0 23.9 26.0 28.5
31 13.0 13.8 16.3 18.0 19.3 20.5 21.8 22.6 23.4 25.5 28.1
(a) To obtain conductivities iriBTU/(fth- °F), multiply values in table by 0.5778; to obtain conductivities iri cal/(cm • s •°C), multiply by 0.00238.
Table 27-10 Composition and Heat Treatment of the Cast and Wrought Steels for Which Electrical
Resistivity and Thermal Conductivity Data Are Shown in Figures 27-8 and 27-19 (15)
Analysis Composition, %
code C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo Heat treatment
E10A 0.11 0.4 0.35 0.028 0.011 Annealed at 1740 °F (950 °C) and Normalized at 1740 °F (950 °C)
H9A 0.40 0.46 0.50 0.025 0.030 Annealed at 1600 °F (870 °C) and Normalized at 1600 °F (870 °C)
M8 0.32 0.40 0.76 0.015 0.013 1.65 0.69 0.32 Annealed at 1650 °F (900 °C)
Oil-quenched from 1600 °F (870 °C) and tempered at 1110 °F (600 °C)
T12 0.13 0.56 1.04 0.036 0.031 0.25 12.4 0.10 Annealed at 1740 °F (950 °C)
Oil-quenched from 1740 °F (950 °C) and tempered at 1400 °F (760 °C)
Table 27-11 Thermal Conductivity of Cast Standard Austenitic Manganese Steel (13)
Temperature, °F(°C)
32(0) 392 (200) 752 (400) 1112 (600) 1472 (800) 1832 (1000)
Thermal conductivity, kW/(m)(°K) 12.98 16.32 19.26 21.77 23.45 25.54
To obtain conductivities in BTU/(ft • h • °F), multiply values in table by 0.5778; to obtain conductivities in cal/(cm • s • °C), multiply by 0.002388.
Table 27-12 Mean Specific Heat of Cast Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, J/(kg ° K)(a) (2)
Temperature range, °F (°C)
Heat 122 302 (150) 392 482 572 662 842 1022 1202 1292 1382 1562
Chemistry treat- (50) to (150) to (200) to (250) to (300) to (350) to (450) to (550)to (650) to (700) to (750) to (850) to
No. as in mentor 212 392 482 572 662 752 932 1112 1292 1382 1472 1652
Table 27-1 condition (100) (200) (250) (300) (350) (400) (500) (600) (700) (750) (800) (900)
2 Annealed 481 523 544 557 569 595 662 741 858 1139 960
7 Annealed 486 519 532 557 574 599 662 749 846 1432 950
26 Annealed 486 515 528 548 569 586 649 708 770 1583 624 548
29 Annealed 490 532 548 565 586 607 670 712 770 2081 615
30 Annealed 486 540 544 557 578 599 636 699 816 2089 649
15 Annealed 494 523 536 553 574 595 657 741 837 1499 934 574
20 Annealed 477 515 528 544 569 595 657 737 825 1616 883
17 Not known 481 523 536 548 569 590 662 749 1637 955 603 640
19 Quenched 486 523 540 557 582 607 670 770 1051 1662 636 636
and
tempered
27 Not known 498 523 540 557 578 603 666 749 829 904 1365
(a) Conversion: 1 BTU/(16 • °F) = 1 cal/(g • °C) = 4187 J/(kg • °K)

TEMPERATURE-°K TEMPERATURE - ° K
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 200 400 600 800 I000 I200
22 TT 22
~
36 36
20 20
- 32
32 "g
18 ^ 18
TYPE CC-50
3
m m TYPES C A - 6 N M 28
I 28 '
16 I I6 CA-I5
>- >-
CA - 4 0
>
TYPE CO - 4 MCu t- O
U 14 24 O O 14 - 24
3
Q TYPES C F - 3 M , C F - 8 M ,
CF-12 M /••^-TYPE C E - 3 0 Q
Z
z>
Q
TYPE C B - 3 0 i
zo
O Z
12 O 8 I2 o
20 20
TYPE C F -
TYPES C F - I 6 F , <
CG-8M 2
5 10 cr rr
LLJ UJ 10
TYPE CK-20 X x
- 16 16
TYPE CH-20
TYPES C F - 3 , C F - 8 , C F - 2 0
12 12
1 I I I J_
-400 400 800 1200 1600 2000 -400 400 800 I200 I600 2000
TEMPERATURE - °F TEMPERATURE-°F
Fig. 27-10 Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for Fig. 27-11 Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for
cast austenitic and duplex (austenitic + ferrite) corrosion-resistant ferritic and martensitic cast corrosion-resistant stainless steels (11)
stainless steels (11)
TEMPERATURE-°K
dard austenitic manganese steels thermal conductivity values are 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
listed in Table 27-11 for temperatures up to 1832 °F (1000 °C). 22 1 1 1 1 1 1 '
- 36
High Alloy Steels
Figures 27-10 through 27-13 illustrate the variation of thermal
• 20 —
-
^ s ' TYPES HC.HD o
conductivity with temperature for cast-corrosion and heat-resistant
32 E
alloys. Higher thermal conductivity values are shown for those
grades which exhibit a ferritic or martensitic structure. 18 -
/ TYPES H E . H f v y
m / TYPES H H . H I / //f $
Nickel-Base Alloys I 28
i
16 --
Room-temperature values for thermal conductivity are shown in
/,.-"""' TYPE HA 7 / / >
Table 27-5. >
O |4 -
1 //" o
! //// 24
Specific Heat Q Q
Z
O o
O (J
Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the tempera- 12
ture of a unit mass of a material by 1°. The units of specific heat, C, //, y '///^-TYPES HN, HP - 2 0
<
are BTU/(lb °F) or J/(kg °K). cc
10
/S'
UJ
Carbon, Low Alloy and Austenitic 16
X
I-
Manganese Steels
8 --
Carbon and low alloy steels exhibit similar specific heat values * s
below 932 °F (500 °C) as shown in Table 27-12 where the mean s
12
specific heat values are listed for different steels and types of heat 1 1 1 1 1
treatments for temperatures up to 1650 °F (900 °C). The increase in -400 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
specific heat with temperature for 0.10% carbon steel is shown in TEMPERATURE- °F
Figure 27-14. For standard austenitic manganese steels, the specific
heat values are listed in Table 27-13 for temperatures up to 1832 °F Fig. 27-12 Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for
(1000 °C). ferritic and austenitic heat-resistant cast high alloy steels (10)

Table 27-13 Mean Specific Heat of Cast Standard Austenitic Manganese Steel (13)
132-212 (50-100) 302-392(150-200) 662-842(350-450) 1022-1112(550-600) 1382-1472(750-800) 1742-1832(950-1000)
Specific heat, C J/(kg • °K) 519 565 607 703 649 674
Conversion: 1 BTU/(lb • °F) = 1 cal/(g • °C) = 4187 J/(kg • °K)
TEMPERATURE-°K
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 TEMPERATURE
22 1 1 1 i i
- 36
20 -
TYPE H L /
E
\i
32 w
\ 18 -h \ <
/ / UJ
I
3
no i o
i6 - u_
i
>
28 £•
r-
o
UJ
DL
i- O oU 1 L
o 0 200 400 600 800 I000 I200 l*00 I600
3 14 24 Q
// _ TEMPERATURE - °F
Z
O o Fig. 27-14 The influence of temperature on the specific heat of an
o o
12 -- AIS11010 carbon steel (4)
TYPE HK / ' // TYPE HU
< \ . y *
20 <
CC
cc
W 10 -
r UJ
I
- 16
8 ~- TYPE
H W , H X - —»9V
TEMPERATURE - ° K
- 12
1 i i i 1 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-400 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 900
TEMPERATURE - ° F
Fig. 27-13 Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for

austenitic cast heat-resistant high alloy steels (10) 800
O)
- 700 v.
400 600 800 1000 1200 -3
1 1 1 i I
' I-
u. .17 - <
6 0 0 UJ
0 700 •3
a I
.16
*:
w *
^3 _650 \~3
CO .15 500
O
_
600 5? UJ
5UJ .14 UJ
X
TYPE 304 0.
CO
X -
13 550 o 400
o u.
u.
o .12
500
o
Ul
UJ
n a.
to
w .11 - 300
- 450
.06 J_ _L I _L
1 1 1 J -400 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
400 800 1200 1600
TEMPERATURE-°F
TEMPERATURE-°F
Fig. 27-16 Variation of specific heat with temperature for several
Fig. 27-15 Variation of specified heat with temperature of the wrought stainless steels (10). The nearest cast equivalent grades
HK-40 alloy (5) are: 304 ~ CF-8; 310 ~ CK-20, HK-40; 316 - CF-8M; 410 - CA-15.
Table 27-14 Specific Heat of Corrosion- and Heat-

Resistant Stainless Steels
Specific heat
BTU/
Alloy type R eference (lb °F) (kg °K)
CA-6NM, CA-15, CA-40, CB-30, 2 0.11 (460)

CB-7CU, CD-4MCU, CN-7M
HA, HN, HP, HT, HU, HW, HX 1 0.11 (460)
CC-50, CF-3, CF-8, CF-20, CF- 2 0.12 (502)
3M,CF-8M,CF-12M,CF-8C,
CF- 16F, CG-8M, CH-20, CK-20
HC, HD, HF, HH, HI, HK, HL 1 0.12 (502)
CE-30 2 0.14 (586)
HE 1 0.14 (586)
Conversion: 1 BTU/(lb • °F) = 1 cal/(g °C)

• == 4187J/(kg°K)
High Alloy Steels

Table 27-14 contains the room-temperature values of specific heat
for cast corrosion- and heat-resistant alloys. Increasing temperature
wDl increase the specific heat as shown in Figure 27-15 for the alloy
HK-40, and in Figure 27-16 for several wrought alloys. Structural Fig. 27-17 Effect of carbon on the electrical resistivity of annealed
changes (ferrite to austenite) may produce reversals as shown in carbon steel (17)
Figure 27-16 for alloy type 410 (equivalent to cast grade CA-15).
Nickel-Base Alloys TEMPERING TEMPERATURE - °C

The mean specific heat listed in Table 27-5 represents the average O 200 400 600 800
value between two designated temperatures. 1 1
Thermal Diffusivity
.18 -
Thermal diffusivity is a measure of the rate at which a thermal
front moves through a material. The units of thermal diffusivity, a,
are ft2/h or m /h. Thermal diffusivity values may be calculated from
thermal conductivity, k, specific heat, C, and density, p, which were .17 -
presented in the preceding paragraphs according to the following
formula:
k
C-p .16 -
CO
Electrical Resistivity UJ \0.4I % C
.15 -
Electrical resistivity is defined as the resistance of a material to the < V Nf
passage of electric current between opposite faces of a cube of unit o
dimensions. The units of electrical resistivity, p, are \iQm (Note: Q. cr
f-
= ohm). o
\ 0.30 % C
14 -
Carbon, Low Alloy and Austenitic
Manganese Steels
The electrical resistivity of iron increases with the content of (>
carbon as shown in Figure 27-17. The addition of other elements to 13
steel increases the resistivity to a lesser extent. •
The resistivity of steel is dependent upon heat treatment. Highest
resistivity values are exhibited in the as-quenched condition. In-
creasing tempering temperatures lowers the resistivity of quenched 19 1 1 1
and tempered steels (Figure 27-18). The lowest resistivity values are 400 800 1200
obtained in the annealed condition. Cast and wrought steels of the TEMPERING TEMPERATURE - ° F
same chemical composition (Table 27-10) exhibit comparable elec-
trical resistivity values (Figure 27-19). Table 27-15 contains electri- Fig. 27-18 The resistivity of quenched and tempered carbon steel
cal resistivity values for several cast carbon and low alloy steels at as a function of tempering temperature and carbon content (18)
Table 27-15 Electrical Resistivity of Cast Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, \x£l m(2)
Chemistry No. 68 212 392 752 1112 1292 1472 1652 1832 2012 2192 2372
as in Table 24-1 (20) (100) (200) (400) (600) (700) (800) (900) (1000) (1100) (1200) (1300)
2 0.142 0.190 0.263 0.458 0.734 0.905 1.081 1.130 1.165 1.193 1.220 1.244
7 0.169 0.219 0.292 0.487 0.758 0.925 1.094 1.136 1.167 1.194 1.219 1.239
16 0.210 0.259 0.330 0.517 0.778 0.934 1.106 1.145 1.177 1.205 1.230 1.251
18 0.271 0.320 0.390 0.567 0.814 0.992 1.122 1.149 1.180 1.204 1.228 1.248
20 0.289 0.337 0.406 0.582 0.825 0.994 1.114 1.146 1.176 1.199 1.222 1.242
27 0.171 0.221 0.296 0.493 0.766 0.932 1.111 1.149 1.179 1.207 1.230
30 0.180 0.232 0.308 0.505 0.772 0.935 1.129 1.164 1.191 1.214 1.231 1.246
31 0.196 0.252 0.333 0.540 0.802 0.964 1.152 1.196 1.226 1.249 1.271 1.287
Conversion: Multiply jlii • m by 100 to obtain uli • cm.
Table 27-16 Electrical Resistivity of Cast Standard TEMPERATURE-°C TEMPERATURE-°C

Austenitic Manganese Steel (13) 50 I00 150 200 50 100 150 200
—1 1 1
CAST CONDITION
V I
WROUGHT
1 1
CONDITION
1
32 212 392 752 1112 1472
(0) (100) (200) (400) (600) (800)
Electricalresistivity,p 0.66 0.76 0.84 0.99 1.10 1.21
Conversion: Multiply uii • m by 100 to obtain [i£l • cm.
100 200 300 400 00 200 300 400

TEMPERATURE- °K
TEMPERATURE-°F TEMPERATURE - ° F
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
1 1 I I "1 " •
Fig. 27-19 The variation of electrical resistivity with temperature
for equivalent cast and wrought steels. The steel compositions and
heat treatments are listed in Table 27-7 (15).
1.3
TYPES 302.304 .^
1.2
T 1 1 1 r
TYPE 310^ /,' STEEL ANALYSIS
£ M n - 0.54 %
• l . l - Si - 0 . 3 5 %
c?
s / ' T Y P E S 321,347
RESISTIVITY -
/
—
/ /
/
p
0.8 -
0.7
1 // 1 1 1 1 1
•400 0 400 800 1200 1600
.10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40
TEMPERATURE -
CARBON - %
Fig. 27-20 Variation in electrical resistivity with temperature for
several types of wrought stainless steels (16). The nearest cast Fig. 27-21 The effect of carbon on the magnetic properties of
equivalent grades are: 304 - CF-8; 310 - CK-20; 347 - CF-8C. annealed cast carbon steel (19)
MAGNETIZING FIELD STRENGTH-oersted temperatures up to 2372 °F (1300 °C). Table 27-16 lists repre-
0 40 80 I20 I60 200 240 280 sentative values for standard austenitic manganese steels.
2.0 1 1 1 1 T 1 1 1 r i _ j i • r 20000
1.8 - ANNEALED . 18000

High Alloy Steels
1.6 16000
Room-temperature resistivity values for cast stainless steels are
1.4 -
/// • N O R M A L I Z E D 14000
given in Table 27-17. The electrical resistivity increases with tem-
1
1.2
7//'
12000 perature as illustrated for several types of wrought stainless steels in
I.O 1 / 10000 Figure 27-20.
0.8
1/ 8000
Nickel-Base Alloys
0.6 6000
Room-temperature values are listed in Table 27-5.
0.4 - c Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni - 4000
0.2 .19 .30 .48 .039 .029 .03 .02 .06 2000
1
2000
1 1
6000
1
10,000
l
14,000
i i i
18,000
i
Magnetic Properties
MAGNETIZING FIELD STRENGTH-A/m
The magnetic properties which govern the design of steel castings
for use in magnetic and electrical applications are magnetic induc-
Fig. 27-22 The magnetization curve for a cast carbon steel in the tion, B, magnetic permeability, u., coercive force, He, hysteresis
normalized and annealed condition (3)
loss, and residual induction, Br. The units of magnetic induction and
residual induction are Gauss, or Tesla, those of coercive force are
Oersteds, or A/m (Note: A = ampere). The units for hysteresis loss
Table 27-17 Electrical Resistivity of Cast are erg/cm per cycle.
Stainless Steels at 70 °F (21 °C) The magnetic properties of steel are affected by the chemical
Alloy type Reference Electrical resistivity(a), u£2 • m composition, melt practice, and heat treatment.
CA-6NM 0.780 Carbon, Low Alloy and Austenitic

CA-15 0.780 Manganese Steels
CA-40 0.760
CB-30 0.760 Carbon has the largest effect on magnetic properties (Figure
CC-50 0.770 27-21). The addition of carbon raises the coercive force and residual
CD-4MCu 0.750 induction; it lowers the maximum permeability and saturation mag-
CE-30 0.850 netization. While the effects of most alloy additions are minor,
CF-3 0.762 manganese and lead are held to a minimum in steels for magnetic
CF-8 0.762 applications. The effect of melt practice and deoxidation on mag-
CF-20 0.779 netic properties is very pronounced because the presence of gases in
CF-3M 0.820 solid solution in the ferrite phase has a damaging effect. Aluminum,
CF-8M.CF-12M 0.820 a commonly used deoxidant, does not affect the magnetic properties
CF-8C 0.710 of cast steels.
CF-16F 0.720
CG-8M 0.820 The heat treatment and grain size of a steel significandy influence
CH-20 0.840 the magnetic behavior of steel (Table 27-18). An annealed micro-
CK-20 0.900 structure and a large grain size are best for magnetic applications.
CN-7M 0.896 Figure 27-22 is the magnetization curve for a 0.19% carbon general-
HA 0.700 purpose steel in the normalized and the annealed condition. Low
HC 0.770 alloy steels are not generally used in applications where good
HD 0.810 magnetic properties are critical. Figure 27-23 shows a magnetiza-
HE 0.850 tion curve of two Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steels in the quenched and
HF 0.800 tempered condition.
HH 0.75-0.85
Steels which exhibit high magnetic permeability, low coercive
HI 0.850
HK 0.900 force, and low hysteresis loss are called magnetically soft. Magneti-
HL 0.940 cally soft steels, commonly called dynamo steels, are generally
HP 1.020 produced with 0.05 to 0.15% C, 0.5% max Mn, and 0.35 to 0.60%
HT 1.000 Si. In some instances the silicon content may be as high as 3.5%.
HV 1.05 Figure 27-24 shows the effects that heat treatment and carbon have
HW 1.12 on magnetic permeability for a series of dynamo steels. The effect
HX 1.16 of carbon and heat treatment on the field strength, magnetic perme-
ability, coercive force, and the remanence can be seen from the data
(a) Conversion: To obtain u!2 • cm, multiply uii • m by 100. presented in Table 27-19. Sometimes magnetically soft steel with
Table 27-18 Magnetic Properties of Iron and Steel (19,20)

Coercive Residual Maximum Hysteresis Saturation magne-
Material force, oersted induction, gauss permeability s erg/cm3 forff= 150 tization, gauss
Electrolytic iron 0.36 10,800 14,000 18,900 21,630
0.10% Carbon cast steel (Annealed) 1.70 8,030 2,525 19,200
0.10% Carbon cast steel (As cast) 1.60 6,610 2,125 19,450
Steel hardened 52.40 7,500 110 11,700 18,000

MAGNETIZING FIELD STRENGTH-oersted MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH -oersteds

0 20 40 60 80 I00 I20 140 160 180 200 220 25 50 75 100 250 375
, ,
1 1 -1 1 1 1 1
HEAT NO. U
1 1 1 1 2.2 -1 4%- 2.2
1.8 18000 v>

to
3
u> O
16000
V 1.6 ^ ^ " ^ ^ ^ HEAT NO. 2 '
Z 1.4 14000 z
o : O
H
(J
Q
1.2
1.0
7
-I
12000 H
10000
O
~t
o
z
-J. 1 8000
o
t06
6000 1-
\ HEAT LU
z || No. C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni z
d 0.4 f
4000 o
< //
1 .33 .34 .82 .025 .032 0.72 0.20 1.65
2 .34 .34 .86.025 .030 0.69 0.20 2.40 _ 2000 <
5 „, >
'/ I l l
2000 6000 10,000 14,000 18,000
MAGNETIZING FIELD STRENGTH-A/m
Fig. 27-23 The magnetization curves for two cast low alloy steels
in the quenched and tempered condition (3)
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH - 10 A / m
Fig. 27-25 Magnetization curves for higher strength magnetically

MAGNETIC INDUCTION - tesla soft cast steels (21). The composition and heat treatment of these
I 1.5 0 .5 I 1.5 0 .5 I
steels are listed in Table 27-20.
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH-oersteds

25 50 75 100 150 250 375
2.2 2.2
19 21
2.0
5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 I
Z
MAGNETIC INDUCTION - I 0 3 gauss
o
O
Fig. 27-24 The effect of carbon and heat treatment on the
magnetic permeability for a series of cast dynamo steels (17) Q
UI
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH - oersteds z
375. <
2.0 2.0
v>
16 in 0.8
O
1.8 -
o J_ JL I I I
0.6 0.6
2 4 6 8 10 20 30
1.6 - 1.6 MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH- 10 3 A/m
o O Fig. 27-27 Magnetization curves for higher strength magnetically
Q 1.4 - I.4 D
soft cast steels (21). The composition and heat treatment of these
Z a
steels are listed in Table 27-20.
p i.2r- I.2 O
ui I-
z UJ
o I.O z
< - I.O O
< higher strength than the dynamo steels is required. Figures 27-25
through 27-27 are magnetization curves for some higher strength
0.8 .0.8 magnetically soft cast steels. The chemical composition, heat treat-
30
ment, and mechanical properties of these steels are listed in Table
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH-10°A/m
27-20. For standard austenitic manganese steels the magnetic per-
meability has been reported as 1.003 to 1.03 at a magnetic field
Fig. 27-26 Magnetization curves for higher strength magnetically
soft cast steels (21). The composition and heat treatment of these strength of 1920 A/m. For decarburized surfaces a permeability of
steels are listed in Table 27-20. 1.3 was obtained under the same conditions.
Table 27-19 Magnetic Properties of Magnetically Soft Cast Carbon Steels (20)
Tensile Field strength(2) tf (A/m) Magnetic Coercive Residual
Density strength Heat treat- Composition, % for a given magnetic induction B (gauss) perme- force, induction,
lb/in.(3) (kg/m)(3) ksi (MPa) ment(l) Si Mn Ni Cr Mo Hsooo Hioooo HMOOO H15000 Hi«ooo H17000 Hisooo H19000 ability®) /7c(4)(A/m) Br(4) (gauss)
0.2831 (7835) 57.8 (398) A 168 392 1176 1720 3440 6480 11520 18800 209 136 0.80
0.2829 (7831) 61.5 (424) N 0.10 0.33 0.67 0.029 0.041 0.03 0.03 0.01 208 528 1360 1944 3440 5648 10400 16720 241 168 0.85
0.2829 (7829) As-cast 192 496 1400 2160 3760 6480 10960 16800 210 128 0.66
0.2825 (7818) A 184 440 1360 2124 3440 6560 11360 18400 207 136 0.90
0.2828 (7827) 67.1 (463) N 0.14 0.39 0.60 0.029 0.041 0.09 0.02 0.003 264 576 1704 2640 4320 7440 11440 20000 183 208 0.896
0.2828 (7827) As-cast 224 600 1856 2960 4720 7920 12800 20400 172 144 0.73
0.2829 (7831) 64.5 (445) A 192 496 1560 2280 4080 6800 12320 200 156 0.87
0.2831 (7835) 69.4 (478) N 0.19 0.30 0.48 0.029 0.039 0.06 0.03 0.02 272 648 1720 2800 4560 7200 12240 19600 189 216 0.90
0.2831 (7835) As-cast 232 664 1944 3200 5040 8240 13200 165 168 0.73
0.2829 (7829) 71.0 (490) A 240 624 1920 2800 4720 7840 13200 21600 173 184 0.97
0.2828 (7827) 75.6 (521) N 0.24 0.28 0.41 0.031 0.040 0.02 0.05 0.02 328 776 2160 3280 4960 7920 12800 20800 172 272 0.99
0.2829 (7830) As-cast 352 888 3160 4720 7200 13200 103 240 0.80
0.2826 (7821) 80.9 (558) A 336 800 2376 3520 5600 10240 16240 133 296 1.05
0.2825 (7819) 87.8 (605) N 0.34 0.44 0.55 0.031 0.041 0.02 0.03 0.01 424 984 2840 4000 6000 8880 14640 153 440 1.05
0.2825 (7820) As-cast 480 1192 3440 4720 6640 10320 16240 132 416 0.85
(a) A, Annealed; N, Normalized. (2) Conversion 1 Tesla = 10,000 Gauss, 1 Oersted = 79.58 A/m. (3) Data at 17,000 Gauss. (4) Data at H

Table 27-20 Mechanical Properties of Higher Strength, Magnetically Soft Cast Steels Whose Magnetic
Properties Are Illustrated in Figures 25 through 27 (21)
Mechanical properties
Tensile Yield Reduction
Heat Composition, % strength strength Elong- of area,
Sample(a) treatment C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ation, % %
7 Normalized and stress relieved 0.15 0.38 0.94 0.011 0.015 0.04 0.01 0.02 72 (495) 41 (285) 34.0 62
8 Normalized and stress relieved 0.17 0.41 1.09 0.014 0.022 67 (461) 36 (249) 33.6 64
9 Normalized and stress relieved 0.23 0.44 0.90 0.014 0.016 0.04 0.02 0.02 71 (490) 39 (268) 30.9 51
12 Oil quench 0.32 0.39 1.24 0.016 0.018 97 (670) 57 (390) 23.3 61
13 Water quench 0.21 0.39 1.68 0.016 0.028 86 (590) 59 (404) 25.3
14 Water quench 0.33 0.45 1.36 0.013 0.016 92 (632) 57 (392) 24.6 61
15 Water quench 0.40 0.43 1.08 0.009 0.015 0.02 99 (688) 58 (397) 24.0 56
16 Water quench 0.42 0.44 1.20 0.019 0.015 107 (741) 68 (467) 21.0
17 Water quench 0.21 0.47 1.11 0.010 0.014 0.01 0.60 0.02 81 (557) 52 (359) 26.5 65
18 Water quench 0.23 0.51 1.39 0.011 0.012 0.04 0.40 0.03 84 (582) 55 (378) 27.5 58
19 Water quench 0.24 0.51 1.37 0.015 0.021 0.10 0.52 0.21 90 (617) 67 (465) 22.9 59
20 Air quench 0.29 0.47 1.20 0.014 0.014 0.06 1.40 0.27 100 (688) 72 (498) 22.2 51
21 Water quench 0.26 0.48 1.20 0.014 0.010 0.10 1.35 0.28 115 (794) 91 (629) 18.5 58
22 Air quench 0.30 0.50 1.24 0.016 0.019 0.38 1.20 0.26 109 (751) 80 (553) 17.2 46
(a) Refer to Table 27-1 for density and elastic modulus information.
Table 27-21 Magnetic Permeability of Thick and Table 27-22 Values for Magnetic Permeability for
Thin Sections of CF-8 Castings Correlated with Cast Stainless Steels
Ferrite Content (22)
Alloy type Reference Magnetic per
3-in. section (76 mm) 0.75-in. section (19 mm)
CA-6NM 2 Ferromagnetic
Magnetic Ferrite Magnetic Ferrite
CA-15.CA-40 2 Ferromagnetic
permeability % permeability
CB-30 2 Ferromagnetic
1.005 0 1.005 0 CB-7CU 2 Ferromagnetic
1.025 0.4 1.010 0 CC-50 2 Ferromagnetic
1.105 2.3 1.084 0.7 CD-4MCU 2 Ferromagnetic
1.615 7.5 1.150 1.8 CE-30 2 over 1.5
1.665 7 1.316 3.2 CF-3 2 1.2 to 3.0
2.315 10 1.659 8 CF-8 2 1.0tol.3
3.753 19 2.829 16.2 CF-20 2 1.01
CF-3M 2 1.75(a)
CF-8M 2 2(a)
CF-12M 2 2(a)
CF-8C 2 1.6(a)
CF-16F 2 1.5(a)
High Alloy Steels CG-8M 2 2(a)
The magnetic permeability of fully austenitic stainless steels is CH-20 2 1.71
very close to unity. The magnetic permeability of duplex structure CK-20 2 1.02
CN-7M 2 1.05(a)
stainless steels (austenitic-ferritic) will vary with the amount of
HA Ferromagnetic
ferrite as indicated in Table 27-21 for the cast grade CF-8. Alloys
HC Ferromagnetic
which typically have these duplex structures are CD-4MCu, CF-8, HD Ferromagnetic
CF-8M, CF-3, CF-3M, CF-8C, CF-16F, CE-30, CF-12M, CG-8M, HE 1.9(a)
CH-20, HE, HH and HI. The presence of ferrite in these cast HF 1.0
stainless steels explains the difference in magnetic permeability HH 1.4(a)
relative to that of equivalent wrought stainless grades. Ferritic or HI 1.3(a)
martensitic stainless steels are considered to be ferromagnetic, their HK 1.02
magnetic permeability ranging from 400 to 1100. Room-tempera- HL 1.01
ture values for magnetic permeability of cast stainless steels are HN 1.10
given in Table 27-22. HP 1.1(a)
HT 1.6(a)
HU 1.6(a)
REFERENCES HW 16.0
HX 2.0
1. C. Benedicks, N. Ericson, and G. Ericson, "Bestimmung des spez-
(a) The actual value depends on the content of magnetic phases.
ifischen Volumes von Eisen, Nickel und Eisenlegierungen im
geschmolzenem Zustand," Archiv fur das Eisenhuttenwesen, Jan 12. Private communications with J.P. Hammond, Metals and Ceramics
1930, p 473 Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 1979
2. National Physical Laboratory, "The Physical Properties of a Series 13. Data Sheets on the Properties of Steel Castings, "BS 3100-BW10
of Steels, Part IL" Iron and Steel Institute, 1946 Austenitic Manganese Steel Castings," Steel Castings Research
3. "Data Sheets on the Physical Properties of Steel Castings-BS3100 and Trade Association, Sheffield, England, 1977
Series," Steel Castings Research and Trade Association, 1978 14. J.W. Donaldson, "The Thermal Conductivity of Wrought Iron,
4. Metals Handbook, Vol 1, 9th ed., American Society for Metals, Steel, Malleable Cast Iron and Cast Iron," Journal of the Iron and
Metals Park, OH, 1978, p 145 Steel Institute, Vol 128,1933, p 255
5. Private communication with D.B. Roach, Battelle-Columbus 15. R.P. Tye, "The Thermal Conductivity and Electrical Resistivity of
Laboratories, Columbus, OH, 1979 Some Cast Steels," Journal BSCRA, Vol 90,1966, p 13
6. EC. Hull and E.E. Eiffles, "Dimensional Instability of CF-8 Stain- 16. D. Peckner and I.M. Bernstein, Handbook of Stainless Steels,
less Steel Castings at Elevated Temperatures," Materials Consid- McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977
eration for LMFBR Components Session, American Nuclear 17. P. Bardenheuer and H. Schmidt, "Der Einfluss der Kaltverformung
Society Meeting, San Francisco, CA, Nov 27 to Dec 2,1977 und der Warmebehandlung auf die Elektrische Leitfahigkeit von
7. C. Briggs and R. Gezelius, "Effect of Mass upon the Mechanical Kupfer, Aluminum und Eisen," Mitt, K.W. Inst Eisenforschung,
Properties of Cast Steel," Trans. ASM, Vol 26, June 1938, p 367 Vol 10,1928, p 193
8. G. Tammann and G. Bondel, "Heat Content and Specific Volume 18. International Critical Tables, Vol 6,1929
of Iron Carbon Alloys," Archiv fur das Eisenhuttenwesen, Vol 7, 19. "Magnetic Properties of Cast Carbon Steels," Report No. 37, Brit-
1933-1934, p 571 ish Steel Castings Research Association, Aug 1956
9. The Making, Shaping and Treating ofSteel, US Steel Corp., 7th ed., 20. E. Gumlich, "Magnetic Properties of Iron-Carbon and Iron-Silicon
1957, Figures 49-50, p 922 Alloys," Trans. Faraday Society, Vol 8,1912, p 98
10. Steel Castings Handbook—Supplement 9, Steel Founders'Society 21. G. Horvath and G. Ibinger, "Stahlguss mit bensonderen magnetis-
of America, Des Plaines, IL, 1981 chen Eigenschaften," Radex-Rundschau, Heft 3,1977, p 274
11. Steel Castings Handbook—Supplement 8, Steel Founders' Society 22. Metals Handbook, 8th ed., Vol 1, "Properties and Selection of
of America, Des Plaines, IL, 1981 Metals," American Society for Metals, 1961, p 437

Malcolm Blair, Thomas L. Steven, editors, p A-1-A-15 All rights reserved.
Appendix
Page
A: AISI and SAE Composition Limits and Ranges for Wrought Carbon and Low Alloy Steels A-2
B: AISI and SAE Composition Limits and Ranges for Wrought Stainless Steels A-5
C: ACI Alloy Designations and Chemical Composition Ranges for Heat- and Corrosion-Resistant Castings . . . A-6
D: Conversions of Units and Hardness Values A-8
E: ISO Specifications A-15
References A-15

A-2 Appendix
Table A-1 Plain Carbon Steels—Bars, Rods, Wire, Blooms, Billets and Slabs (1)
Steel Chemical composition, percent
lesignation UNS P S
USIorSAE number C Mn max max
*1005 G10050 0.06 max 0.35 max 0.040 0.050

*1006 G10060 0.08 max 0.25/0.40 0.040 0.050
1008 G10080 0.10 max 0.30/0.50 0.040 0.050
1010 G10100 0.08/0.13 0.30/0.60 0.040 0.050
1012 G10120 0.10/0.15 0.30/0.60 0.040 0.050
1015 G10150 0.13/0.18 0.30/0.60 0.040 0.050
1016 G10160 0.13/0.18 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1017 G10170 0.15/0.20 0.30/0.60 0.040 0.050
1018 G10180 0.15/0.20 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1019 G10190 0.15/0.20 0.70/1.00 0.040 0.050
1020 G10200 0.18/0.23 0.30/0.60 0.040 0.050
1021 G10210 0.18/0.23 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1022 G10220 0.18/0.23 0.70/1.00 0.040 0.050
1023 G10230 0.20/0.25 0.30/0.60 0.040 0.050
1025 G10250 0.22/0.28 0.30/0.60 0.040 0.050
1026 G10260 0.22/0.28 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1029 G10290 0.25/0.31 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1030 G10300 0.28/0.34 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1035 G10350 0.32/0.38 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1037 G10370 0.32/0.38 0.70/1.00 0.040 0.050
1038 G10380 0.35/0.42 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1039 G10390 0.37/0.44 0.70/1.00 0.040 0.050
1040 G10400 0.37/0.44 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1042 G10420 0.40/0.47 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1043 G10430 0.40/0.47 0.70/1.00 0.040 0.050
1044 G10440 0.43/0.50 0.30/0.60 0.040 0.050
1045 G10450 0.43/0.50 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1046 G10460 0.43/0.50 0.70/1.00 0.040 0.050
1049 G10490 0.46/0.53 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1050 G10500 0.48/0.55 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1053 G10530 0.48/0.55 0.70/1.00 0.040 0.050
1055 G10550 0.50/0.60 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
*1059 G10590 0.55/0.65 0.50/0.80 0.040 0.050
1060 G10600 0.55/0.65 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1070 G10700 0.65/0.75 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
*1074 G10740 0.70/0.80 0.50/0.80 0.040 0.050
1078 G10780 0.72/0.85 0.30/0.60 0.040 0.050
1080 G10800 0.75/0.88 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1084 G10840 0.80/0.93 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
*1086 G10860 0.80/0.93 0.30/0.50 0.040 0.050
1090 G10900 0.85/0.98 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
1095 G10950 0.90/1.03 0.30/0.50 0.040 0.050
1513 G15130 0.10/0.16 1.10/1.40 0.040 0.050
1522 G15220 0.18/0.24 1.10/1.40 0.040 0.050
1524 G15240 0.19/0.25 1.35/1.65 0.040 0.050
1526 G15260 0.22/0.29 1.10/1.40 0.040 0.050
1527 G15270 0.22/0.29 1.20/1.50 0.040 0.050
1541 G15410 0.36/0.44 1.35/1.65 0.040 0.050
1548 G15480 0.44/0.52 1.10/1.40 0.040 0.050
1551 G15510 0.45/0.56 0.85/1.15 0.040 0.050
1552 G15520 0.47/0.55 1.20/1.50 0.040 0.050
1561 G15610 0.55/0.65 0.75/1.05 0.040 0.050
1566 G15660 0.60/0.71 0.85/1.15 0.040 0.050
•Standard Steel Grades are for Wire Rods and Wire only. Note: In case of certain qualities, the foregoing standard steels are ordinarily furnished to lower phosphorus
and lower sulfur maxima as hereinafter indicated. Silicon. When silicon ranges or limits are required, consult producer for ranges and limits. Copper. When copper
is required, 0.20 percent minimum is generally specified. Lead. Standard carbon steels can be produced with a lead range of 0.15 to 0.35 percent, to improve ma-
chinability. Such steels are identified by inserting the letter "L" between the second and third numerals of the AISI number, e.g., 10L45. Lead is generally reported as
a range of 0.15 to 0.35 percent Boron. Standard killed carbon steels, which are generally fine grain, may be produced with a boron treatment addition to improve
hardenability. Such steels can be expected to contain 0.0005 to 0.003 percent boron. These steels are identified by inserting the letter "B" between the second and third
numerals of the AISI number, e.g., 10B46.
AISI and SAE Composition Limits and Ranges A-3
Table A-2 Standard Alloy Steels—Bars, Rods, Wire, Blooms, Billets and Slabs (1)
designation UNS P S
Alloy type AISI or SAE number C Mn max max Si Ni Cr Mo
MnSteels 1330 G13300 0.28/0.33 1.60/1.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30

1335 G13350 0.33/0.38 1.60/1.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30
1340 G13400 0.38/0.43 1.60/1.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30
1345 G13450 0.43/0.48 1.60/1.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30
Mo Steels 4023 G40230 0.20/0.25 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... ... 0.20/0.30
4024 G40240 0.20/0.25 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.035/0.050 0.15/0.30 ... ... 0.20/0.30
4027 G40270 0.25/0.30 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... ... 0.20/0.30
4028 G40280 0.25/0.30 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.035/0.050 0.15/0.30 ... ... 0.20/0.30
4037 G40370 0.35/0.40 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... ... 0.20/0.30
4047 G40470 0.45/0.50 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... ... 0.20/0.30
Cr-MoSteels 4118 G41180 0.18/0.23 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.40/0.60 0.08/0.15
4130 G41300 0.28/0.33 0.40/0.60 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
4137 G41370 0.35/0.40 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
4140 G41400 0.38/0.43 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
4142 G41420 0.40/0.45 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
4145 G41450 0.43/0.48 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
4147 G41470 0.45/0.50 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
4150 G41500 0.48/0.53 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
4161 G41610 0.56/0.64 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.70/0.90 0.15/0.35
Ni-Cr-Mo Steels 4320 G43200 0.17/0.22 0.45/0.65 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 1.65/2.00 0.40/0.60 0.20/0.30
4340 G43400 0.38/0.43 0.60/0.80 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 1.65/2.00 0.70/0.90 0.20/0.30
E4340 G43406 0.38/0.43 0.65/0.85 0.025 0.025 0.15/0.30 1.65/2.00 0.70/0.90 0.20/0.30
Ni-MoSteels 4615 G46150 0.13/0.18 0.45/0.65 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 1.65/2.00 ... 0.20/0.30
4620 G46200 0.17/0.22 0.45/0.65 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 1.65/2.00 ... 0.20/0.30
4626 G46260 0.24/0.29 0.45/0.65 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.70/1.00 ... 0.15/0.25
Ni-Cr-Mo Steels 4720 G47200 0.17/0.22 0.50/0.70 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.90/1.20 0.35/0.55 0.15/0.25
Ni-MoSteels 4815 G48150 0.13/0.18 0.40/0.60 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 3.25/3.75 ... 0.20/0.30
4817 G48170 0.15/0.20 0.40/0.60 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 3.25/3.75 ... 0.20/0.30
4820 G48200 0.18/0.23 0.50/0.70 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 3.25/3.75 ... 0.20/0.30
CrSteels 5117 G51170 0.15/0.20 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.70/0.90
5120 G51200 0.17/0.22 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.70/0.90
5130 G51300 0.28/0.33 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.10
5132 G51320 0.30/0.35 0.60/0.80 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.75/1.00
5135 G51350 0.33/0.38 0.60/0.80 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.05
5140 G51400 0.38/0.43 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.70/0.90
5150 G51500 0.48/0.53 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.70/0.90
5155 G51550 0.51/0.59 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.70/0.90
5160 G51600 0.56/0.64 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.70/0.90
E51100 G51986 0.98/1.10 0.25/0.45 0.025 0.025 0.15/0.30 ... 0.90/1.15
E52100 G52986 0.98/1.10 0.25/0.45 0.025 0.025 0.15/0.30 ... 1.30/1.60
Cr-V Steels 6118 G61180 0.16/0.21 0.50/0.70 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.50/0.70 0.10/0.15 v
6150 G61500 0.48/0.53 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.80/1.10 0.15 minv
Ni-Cr-Mo Steels 8615 G86150 0.13/0.18 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8617 G86170 0.15/0.20 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8620 G86200 0.18/0.23 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8622 G86220 0.20/0.25 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8625 G86250 0.23/0.28 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8627 G86270 0.25/0.30 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8630 G86300 0.28/0.33 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8637 G86370 0.35/0.40 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8640 G86400 0.38/0.43 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8642 G86420 0.40/0.45 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8645 G86450 0.43/0.48 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8655 G86550 0.51/0.59 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.15/0.25
8720 G87200 0.18/0.23 0.70/0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.20/0.30
8740 G87400 0.38/0.43 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.20/0.30
8822 G88220 0.20/0.25 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.30/0.40
9260 G92600 0.56/0.64 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 1.80/2.20
B Steels 50B44 G50441 0.43/0.48 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.40/0.60
50B46 G50461 0.44/0.49 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.20/0.35
50B50 G50501 0.48/0.53 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.40/0.60
50B60 G50601 0.56/0.64 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.40/0.60
51B60 G51601 0.56/0.64 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 ... 0.70/0.90
81B45 G81451 0.43/0.48 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.20/0.40 0.35/0.55 0.08/0.15
(continued)

A-4 Appendix
Table A-2 Standard Alloy Steels—Bars, Rods, Wire, Blooms, Billets and Slabs (1) (continued)
designation UNS P S
Alloy type AISIorSAE number C Mn max max Si Ni Cr Mo
B Steels 94B17 G94171 0.15/0.20 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.30/0.60 0.30/0.50 0.08/0.15
94B30 G94301 0.28/0.33 0.75/1.00 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.30 0.30/0.60 0.30/0.50 0.08/0.15
Note 1: Grades shown in the above list with prefix letter E are normally made by the basic electric furnace process. All others are normally manufactured by the basic
open hearth or basic oxygen process but may be manufactured by the basic electric furnace process. Note 2: If electric furnace practice is specified or required for
grades other than those designated, i.e., E4340, the limits for phosphorus and sulfur are 0.025 percent respectively and the prefix E is added. Note 3: For acid electric
and acid open hearth steels, the limits for phosphorus and sulfur are 0.050 percentrespectively.Note 4: In the case of certain quahties the foregoing standard steels are
ordinarily furnished to lower phosphorus and lower sulfur maxima as hereinafter indicated. Note 5: Small quantities of certain elements are present in alloy steels
which are not specified or required. These elements are considered as incidental and may be present to the following maximum amounts: Copper, 0.35 percent; Nickel,
0.25 percent; Chromium, 0.20 percent; and Molybdenum, 0.06 percent. Note 6: Standard alloy steels can be produced with a lead range of 0.15/0.35 percent. Such
steels are identified by inserting the letter "L" between the second and third numerals of the AISI number, e.g., 41L40. Lead is generally reported as a range of
0.15/0.35 percent. Note 7: Where minimum and maximum sulfur content is shown it is indicative of resulfurized steel. Note 8: Standard Alloy Steels, which are gen-
erally fine grain, may be produced with a boron treatment addition to improve hardenability. Such steels can be expected to contain 0.0005 to 0.003 percent boron.
These steels are identified by inserting the letter "B" between the second and third numerals of the AISI number, e.g., 50B46.

AISI and SAE Composition Limits and Ranges A-5
Table B-1 Standard Types-Wrought Stainless and Heat Resisting Steels (1)
Chemical composition, percent, maximum unless otherwise shown
Type UNS
number number C Mn p s Si Cr Ni Mo Other elements
201 (S20100) 0.15 5.50/7.50 0.060 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 3.50/5.50 N0.25
202 (S20200) 0.15 7.50/10.00 0.060 0.030 1.00 17.00/19.00 4.00/6.00 N0.25
205 (S20500) 0.12/0.25 14.00/15.00 0.060 0.030 1.00 16.50/18.00 1.00/1.75 N 0.32/0.40
301 (S30100) 0.15 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 6.00/8.00
302 (S30200) 0.15 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 17.00/19.00 8.00/10.00
302B (S30215) 0.15 2.00 0.045 0.030 2.00/3.00 17.00/19.00 8.00/10.00
303 (S3O3O0) 0.15 2.00 0.20 0.15 min 1.00 17.00/19.00 8.00/10.00 0.60*
303Se (S30323) 0.15 2.00 0.20 0.060 1.00 17.00/19.00 8.00/10.00 Se 0.15 min
304 (S30400) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 18.00/20.00 8.00/10.50
304L (S30403) 0.030 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 18.00/20.00 8.00/12.00
(S30430) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 17.00/19.00 8.00/10.00 Cu 3.00/4.00
304N (S30451) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 18.00/20.00 8.00/10.50 N 0.10/0.16
305 (S30500) 0.12 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 17.00/19.00 10.50/13.00
308 (S30800) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 19.00/21.00 10.00/12.00
309 (S30900) 0.20 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 22.00/24.00 12.00/15.00
309S (S30908) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 22.00/24.00 12.00/15.00
310 (S31000) 0.25 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.50 24.00/26.00 19.00/22.00
310S (S31008) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.50 24.00/26.00 19.00/22.00
314 (S31400) 0.25 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.50/3.00 23.00/26.00 19.00/22.00
316 (S31600) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 10.00/14.00 2.00/3.00
316F (S31620) 0.08 2.00 0.20 O.lOmin 1.00 16.00/18.00 10.00/14.00 1.75/2.50
316L (S31603) 0.030 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 10.00/14.00 2.00/3.00
316N (S31651) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 10.00/14.00 2.00/3.00 NO.10/0.16
317 (S31700) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 18.00/20.00 11.00/15.00 3.00/4.00
317L (S31703) 0.030 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 18.00/20.00 11.00/15.00 3.00/4.00
321 (S32100) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 17.00/19.00 9.00/12.00 Ti5xCmin
329 (S32900) 0.10 2.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 25.00/30.00 3.00/6.00 1.00/2.00
330 (N08330) 0.08 2.00 0.040 0.030 0.75/1.50 17.00/20.00 34.00/37.00
347 (S34700) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 17.00/19.00 9.00/13.00 Cb + TalOxCmin
348 (S34800) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 17.00/19.00 9.00/13.00 Cb + TalOxCmin
TaO.lOmax
Co 0.20 max
384 (S38400) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 15.00/17.00 17.00/19.00
403 (S40300) 0.15 1.00 0.040 0.030 0.50 11.50/13.00
405 (S40500) 0.08 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 11.50/14.50 Al 0.10/0.30
409 (S40900) 0.08 1.00 0.045 0.045 1.00 10.50/11.75 Ti6xCmin/0.75max
410 (S41000) 0.15 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 11.50/13.50
414 (S41400) 0.15 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 11.50/13.50 1.25/2.50
416 (S41600) 0.15 1.25 0.060 0.15 min 1.00 12.00/14.00 0.60*
416Se (S41623) 0.15 1.25 0.060 0.060 1.00 12.00/14.00 Se 0.15 min
420 (S42000) Over 0.15 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 12.00/14.00
420F (S42020) Over 0.15 1.25 0.060 0.15 min 1.00 12.00/14.00 0.60*
422 (S42200) 0.20/0.25 1.00 0.025 0.025 0.75 11.00/13.00 0.50/1.00 0.75/1.25 V0.15/0.30W0.75/1.25
429 (S42900) 0.12 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 14.00/16.00
430 (S43000) 0.12 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00
430F (S43020) 0.12 1.25 0.060 0.15 min 1.00 16.00/18.00 0.60*
430FSe (S43023) 0.12 1.25 0.060 0.060 1.00 16.00/18.00 Se 0.15 min
431 (S43100) 0.20 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 15.00/17.00 1.25/2.50
434 (S43400) 0.12 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 0.75/1.25
436 (S43600) 0.12 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 0.75/1.25 Cb + Ta5xCmin/0.70
max
440A (S44002) 0.60/0.75 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 0.75
440B (S44003) 0.75/0.95 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 0.75
440C (S44004) 0.95/1.20 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 16.00/18.00 0.75
442 (S44200) 0.20 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 18.00/23.00
446 (S44600) 0.20 1.50 0.040 0.030 1.00 23.00/27.00 N0.25
501 (S50100) Over 0.10 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 4.00/6.00 0.40/0.65
502 (S50200) 0.10 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 4.00/6.00 0.40/0.65
(S13800) 0.05 0.10 0.01 0.008 0.10 12.25/13.25 7.50/8.50 2.00/2.50 Al 0.90/1.35 N 0.010
(S15500) 0.07 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 14.00/15.50 3.50/5.50 Cu 2.50/4.50 Cb + Ta
0.15/0.45
(S17400) 0.07 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 15.50/17.50 3.00/5.00 Cu 3.00/5.00 Cb + Ta
0.15/0.45
(S17700) 0.09 1.00 0.040 0.040 1.00 16.00/18.00 6.50/7.75 Al 0.75/1.50
*May be added at manufacturer's option. Note: For some tube-making processes it is necessary that the nickel content of several of the austenitic grades be shghtly
higher than shown in the above table. The producer should be consulted for the appropriate nickel ranges for such grades.

A-6 Appendix
Table C-1 ACI Alloy Designations and Chemical Composition Ranges for Heat- and Corrosion-Resistant
Castings
Wrought
Cast alloy
alloy UNS type Composition^'1—percent (balance Fe)
designation No. (see Note A) C Mn Si P S Cr Ni Other elements
CA-15 J91150 410* 0.15 1.00 1.50 0.04 0.04 11.5-14 1 Mo 0.5(b)
CA-15M J91151 0.15 1.00 0.65 0.04 0.04 11.50-14.0 1.00 Mo 0.15-1.00
CA-40 J91153 420* 0.20-0.40 1.00 1.50 0.04 0.04 11.5-14 1 Mo 0.5(b)
CA-6NM J91540 F6NMZ 0.06 1.00 1.00 0.04 0.03 11.5-14.0 3.5-4.5 Mo 0.4-1.0
CA-6N J91650 0.06 0.50 1.00 0.02 0.02 10.5-12.0 6.0-8.0
CB-30 J91803 431* 0.30 1.00 1.50 0.04 0.04 18-21 2
CB-7Cu-l J92180 17-4Y 0.07 0.70 1.00 0.035 0.03 14.0-15.5 4.5-5.5 Cb 0.15-0.35, N 0.05, Cu 2.5-3.2
CB-7Cu-2 J92110 15-5Y 0.07 0.70 1.00 0.035 0.03 14.0-15.5 4.5-5.5 Cb 0.15-0.35, N 0.05, Cu 2.5-3.2
CC-50 J92615 446* 0.50 1.00 1.50 0.04 0.04 26-30 4max
CE-30 J93423 0.30 1.50 2.00 0.04 0.04 26-30 8-11
CF-3 J92500 304L* 0.03 1.50 2.00 0.04 0.04 17-21 8-21
CF-8 J92600 304* 0.08 1.50 2.00 0.04 0.04 18-21 8-11
CF-20 J92602 302* 0.20 1.50 2.00 0.04 0.04 18-21 8-11
CF-3M J92800 316L* 0.03 1.50 1.50 0.04 0.04 17-21 9-13 Mo 2.0-3.0
CF-8M J92900 D319(316)* 0.08 1.50 2.00 0.04 0.04 18-21 9-12 Mo 2.0-3.0
CF-8C J92710 347* 0.08 1.50 2.00 0.04 0.04 18-21 9-12 Cb8xCmin, l.Omax
CF-16F J92701 303* 0.16 1.50 2.00 0.17 0.04 18-21 9-12 Mo 1.5, Se 0.20-0.35
CG-12 J93001 0.12 1.50 2.00 0.04 0.04 20-23 10-13
CG-8M J93000 317* 0.08 1.50 1.50 0.04 0.04 18-21 9-13 Mo 3.0-4.0
CH-20 J93402 309* 0.20 1.50 2.00 0.04 0.04 22-26 12-15
CK-20 J94202 310* 0.20 2.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 23-27 19-22
CN-7M N08007 0.07 1.50 1.50 0.04 0.04 19-22 27.5-30.5 Mo 2.0-3.0, Cu 3.0-4.0
CN-7MS J94650 0.07 1.00 2.50-3.50 0.04 0.03 18-20 22-25 Mo 2.0-3.0, Cu 1.5-2.0
CY-40 N06040 0.40 1.50 3.00 0.03 0.03 14-17 Bal Fell.O
CZ-100 N02100 1.00 1.50 2.00 0.03 0.03 Bal Fe 3.0, Cu 1.25
HA 0.20 0.35-0.65 1.00 0.04 0.04 8-10 Mo 0.90-1.20
HC 446* 0.50 1.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 26-30 4max Mo 0.5(b)
HD 327* 0.50 1.50 2.00 0.04 0.04 26-30 4-7 Mo 0.5(b)
HE 0.20-0.50 2.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 26-30 8-11 Mo 0.5(b)
HF 302B* 0.20-0.40 2.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 18-23 8-12 Mo 0.5(b)
HH 309* 0.20-0.50 2.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 24-28 11-14 Mo 0.5(b) N 0.2
HI 0.20-0.50 2.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 26-30 14-18 Mo 0.5(b)
HK 310* 0.20-0.60 2.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 24-28 18-22 Mo 0.5(b)
HL 0.20-0.60 2.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 28-32 18-22 Mo 0.5(b)
HN 0.20-0.50 2.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 19-23 23-27 Mo 0.5(b)
HP 0.35-0.75 2.00 2.50 0.04 0.04 24-28 33-37 Mo 0.5(b)
HP-50WZ 0.45-0.55 2.00 2.00 0.04 0.04 24-28 33-37 W4.0-6.0,Zr0.2-1.0
HT 330* 0.35-0.75 2.00 2.50 0.04 0.04 15-19 33-37 Mo 0.5(b)
HU 0.35-0.75 2.00 2.50 0.04 0.04 17-21 37^1 Mo 0.5(b)
HW 0.35-0.75 2.00 2.50 0.04 0.04 10-14 58-62 Mo 0.5(b)
HX 0.35-0.75 2.00 2.50 0.04 0.04 15-19 64-68 Mo 0.5(b)
CA28MWV J91422 422* 0.20-0.28 0.50-1.00 1.00 0.030 0.030 11.0-12.5 0.50-1.00 Mo 0.90-1.25, W 0.90-1.25, V 0.20-
0.30
CD4MCU&1A J93370 255Y 0.04 1.00 1.00 0.040 0.040 24.5-26.5 4.75-6.00 Mo 1.75-2.25, Cu 2.75-3.25
CE8MN&2A J93345 0.08 1.00 1.50 0.040 0.040 22.5-25.5 8.00-11.00 Mo3.00-4.50,N0.10-0.30
CD6MN3A J93371 0.06 1.00 1.00 0.040 0.040 24.0-27.0 4.00-6.00 Mo 1.75-2.50, N0.15-0.25
CD3MN4A J92205 2205Y 0.03 1.50 1.00 0.04 0.020 21.0-23.5 4.5-6.5 Mo 2.5-3.5, Cu 1.00 max, N 0.10-0.30
CE3MN5A J93404 0.03 1.50 1.00 0.04 0.04 24.0-26.0 6.0-8.0 Mo 4.0-5.0, NO. 10-0.30
CFlOSMnN J92972 Nitronic eO*1 0.10 7.00-9.00 3.50-4.50 0.060 0.030 16.0-18.0 8.0-9.0 N 0.08-0.18
CQ6MMN J93790 NitronicSO*1 0.06 4.00-6.00 1.00 0.04 0.03 20.5-23.5 11.5-13.5 Mo 1.50-3.00, Cb 0.10-0.30, V0.10-
0.30, N 0.20-0.40
CK3MCuN J93254 254SMO xz 0.025 1.20 1.00 0.045 0.010 19.5-20.5 17.5-19.5 Mo 6.0-7.0, Cu 0.5-1.00, N 0.180-0.24
CN3MN AL6XN*3 0.03 2.00 1.00 0.040 0.010 20.0-22.0 23.5-25.5 Mo 6.0-7.0, Cu 0.75 max, N 0.18-0.26
CWZM N26455 CAY 0.02 1.00 0.80 0.03 0.03 15.0-17.5 Bal Mo 15.0-17.5,Fe2.0max,Cb l.Omax
CW6M N30107 0.07 1.00 1.00 0.040 0.030 17.0-20.0 Bal Mo 17.0-20.0, Fe 3.0 max
CW6MC N26625 625Y 0.06 1.00 1.00 0.015 0.015 20.0-23.0 Bal Mo 8.0-10.0, Fe 5.0max, Cb 3.15-
4.50
CW12MW N3000Z CY 0.12 1.00 1.00 0.040 0.030 15.5-17.5 Bal Mo 16.0-18.0, Fe 4.5-7.5, W 3.75-
Y
5.25, V 0.20-0.40
CX2MW N26022 C22 0.02 1.00 0.80 0.025 0.025 20.0-22.5 Bal Mo 12.5-14.5, Fe 2.0-6.0, W2.5-3.5,
V 0.35 max
CY5SnBiM N26055 0.05 1.50 0.5 0.03 0.03 11.0-14.0 Bal Mo 2.0-3.5, Fe 2.0 max, Bi 3.0-5.0,
Sn 3.0-5.0
M255 N24025 0.25 1.50 3.5-4.5 0.03 0.03 Bal Cu 27.0-33.0, Fe 3.50 max
(continued)

ACI Alloy Designations and Compositions A-7
Table C-1 ACI Alloy Designations and Chemical Composition Ranges for Heat- and Corrosion-Resistant
Castings (continued)
Wrought
Cast alloy
alloy UNS type Composition(a) —percent (balance Fe)
designation No. (see Note A) C Mn Si P S Cr Ni Other elements
M30C N24130 0.30 1.50 1.0-2.0 0.03 0.03 Bal Cu 26.0-33.0, Fe 3.50 max, Cb 1.0-3.0
M30H N24030 0.30 1.50 2.7-3.7 0.03 0.03 Bal Cu 27.0-33.0, Fe 3.50 max
M35-1 N24135 400Y 0.35 1.50 1.25 0.03 0.03 Bal Cu 26.0-33.0, Fe 3.50 max, Cb 0.5
M35-2 N04020 400Y 0.35 1.50 2.00 0.03 0.03 Bal Cu 26.0-33.0, Fe 3.50 max, Cb 0.5
Y
N-7M N30007 B2 0.07 1.00 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.0 Bal Mo 30.0-33.0, Fe 3.00 max
N-12MV N30012 BY 0.12 1.00 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.0 Bal Mo 26.0-30.0, Fe 4.0-6.0, V 0.20-0.60
D3MWCuN& J93380 0.03 1.00 1.00 0.030 0.025 24.0-26.0 6.5-8.5 Mo 3.0-4.0, Cu 0.5-1.0, W0.5-1.0, N
6A 0.20-0.30
CU5MCuC 825Y 0.05 1.00 1.00 0.030 0.030 19.5-23.5 38.0-44.0 Mo 2.5-3.5, Cu 1.50-3.50, Cb 0.60-
1.20
CF3MN J92804 316LN 0.03 1.50 1.50 0.040 0.040 17.0-22.0 9.0-13.0 Mo 2.0-3.0, N 0.10-0.20
(a) Maximum, unless Range is given, (b) Molybdenum not intentionally added. Designations with the initial letter "C" indicate alloys generally used to resist
corrosive attack at temperatures less than 1200 °F. Designations with the initial letter "H" indicate alloys generally used under conditions where the metal temperature
is in excess of 1200 °F. The second letter represents the nominal chromium-nickel type; the nickel content increasing in amount from "A" to "Z." For example, " F '
stands for the 19% Cr-9% Ni, "K" for the 25% Cr-20% Ni, and "W" for the 12% Cr-60% Ni alloy types. Numerals following the letters indicate the maximum carbon
content of the corrosion-resistant alloys; carbon content may also be designated in the heat-resistant grades by following the letters with a numeral to indicate the
midpoint of a +0.05% carbon range. If special elements are included in the composition they are indicated by the addition of a letter to the symbol. Thus, "CF-8M" is
an alloy for corrosion-resistant service, of the molybdenum-containing 19% Cr-9% Ni type with a maximum carbon content of 0.08%. Note A: Wrought alloy type
numbers are listed only for the convenience of those who want to determine corresponding wrought and cast grades. Because the cast alloy chemical composition
ranges are not the same as the wrought composition ranges, buyers should use cast alloy designations for proper identification of castings. Note B: Most of the standard
grades listed are covered for general applications by American Society for Testing and Materials specifications A 743, A 890, and A 297. ASTM specifications A 217,
A 351, A 447, A 451, A 452, A 744, and A 757 also apply to some of the grades. NoteC: For additional alloy designations consult the current SFSA Handbook
Supplement on specifications. W: Common description, formerly used by AISI. X: Proprietary trademark, (1) Armco Inc. (2) Avesta Sheffield AB. (3) Allegheny
Ludlum Corp. Y: Common name used by two or more producers; not a trademark. Z: ASTM designation
A-8 Appendix
Table D-1 Selected Conversion Factors

To convert from to multiply by or consult Table
s
atmosphere (760 mm Hg) pascal (pa) 1.013 25 x10
Btu (International Table) joule (J) 1.055 056xl0 3
Btu (International Table)/h watt(W) 2.930 711x10"'
Btu (lnteni'1 Table) • in./s • ft2 • °F watt per metre kelvin(W/m • K) 5.192 204 XlO2
calorie (International Table) joule (J) 4.186 800*
centipoise pascal second (Pa • s) 1.000 000* xlO" 3
centistokes metre2 per second (m2/s) 1.000 000* xlO" 6
circular mil metre2 (m2) 5.067 075 xlO" 10
degree Fahrenheit degree Celsius t«C = (t-F-32)/1.8
foot metre (m) 3.048 000* xlO" 1
ft2 metre2 (m2) 9.290 304* xlO" 2
ft3 metre3 (m3) 2.831 685 xlO" 2
ft lbf joule (J) 1.355 818
ft-lbf, C v impact kpm/cm 5.7864
ft • lbf/min watt(W) 2.259 697 xlO" 2
ft/s2 metre per second2 (m/s2) 3.048 000* xlO" 1
gallon (U.S. Liquid) metre (m3) 3.785 412xlO" 3
horsepower (electric) watt(W) 7.460 000* xlO 2
inch metre (m) 2.540 000* xlO" 2 D2andD3
in.2 metre2 (m2) 6.451 600* xlO - 4
in.3 metre3 (m3) 1.638 706 xlO" 5
inch of mercury (60 °F) pascal (Pa) 3.376 85 xlO 3
inchofwater(60°F) pascal (Pa) 2.488 4 xlO 2
kgf/cm3 pascal (Pa) 9.806 650* xlO 4
kgf/mm2 MPaorMN/m 2 9.80665* D4
kip (1000 lbf) newton(N) 4.448 222 xlO 3
kip/in.2 (ksi) pascal (Pa) 6.894 757 xlO 6
kip/in.2 (ksi) MPaorMN/m2 6.894 757 D5
ksi • in." 2 MNm"" 3/2 orMPam 1/2 1.09885
lbf (pound • force) newton (N) 4.448 222
pound (lb avoirdupois) kilogram (kg) 4.535 924 xlO" 1
lbf in.-' MJm"" 2 orJmm~ 2 0.0001751
lbf/in.2(psi) pascal (Pa) 6.894 757 xlO 3
lbf/in.2(psi) Nmi2 6.894 757 xlO 3
lbf/in.2(psi) NAnm2 6.894 757 xlO" 3
lbfin.3 kilogram per metre3 (kg/m3) 2.767 990 xlO 4
lb/ft3 kilogram per metre3 (kg/m3) 1.601846x10
ton (short, 2000 lb) kilogram (kg) 9.071 847 xlO 2
torr(mmHg,0 0 C) pascal (Pa) 1.333 22xlO 2
Wh joule (J) 3.600 000* xlO 3
yard metre (m) 9.144 000* xlO" 1
yd2 metre (m2) 8.361 274 xlO" 1
yd3 metre3 (m3) 7.645 549xlO" 1
•Exact
Table D-2 Inch-Millimetre Equlivalents

Note: All values in this table are exact, based on the relation 1 in. = 25.4 mm. By manipulation of the decimal point, any decimal value
or multiple of an inch may be converted to its exact equivalent in millimetres. (2)
in. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0.0 25.4 50.8 76.2 101.6 127.0 152.4 177.8 203.2 228.6
10 254.0 279.4 304.8 330.2 355.6 381.0 406.4 411.8 457.2 482.6
20 508.0 533.4 558.8 584.2 609.6 635.0 660.4 685.8 711.2 736.6
30 762.0 787.4 812.8 838.2 863.6 889.0 914.4 919.8 965.2 990.6
40 1016.0 1041.4 1066.8 1092.2 1117.6 1143.0 1168.4 1193.8 1219.2 1244.6
50 1270.0 1295.4 1320.8 1346.2 1371.6 1397.0 1422.4 1447.8 1473.2 1498.6
60 1524.0 1549.4 1574.8 1600.2 1625.6 1651.0 1676.4 1701.8 1727.2 1752.6
70 1778.0 1803.4 1828.8 1854.2 1879.6 1905.0 1930.4 1955.8 1981.2 2006.6
80 2032.0 2057.4 2082.8 2108.2 2133.6 2159.0 2184.4 2209.8 2235.2 2260.6
90 2286.0 2311.4 2336.8 2362.2 2387.6 2413.0 2438.4 2463.8 2489.2 2514.6
100 2540.0 2565.4 2590.8 2616.2 2641.6 2667.0 2692.4 2717.8 2743.2 2768.6

Conversions of Units and Hardness Values A-9
Table D-3 Inch-Millimetre Equivalents of Decimal and Common Fractions from 1/64 to 1 in.
Note: Caution—Convert only to the number of decimal places consistent with the stated or implied accuracy. (2)
Inch,
Inch l/2s l/4s 8ths lfths 32nds 64ths Decimals* Millimetres
1 0.015 625 0.397

1 2 0.031 25 0.794
3 0.046 875 1.191
2 4 0.062 5 1.588
5 0.078 125 1.984
3 6 0.093 75 2.381
7 0.109 375 2.778
4 8 0.125 0 3.175*
9 0.140625 3.572
5 10 0.156 25 3.969
11 0.171 875 4.366
6 12 0.187 5 4.762
13 0.203 125 5.159
7 14 0.218 75 5.556
15 0.234 375 5.953
8 16 0.2500 6.350*
17 0.265 625 6.747
9 18 0.281 25 7.144
19 0.296 875 7.541
10 20 0.312 5 7.938
21 0.328 125 8.334
11 22 0.343 75 8.731
23 0.359 375 9.128
12 24 0.375 0 9.525*
25 0.390625 9.922
13 26 0.40625 10.319
27 0.421 875 10.716
14 28 0.437 5 11.112
29 0.453 125 11.509
15 30 0.468 75 11.906
31 0.484 375 12.303
16 32 0.5000 12.700*
33 0.515 625 13.097
17 34 0.531 25 13.494
35 0.546 875 13.891
18 36 0.562 5 14.288
37 0.578 125 14.684
19 38 0.593 75 15.081
39 0.609 375 15.478
10 20 40 0.625 0 15.875*
41 0.640 625 16.272
21 42 0.656 25 16.669
43 0.671 875 17.066
11 22 44 0.687 5 17.462
45 0.703 125 17.859
23 46 0.718 75 18.256
47 0.734 375 18.653
12 24 48 0.750 0 19.050*
49 0.765 625 19.447
25 50 0.781 25 19.844
51 0.796 875 20.241
13 26 52 0.812 5 20.638
53 0.828 125 21.034
27 54 0.843 75 21.431
55 0.859 375 21.828
14 28 56 0.875 0 22.225*
57 0.890625 22.622
29 58 0.906 25 23.019
59 0.921 875 23.416
15 30 60 0.937 5 23.812
61 0.953 125 24.209
31 62 0.968 75 24.606
63 0.984 375 25.003
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 1.0000 25.400*
*Exact

A-10 Appendix
Table D-4 Pressure and Stress Equivalents—Metric Technical to SI Units (2)

Note
-2
1: This table may be used for obtaining SI equivalents of quantities expressed in kgf/cm2 by multiplying the given values by
above
10 , that is, by moving the decimal point two places to the left. Note 2: This table may be extended to values Below 1 or i 100
kgf/cm2 by manipulation of the decimal point and addition.
Conversion Relationships: 1 m m = 0.001 m (exactly), 1 kgf=9.806 65 N (exactly)

M P a (MN/m 2 )
kgf/mm 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0.0000 9.8066 19.6133 29.4200 39.2266 49.0332 58.8399 68.6466 78.4532 88.2598
10 98.0665 107.8732 117.6798 127.4864 137.2931 147.0998 156.9064 166.7130 176.5197 186.3264
20 196.1330 205.9396 215.7463 225.5530 235.3596 245.1662 254.9729 264.7796 274.5862 284.3928
30 294.1995 304.0062 313.8128 323.6194 333.4261 343.2328 353.0394 362.8460 372.6527 382.4594
40 392.2660 402.0726 411.8793 421.6860 431.4926 441.2992 451.1059 460.9126 470.7192 480.5258
50 490.3325 500.1392 509.9458 519.7524 529.5591 539.3658 549.1724 558.9790 568.7857 578.5924
60 588.3990 598.2056 608.0123 617.8190 627.6256 637.4322 647.2389 657.0456 666.8522 676.6588
70 686.4655 696.2722 706.0788 715.8854 725.6921 735.4988 745.3054 755.1120 764.9187 774.7254
80 784.5320 794.3386 804.1453 813.9520 823.7586 833.5652 843.3719 853.1786 862.9852 872.7918
90 882.5985 892.4052 902.2118 912.0184 921.8251 931.6318 941.4384 951.2450 961.0517 970.8584
100 980.6650 990.4716 1000.2783 1010.0850 1019.8916 1029.6982 1039.5049 1049.3116 1059.1182 1068.9248
Table D-5 Pressure and Stress Equivalents—Pounds-Force per Square Inch and Thousand Pounds-Force
per Square Inch to Kilopascais (Kilonewtons per Square Metre) and Megapascals (Meganewtons per Square
Metre) (2)
Note 1: Thjs table may be used for obtaining SI equivalents of quantities expressed in lbf/in.2. SI values are usually expressed in
kPa (kN/m2) when original value is in Ibf/in.ând2 in MPa (MN/m2) when
2
original value is in 1000 lbf/in.2. Note 2: This table may be
extended to values below 1 or above 100 lbf/in. (100 x 1000 lbf/in. ) by manipulation of the decimal point and addition.
Conversion Relationships::1 in. = 0.02541 m (exactly), 1 lbf=4.448 221615 260 5 N (exactly)

lbf/in.2 kPa (kN/m 2 ), M P a (MN/m 2 )
1000 lbf/in.2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0.0000 6.8948 13.7895 20.6843 27.5790 34.4738 41.3685 48.2633 55.1581 62.0528
10 68.9476 75.8423 82.7371 89.6318 96.5266 103.4214 110.3161 117.2109 124.1056 131.0004
20 137.8951 144.7899 151.6847 158.5794 165.4742 172.3689 179.2637 186.1584 193.0532 199.9480
30 206.8427 213.7375 220.6322 227.5270 234.4217 241.3165 248.2113 255.1060 262.0008 268.8955
40 275.7903 282.6850 289.5798 296.4746 303.3693 310.2641 317.1588 324.0536 330.9484 337.8431
50 344.7379 351.6326 358.5274 365.4221 372.3169 379.2117 386.1064 393.0012 399.8959 406.7907
60 413.6854 420.5802 427.4750 434.3697 441.2645 448.1592 455.0540 461.9487 468.8435 475.7383
70 482.6330 489.5278 496.4225 503.3173 510.2120 517.1068 524.0016 530.8963 537.7911 544.6858
80 551.5806 558.4753 565.3701 572.2649 579.1596 586.0544 592.9491 599.8439 606.7386 613.6334
90 620.5282 627.4229 634.3177 641.2124 648.1072 655.0019 661.8967 668.7915 675.6862 682.5810
100 689.4757 696.3705 703.2652 710.1600 717.0548 723.9495 730.8443 737.7390 744.6338 751.5285
Table D-6 Approximate Equivalent Hardness Numbers for Brinell Hardness

Numbers for Steel(a) (3)
Rockwell hardness No.(c) Rockwell superficial
A-scale, B-scale, C-scale, D-scale, hardness No., super- Shore
Brinell Brinell hardness No.(b), Diamond 60-kg 100-kg 150-kg 100-kg ficial brale penetrator sclero- Brinell
indenta- 10-mm ball, 3000-kg load pyramid load, load, load, load, 15-N 30-N 45-N scope Tensile indenta-
tion Stand- Hult- Tungsten hard- brale 1/16-in. brale brale scale, scale, scale, hard- strength tion
diam, ard gren carbide ness pene- diam pene- pene- 15-kg 30-kg 45-kg ness (approx), diam,
mm ball ball ball No. trator ball trator trator load load load No. 1000 psi mm
940 85.6 68.0 76.9 93.2 84.4 75.4 97

920 85.3 67.5 76.5 93.0 84.0 74.8 96
900 85.0 67.0 76.1 92.9 83.6 74.2 95
767 880 84.7 66.4 75.7 92.7 83.1 73.6 93
757 860 84.4 65.9 75.3 92.5 82.7 73.1 92
2.25 745 840 84.1 65.3 74.8 92.3 82.2 72.2 91 2.25
733 820 83.8 64.7 74.3 92.1 81.7 71.8 90
722 800 83.4 64.0 73.8 91.8 81.1 71.0 88
2.30 712 2.30
710 780 83.0 63.3 73.3 91.5 80.4 70.2 87
698 760 82.6 62.5 72.6 91.2 79.7 69.4 86
684 740 82.2 61.8 72.1 91.0 79.1 68.6
2.35 682 737 82.2 61.7 72.0 91.0 79.0 68.5 84 2.35
670 720 81.8 61.0 71.5 90.7 78.4 67.7 83
656 700 81.3 60.1 70.8 90.3 77.6 66.7
2.40 653 697 81.2 60.0 70.7 90.2 77.5 66.5 81 2.40
647 690 81.1 59.7 70.5 90.1 77.2 66.2
638 680 80.8 59.2 70.1 89.8 76.8 65.7 80 329
630 670 80.6 58.8 69.8 89.7 76.4 65.3 324
2.45 627 667 80.5 58.7 69.7 89.6 76.3 65.1 79 323 2.45
2.50 601 677 80.7 59.1 70.0 89.8 76.8 65.7 328 2.50
2.50 601 640 79.8 57.3 68.7 89.0 75.1 63.5 77 309 2.50
2.55 578 640 79.8 57.3 68.7 89.0 75.1 63.5 309 2.55
2.55 578 615 79.1 56.0 67.7 88.4 73.9 62.1 75 297 2.55
2.60 555 607 78.8 55.6 67.4 88.1 73.5 61.6 293 2.60
2.60 555 591 78.4 54.7 66.7 87.8 72.7 60.6 73 285 2.60
2.65 534 579 78.0 54.0 66.1 87.5 72.0 59.8 279 2.65
2.65 534 569 77.8 53.5 65.8 87.2 71.6 59.2 71 274 2.65
2.70 514 553 77.1 52.5 65.0 86.7 70.7 58.0 266 2.70
2.70 514 547 76.9 52.1 64.7 86.5 70.3 57.6 70 263 2.70
2.75 495 539 76.7 51.6 64.3 86.3 69.9 56.9 259 2.75
2.75 495 530 76.4 51.1 63.9 86.0 69.5 56.2 254 2.75
2.75 495 528 76.3 51.0 63.8 85.9 69.4 56.1 68 253 2.75
2.80 477 516 75.9 50.3 63.2 85.6 68.7 55.2 247 2.80
2.80 477 508 75.6 49.6 62.7 85.3 68.2 54.5 66 243 2.80
2.85 461 495 75.1 48.8 61.9 84.9 67.4 53.5 237 2.85
2.85 461 491 74.9 48.5 61.7 84.7 67.2 53.2 65 235 2.85
2.90 444 474 74.3 47.2 61.0 84.1 66.0 51.7 226 2.90
2.90 444 472 74.2 47.1 60.8 84.0 65.8 51.5 63 225 2.90
2.95 429 429 429 455 73.4 45.7 59.7 83.4 64.6 49.9 61 217 2.95
3.00 415 415 415 440 72.8 44.5 58.8 82.8 63.5 48.4 59 210 3.00
3.05 401 401 401 425 72.0 43.1 57.8 82.0 62.3 46.9 58 202 3.05
3.10 388 388 388 410 71.4 41.8 56.8 81.4 61.1 45.3 56 95 3.10
3.15 375 375 375 396 70.6 40.4 55.7 80.6 59.9 43.6 54 188 3.15
3.20 363 363 363 383 70.0 39.1 54.6 80.0 58.7 42.0 52 182 3.20
3.25 352 352 352 372 69.3 (110.0) 37.9 53.8 79.3 57.6 40.5 51 176 3.25
3.30 341 341 341 360 68.7 (109.0) 36.6 52.8 78.6 56.4 39.1 50 70 3.30
3.35 331 331 331 350 68.1 (108.5) 35.5 51.9 78.0 55.4 37.8 48 166 3.35
3.40 321 321 321 339 67.5 (108.0) 34.3 51.0 77.3 54.3 36.4 47 160 3.40
3.45 311 311 311 328 66.9 (107.5) 33.1 50.0 76.7 53.3 34.4 46 155 3.45
3.50 302 302 302 319 66.3 (107.0) 32.1 49.3 76.1 52.2 33.8 45 150 3.50
3.55 293 293 293 309 65.7 (106.0) 30.9 48.3 75.5 51.2 32.4 43 145 3.55
3.60 285 285 285 301 65.3 (105.5) 29.9 47.6 75.0 50.3 31.2 ... 141 3.60
3.65 277 277 277 292 64.6 (104.5) 28.8 46.7 74.4 49.3 29.9 41 137 3.65
3.70 269 269 269 284 64.1 (104.0) 27.6 45.9 73.7 48.3 28.5 40 133 3.70
3.75 262 262 262 276 63.6 (103.0) 26.6 45.0 73.1 47.3 27.3 39 129 3.75
3.80 255 255 255 269 63.0 (102.0) 25.4 44.2 72.5 46.2 26.0 38 126 3.80
3.85 248 248 248 261 62.5 (101.0) 24.2 43.2 71.7 45.1 24.5 37 122 3.85
3.90 241 241 241 253 61.8 100.0 22.8 42.0 70.9 43.9 22.8 36 118 3.90
3.95 235 235 235 247 61.4 99.0 21.7 41.4 70.3 42.9 21.5 35 115 3.95
(continued)

A-12 Appendix
Table D-6 Approximate Equivalent Hardness Numbers for Brinell Hardness

Numbers for Steel(a) (3) (continued)
Rockwell hardness No.(c) Rockwell superficial
A-scale, B-scale, C-scale, D-scale, hardness No., super- Shore
Brinell Brinell hardness No.(b), Diamond 60-kg 100-kg 150-kg 100-kg ficial brale penetrator sclero- Brinell
indenta- 10-mm ball, 3000-kg load pyramid load, load, load, load, 15-N 30-N 45-N scope Tensile indenta-
tion Stand- Hult- Tungsten hard- brale 1/16-in. brale brale scale, scale, scale, hard- strength tion
diam, ard gren carbide ness pene- diam pene- pene- 15-kg 30-kg 45-kg ness (approx), diam,
mm ball ball ball No. trator ball trator trator load load load No. 1000 psi mm
4.00 229 229 229 241 60.8 98.2 20.5 40. 69.7 41.9 20.1 34 111 4.00
4.05 223 223 223 234 97.3 (18.8) 4.05
4.10 217 217 217 228 96.4 (17.5) 33 105 4.10
4.20 207 207 207 218 94.6 (15.2) 32 100 4.20
4.30 197 197 197 207 92.8 (12.7) 30 95 4.30
4.40 187 187 187 196 90.7 (10.0) 90 4.40
4.50 179 179 179 188 89.0 (8.0) 27 87 4.50
4.60 170 170 170 178 86.8 (5.4) 26 83 4.60
4.70 163 163 163 171 85.0 (3.3) 25 79 4.70
4.80 156 156 156 163 82.9 (0.9) 76 4.80
4.90 149 149 149 156 80.8 23 73 4.90
5.00 143 143 143 150 78.7 22 71 5.00
5.10 137 137 137 143 76.4 21 67 5.10
5.20 131 131 131 137 74.0 65 5.20
5.30 126 126 126 132 72.0 20 63 5.30
5.40 121 121 121 127 69.8 19 60 5.40
5.50 116 116 116 122 67.6 18 58 5.50
5.60 111 111 111 117 65.7 15 56 5.60
(a) The values in bold face type correspond to the values in the joint SAE-ASM-ASTM hardness conversions as printed in ASTM E48, Table 3. (b) Brinell numbers
are based on the diameter of impressed indentation. If the ball distorts (flattens) during test, Brinell numbers will vary in accordance with the degree of such distortion
when related to hardnesses determined with a Vickers diamond pyramid, Rockwell brale, or other penetrator which does not sensibly distort. At high hardnesses, there-
fore, therelationshipbetween Brinell and Vickers or Rockwell scales is affected by the type of ball used. Steel balls (standard or Hultgren) tend to flatten slightly more
than carbide balls,resultingin larger indentation and lower Brinell number than shown by a carbide ball. Thus, on a specimen of 640 Vickers, a Hultgren ball will leave
a 2.55 mm impression (578 Bhn), and the carbide ball a 2.50 mm impression (601 Bhn). Conversely, identical impression diameters for both types of ball will corre-
spond to different Vickers or Rockwell values. Thus, if both impressions are 2.55 mm (578 Bhn), material tested with a Hultgren ball has a Vickers hardness of 640,
while material tested with a carbide ball has a Vickers hardness of 615. (c) Values in parentheses are beyond normal range.
Table D-7 Approximate Equivalent Hardness Numbers for Rockwell C Hardness Numbers for Steel(a) (3)
Rockwell superficial
Rockwell hardness No. hardness No., superficial
Brinell hardness No., A-scale, B-scale, D-scale, brale penetrator
Rockwell Diamond 10-mm ball, 3000-kg load 60-kg 100-kg 100-kg 15-N 30-N 45-N Shore Tensile Rockwell
C-scale pyramid Tungsten load, load, 1/16- load, scale, scale, scale, scleroscope strength C-scale
hardness hardness Standard Hultgren carbide brale in.diam brale 15-kg 30-kg 45-kg hardness (approx), hardness
No. No. ball ball ball penetratoi ball penetrator load load load No. 1000 psi No.
68 940 85.6 76.9 93.2 84.4 75.4 97 68

67 900 85.0 76.1 92.9 83.6 74.2 95 67
66 865 84.5 75.4 92.5 82.8 73.3 92 66
65 832 739 83.9 74.5 92.2 81.9 72.0 91 65
64 800 722 83.4 73.8 91.8 81.1 71.0 88 64
63 772 705 82.8 73.0 91.4 80.1 69.9 87 63
62 746 688 82.3 72.2 91.1 79.3 68.8 85 62
61 720 670 81.8 71.5 90.7 78.4 67.7 83 61
60 697 613 654 81.2 70.7 90.2 77.5 66.6 81 60
59 674 599 634 80.7 69.9 89.8 76.6 65.5 80 326 59
58 653 587 615 80.1 69.2 89.3 75.7 64.3 78 315 58
57 633 575 595 79.6 68.5 88.9 74.8 63.2 76 305 57
56 613 561 577 79.0 67.7 88.3 73.9 62.0 75 295 56
55 595 546 560 78.5 66.9 87.9 73.0 60.9 74 287 55
54 577 534 543 78.0 66.1 87.4 72.0 59.8 72 278 54
53 560 519 525 77.4 65.4 86.9 71.2 58.6 71 269 53
52 544 5 00 508 512 76.8 64.6 86.4 70.2 57.4 69 262 52
51 528 4 87 494 496 76.3 63.8 85.9 69.4 56.1 68 253 51
50 513 4 75 481 481 75.9 63.1 85.5 68.5 55.0 67 245 50
49 498 4 64 469 469 75.2 62.1 85.0 67.6 53.8 66 239 49
48 484 4 51 455 455 74.7 61.4 84.5 66.7 52.5 64 232 48
47 471 442 443 443 74.1 60.8 83.9 65.8 51.4 63 225 47
46 458 4 32 432 432 73.6 60.0 83.5 64.8 50.3 62 219 46
45 446 4 21 421 421 73.1 59.2 83.0 64.0 49.0 60 212 45
44 434 4 09 409 409 72.5 58.5 82.5 63.1 47.8 58 206 44
43 423 4KM 400 400 72.0 57.7 82.0 62.2 46.7 57 201 43
42 412 3 90 390 390 71.5 56.9 81.5 61.3 45.5 56 196 42
41 402 3 81 381 381 70.9 56.2 80.9 60.4 44.3 55 191 41
40 392 3 71 371 371 70.4 55.4 80.4 59.5 43.1 54 186 40
39 382 3 62 362 362 69.9 54.6 79.9 58.6 41.9 52 181 39
38 372 3 53 353 353 69.4 53.8 79.4 57.7 40.8 51 176 38
37 363 3 44 344 344 68.9 53.1 78.8 56.8 39.6 50 172 37
36 354 3 36 336 336 68.4 (109.0) 52.3 78.3 55.9 38.4 49 168 36
35 345 3 27 327 327 67.9 (108.5) 51.5 77.7 55.0 37.2 48 163 35
34 336 3 19 319 319 67.4 (108.0) 50.8 77.2 54.2 36.1 47 159 34
33 327 3 11 311 311 66.8 (107.5) 50.0 76.6 53.3 34.9 46 154 33
32 318 3 01 301 301 66.3 (107.0) 49.2 76.1 52.1 33.7 44 150 32
31 310 2 94 294 294 65.8 (106.0) 48.4 75.6 51.3 32.5 43 146 31
30 302 2 86 286 286 65.3 (105.5) 47.7 75.0 50.4 31.3 42 142 30
29 294 2 79 279 279 64.7 (104.5) 47.0 74.5 49.5 30.1 41 138 29
28 286 2 71 271 271 64.3 (104.0) 46.1 73.9 48.6 28.9 41 134 28
27 279 2 64 264 264 63.8 (103.0) 45.2 73.3 47.7 27.8 40 131 27
26 272 2 58 258 258 63.3 (102.5) 44.6 72.8 46.8 26.7 38 127 26
25 266 :.53 253 253 62.8 (101.5) 43.8 72.2 45.9 25.5 38 124 25
24 260 2.47 247 247 62.4 (101.0) 43.1 71.6 45.0 24.3 37 121 24
23 254 : 43 243 243 62.0 100.0 42.1 71.0 44.0 23.1 36 118 23
22 248 2 37 237 237 61.5 99.0 41.6 70.5 43.2 22.0 35 115 22
21 243 2.31 231 231 61.0 98.5 40.9 69.9 42.3 20.7 35 113 21
20 238 2.26 226 226 60.5 97.8 40.1 69.4 41.5 19.6 34 110 20
(18) 230 2.19 219 219 96.7 33 106 (18)
(16) 222 2.12 212 212 95.5 32 102 (16)
(14) 213 2.03 203 203 93.9 31 98 (14)
(12) 204 94 194 194 92.3 29 94 (12)
(10) 196 87 187 187 90.7 28 90 (10)
(8) 188 79 179 179 89.5 27 87 (8)
(6) 180 71 171 171 87.1 26 84 (6)
(4) 173 65 165 165 85.5 25 80 (4)
(2) 166 58 158 158 83.5 24 77 (2)
(0) 160 52 152 152 81.7 24 75 (0)
(a) The values in bold face type correspond to the values in the joint SAE-ASM-ASTM hardness conversions as printed in ASTM E48, Table 2. Values in parentheses
are beyond normal range and are given for information only.
A-14 Appendix
Table D-8 Brinell Hardness Numbers (10-mm Bail Diameter) (3)

Inden- Inden- Inden-
tation tation tation
diam, Load ,kfi diam, Load • ty diam, Load, kg
mm 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 mm 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 mm 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
2.00 158 316 473 632 788 945 3.50 50.3 101 151 201 252 302 5.00 23.8 47.6 71.5 95.2 119 143
2.05 150 300 450 600 750 899 3.55 48.9 97.8 147 196 244 293 5.05 23.3 46.6 70.0 93.2 117 140
2.10 143 286 428 572 714 856 3.60 47.5 95.0 143 190 238 285 5.10 22.8 45.6 68.5 91.2 114 137
2.15 136 272 409 544 681 817 3.65 46.1 92.2 139 184 231 277 5.15 22.3 44.6 67.0 89.2 112 134
2.20 130 260 390 520 650 780 3.70 44.9 89.8 135 180 225 269 5.20 21.8 43.6 65.5 87.2 109 131
2.25 124 248 373 496 621 745 3.75 43.6 87.2 131 174 218 262 5.25 21.4 42.8 64.0 85.6 107 128
2.30 119 238 356 476 593 712 3.80 42.4 84.8 128 170 212 255 5.30 20.9 41.8 63.0 83.6 105 126
2.35 114 228 341 456 568 682 3.85 41.3 82.6 124 165 207 248 5.35 20.5 41.0 61.5 82.0 103 123
2.40 109 218 327 436 545 653 3.90 40.2 80.4 121 161 201 241 5.40 20.1 40.2 60.5 80.4 101 121
2.45 104 208 314 416 522 627 3.95 39.1 78.2 118 156 196 235 5.45 19.7 39.4 59.0 78.8 98.5 118
2.50 100 200 301 400 500 601 4.00 38.1 76.2 115 152 191 229 5.50 19.3 38.6 58.0 77.2 96.5 116
2.55 96.3 193 289 385 482 578 4.05 37.1 74.2 112 148 186 223 5.55 18.9 37.8 57.0 75.6 95.0 114
2.60 92.6 185 278 370 462 555 4.10 36.2 72.4 109 145 181 217 5.60 18.6 37.2 55.5 74.4 92.5 111
2.65 89.0 178 267 356 445 534 4.15 35.3 70.6 106 141 177 212 5.65 18.2 36.4 54.5 72.8 90.8 109
2.70 85.7 171 257 343 429 514 4.20 34.4 68.8 104 138 172 207 5.70 17.8 35.6 53.5 71.2 89.2 107
2.75 82.6 165 248 330 413 495 4.25 33.6 67.2 101 134 167 201 5.75 17.5 35.0 52.5 70.0 87.5 105
2.80 79.6 159 239 318 398 477 4.30 32.8 65.6 98.5 131 164 197 5.80 17.2 34.4 51.5 68.8 85.8 103
2.85 76.8 154 231 307 384 461 4.35 32.0 64.0 96.0 128 160 192 5.85 16.8 33.6 50.5 67.2 84.2 101
2.90 74.1 148 222 296 371 444 4.40 31.2 62.4 93.5 125 156 187 5.90 16.5 33.0 49.6 66.0 82.5 99.2
2.95 71.5 143 215 286 358 429 4.45 30.5 61.0 91.5 122 153 183 5.95 16.2 32.4 48.7 64.8 81.2 97.3
3.00 69.1 138 208 276 346 415 4.50 29.8 59.6 89.5 119 149 179 6.00 15.9 31.8 47.8 63.6 79.5 95.5
3.05 66.8 134 201 267 334 401 4.55 29.1 58.2 87.0 116 145 174 6.05 15.6 31.2 46.9 62.4 78.0 93.7
3.10 64.6 129 194 258 324 388 4.60 28.4 56.8 85.0 114 142 170 6.10 15.3 30.6 46.0 61.2 76.7 92.0
3.15 62.5 125 188 250 313 375 4.65 27.8 55.6 83.5 111 139 167 6.15 15.1 30.2 45.2 60.4 75.3 90.3
3.20 60.5 121 182 242 303 363 4.70 27.1 54.2 81.5 108 136 163 6.20 14.8 29.6 44.4 59.2 73.8 88.7
3.25 58.6 117 176 234 293 352 4.75 26.5 53.0 79.5 106 133 159 6.25 14.5 29.0 43.6 58.0 72.6 87.1
3.30 56.8 114 171 227 284 341 4.80 25.9 51.8 78.0 104 130 156 6.30 14.2 28.4 42.8 56.8 71.3 85.5
3.35 55.1 110 166 220 276 331 4.85 25.4 50.8 76.0 102 127 152 6.35 14.0 28.0 42.0 56.0 70.0 84.0
3.40 53.4 107 161 214 267 321 4.90 24.8 49.6 74.5 99.2 124 149 6.40 13.7 27.4 41.3 54.8 68.8 82.5
3.45 51.8 104 156 207 259 311 4.95 24.3 48.6 73.0 97.2 122 146 6.45 13.5 27.0 40.5 54.0 67.5 81.0

ISO Specifications A-15
Table E-1 ISO Specifications—Steel Castings

ISO DIS 4992 (a) Steel Castings - Ultrasonic Inspection
ISO DIS 11971(a) Visual examination of surface quality of steel castings
ISO DIS 11972(a) Corrosion resistant cast steels for general applications
ISO TC 155/SC2/CD. N317(b) Nickel and nickel alloy castings
ISO WD 11970(c) Weld qualification procedures for steel castings
ISO CD 11973(b) Heat resistant cast steels for general purposes
ISO WD 13520(c) Estimation of ferrite content in austenitic stainless steel castings
ISO WD 13521(c) Austenitic manganese steel castings
ISO WD 13583(c) Centrifugally cast tube
ISO WD 14737(c) Cast carbon and low alloy steels for general use
ISO 8062 Castings—System of dimensional tolerances and machining allowances
ISO 148 Charpy impact test (V-notch)
ISO 857 Welding, brazing and soldering processes—Vocabulary
ISO 4136 Fusion welded butt joints in steel—Transverse tensile test
ISO 4969 Steel—Macroscopic examination by etching with strong mineral acids
ISO 4986 Steel castings—Magnetic particle inspection
ISO 4987 Steel castings—Penetrant inspection
ISO 4990 Steel castings—General technical delivery requirements
ISO 4993 Steel castings—Radiographic inspection
ISO 5173 Fusion welded butt joints in steel—Transverse root and face bend test
ISO 5177 Fusion welded butt joints in steel—Transverse side bend test
ISO 5817 Arc-welded joints in steel—Guidance on quality levels for imperfections
ISO 6507 Metallic materials—Hardness test—Vickers test—Part 1
ISO 6892 Metallic Materials—Tensile testing
ISO 6947 Welds—Working Positions—Definition of slope and rotation
ISO 9606-1 Approval testing of welders—Fusion welding—Parti: Steels
ISO 9042 Steels—Manual point counting method for statistically estimating the volume fraction of a constituent with a point grid
ISO 10135 Technical drawings—simplified representation of molded, cast and forged parts
ISO 13715 Technical drawings—Corners—Vocabulary and indication on drawings
ISO 4991 Steel castings for pressure purposes
ISO DIS 9956-3 Specification and approval of procedures for metallic materials—Part 3: Welding procedure tests for the arc welding of steels
TR 7705(d) Basic rules for specifying impact strength in steel specifications
ISO TR 783(d) Mechanical testing of steel at elevated temperatures—Determination of lower yield stress and proof stress
ISO 643 Steels—Micrographic determination of the ferritic or austenitic grain size
ISO 3755 Cast carbon steels for general engineering
ISO 4499 Hardmetals—Metallographic determination of microstructure
ISO 4964 Steel—Hardness conversions
ISO 3651/1 Austenitic stainless steels—Determination of resistance to intergranular corrosion—Part 1: Corrosion test in nitric acid medium by
measurement of loss in mass (Huey test)
ISO 2605/1 Steel products for pressure purposes—Derivation and verification of elevated temperature properties—Part 1: Yield or proof stress
of carbon and low alloy steel products
ISO 2605/2 Steel products for pressure purposes—Derivation and verification of elevated temperature properties—Part 2: Proof stress of
austenitic steel products
ISO 3651/2 Austenitic stainless steels—Determination of resistance to intergranular corrosion—Part 2: Corrosion test in a sulphuric
acid/copper sulphate medium in the presence of copper turnings (Monypenny Strauss test)
ISO 3452 Non-destructive testing—Penetrant inspection—General principles
ISO 5579 Non-destructive testing—Radiographic examination of metallic materials by X- and gamma rays—Basic rules
ISO 6506 Metallic materials—Hardness test—Brinell test
ISO 8249 Welding—Determination of ferrite number in austenitic weld metal deposited by covered Cr-Ni steel electrodes
ISO 9304 Seamless and welded (except submerged arc-welded) steel tubes for pressure purposes—Eddy current testing for the detection of
imperfections
ISO 9477 High strength cast steels for general engineering and structural purposes
(a) ISO DIS - draft international standard, currently being balloted (b) ISO CD - committee draft (c) ISO WD - working draft (d) ISO TR - technical report
References 2. 7979 Annual Book of Standards, Part 2: Ferrous Castings; Ferro-

alloys, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA
1. "Pocketbook of AISI Standard Steels" extracted from Steel Prod- 3. Metals Handbook, 8th ed., Properties and Selection of Metals,
ucts Manual, AISI, Washington, DC, June, 1977 Vol 1, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1961

Malcolm Blair, Thomas L. Steven, editors, p G-1-G-10 All rights reserved.
Glossary of Foundry Terms
enlarged image of the tip and individual atoms are made Bath . . . Molten metal on the hearth of a furnace, in
visible. a crucible, or in a ladle.
Apparent Contraction . . . The net contraction of a Batten . . . A wood bar or strip fastened to a bottom
casting dimension due to true metal contraction, mold or follow board for rigidity, or to prevent distortion
wall movement, and restraint during solidification and during ramming of the mold.
Abrasion . . . The displacement and/or detachment cooling. Bed-In... Method whereby drag may be rammed in
of metallic particles from a surface as a consequence of Argon Oxygen Decarburization (AOD)... A sec- the pit or flask without the necessity of rolling over.
being exposed to flowing solids, fluids or gases. ondary refining process in which argon, oxygen and Process used in production of heavy castings.
ACj,,,... In hypereutectoid steel, the temperature at nitrogen are injected into a molten bath of steel. This Bench-Blower . . . A small core-blowing machine,
which cementite goes into complete solution with improves metal cleanliness and thus gives superior me- utilizing a removable sand magazine and blow head.
austenite. chanical properties. Bench Rammer . . . A short rammer used by bench
Acj . . . The temperature at which austenite begins to Arcair Torch . . . An electric arc torch with air ducts molders.
form on heating. running parallel to the electrode, used to remove metal Bentonite... A colloidal clay derived from volcanic
Ac 3 . . . In hypoeutectoid steel, the temperature at and surface defects from ferrous castings.
which transformation of ferrite into austenite is com- ash and employed as a binder in connection with syn-
As Cast . . . Referring to metal which has not re- thetic sands, or added to ordinary natural (clay-bonded)
pleted upon heating. ceived finishing (beyond gate removal or sandblasting),
Ae cm , Aej, and Ae 3 . . . Equilibrium transformation sands where extra strength is required.
or treatment of any kind including heat treatment after
temperatures in steel. BHN . . . Brinell Hardness Number. (See Brinell
casting. (See Finishing).
Acid... 1) A solution or liquid with a pH less than 7 Hardness).
Atmosphere, Neutral . . . Furnace atmosphere Bimetal . . . Casting, usually centrifugal, made of
2) Term applied to slags, refractories, and minerals which is neither oxidizing nor reducing can be made up
containing a high percentage of silica. two different metals, fused together.
of an inert gas, e.g., argon, or the products of combus-
Acid Brittleness (Pickling Brittleness) (Acid Em- Blasting (Blast Cleaning)... A process for cleaning
tion.
brittlement) . . . Lack of ductility, induced in steel or finishing metal objects by use of an air blast or
Atmosphere, Oxidizing . . . Furnace atmosphere
when it is pickled in dilute acid to remove scale—com- centrifugal wheel that throws abrasive particles against
which gives off oxygen under certain conditions, or
monly attributed to the absorption of hydrogen. the surface of the work pieces. Small, irregular particles
where there is an excess of oxygen in the product of
Acid Process... A steelmaking method using an acid of steel or iron are used as the abrasive in grit blasting,
combustion, or the products of combustion are oxidiz-
(usually silica) refractory-lined furnace. Neither sulfur and steel or iron balls in shot blasting.
ing to the metal being heated.
or phosphorus is removed. Atmosphere, Reducing . . . Furnace atmosphere Blocking . .. Adding ferrosilicon or other deoxidiz-
Age Hardening . . . Hardening by aging, usually which absorbs oxygen under suitable conditions, or in ing agent to a refined heat to stop all oxidizing reac-
after rapid cooling or cold working. (See Precipitation which there is insufficient air to completely burn the tions.
Hardening). fuel, or the product of combustion is reducing to the Blow Holes . . . 1) Holes in the head plate or blow
Aging... A change in properties of metals and alloys metal being heated. plate of a core-blowing machine through which sand is
which occurs slowly at room temperature and will pro- Austenite... The face-centered-cubic phase of iron. blown from me reservoir into the core box. 2) Irregular
ceed rapidly at higher temperatures. The change in In steel a solid solution in which gamma iron is the shaped cavities with smooth walls produced in a casting
properties is often, but not always, due to a phase solvent. when gas is entrapped during mold filling. The gas
change (precipitation), but never involves a change in Austenitic Steels... Any steel containing sufficient sources may be air, binder decomposition products or
chemical composition of the metal or alloy. (See Age alloy to produce a stable austenitic (gamma iron) crys- gases dissolved in the molten steel.
and Precipitation Hardening). talline structure at ambient temperature. Blow Plate . . . The plate containing the core sand
Air-Hardening Steel . . . A steel containing suffi- entrance holes or blow holes used in open-face core
cient alloy to fully harden during cooling in air. Typi- boxes.
cally this term is restricted to steels able to harden in Blower, Core or Mold... A device using air pressure
sections of about 2 in. (51 mm) or more. B to fill a core box or flask with sand.
Air Quenching . . . Accelerated cooling of alloys in Boil. . . Agitation of a bath of metal caused by the
an air stream from temperatures above me Ac 3 tempera- liberation of a gas beneath its surface. May be deliber-
ture. Backing Board (backing plate)... A second bottom ately induced by the addition of oxidizing material to a
Alloy... A substance having metallic properties and board on which molds are opened. bath containing excess carbon. In the latter case, it is
composed of two or more chemical elements of which Bainite . . . In steel, an acicular aggregate of ferrite called a carbon boil and CO, C0 2 , or 0 2 are liberated.
at least one is metal. Usually possesses qualities differ- and carbide, resulting from an isothermal transforma-
Boss . . . A projection of circular cross-section on a
ent from those of the components. tion of austenite at a temperature below the pearlitic
casting. Usually intended for drilling and tapping for
Alloy Steel... Steel containing significant quantities range and above Ms.
attaching parts.
of alloying elements other than carbon and the com- Baked Core . . . A core which has been heated for a
monly accepted amounts of manganese, silicon, sulfur, Bottom Pour Ladle... See Ladle, Bottom Pour.
sufficient time and temperature to produce the desired
and phosphorus. physical properties. Bracket... Strengthening strip, rib, or projection on
Alpha - ferrite... Body-centered cubic type of pure Baked Strength . . . Compressive, shear, tensile or a casting. Usually used to prevent hot tearing. (See
iron stable below 1670 °F (910 °C). transverse strength of a molded sand mixture when Cracking strip).
Analysis Line . . . In spectrographic analysis, the baked at a temperature above 230 °F (110 °C) and then BreakofT Notch . . . A thinner section of a gate or
particular spectral line used in determining the concen- cooled to room temperature. riser to facilitate clean breaking-off during the cleaning
tration of an element. process.
Ball Burnishing . . . A method of obtaining a high
Angle Testing (UT) . . . A method of ultrasonic luster on small parts by rotating them in a wooden-lined Bright Annealing . . . A process usually carried out
testing using shear waves introduced from the surface barrel with water, burnishing soap, and stainless steel in a controlled furnace atmosphere, so the surface of the
of the material at approximately 45 degrees. shot. casting does not oxidize and remains bright.
Anisotropy . .. The characteristic of exhibiting dif- Band, Inside... A loose steel frame placed inside a Brinell Hardness . . . The value of hardness of a
ferent property values in different directions with re- removable flask to reinforce the sand at the parting Une metal on an arbitrary scale representing kg/mm , deter-
spect to a fixed reference system in the material. after the flask has been removed. mined by measuring the diameter of die impression
AOD . . . See Argon Oxygen Decarburization. Bars (Cleats) . . . Ribs of metal or wood placed made by a ball of given diameter applied under a known
APFBM... Atomic Probe Field Ion Microscopy. An across the flask to help support the sand in the cope. load. Values are expressed in Brinell Hardness Num-
analytical technique in which atoms are ionized by an Base Plate . . . A plate to which the pattern assem- bers, BHN.
electric field near a sharp specimen tip. The field then blies are attached and to which a flask is subsequently Brittle Fracture... Fracture with little or no plastic
forces the ions to a fluorescent screen which shows an attached to form the mold container. deformation.
G-2 Glossary of Foundry Terms
Buckle... 1) Bulging of a large flat face ofacasting; Centrifugal Casting . . . Casting made in molds Cold Work . . . Plastic deformation of a metal at
in investment casting, caused by dip coat peeling from which are rotating so as to produce a centrifugal force room temperature. Substantial increases in strength and
the pattern. 2) An indentation in a casting, resulting in the molten metal. hardness may occur.
from expansion of the sand, may be termed the start of CERCLA . . . Comprehensive Environmental Re- Collapsibility . .. The requirement that a sand mix-
an expansion defect. sponse, Compensation and Liability Act. 1980. ture break down under the pressures and temperatures
Bulk Density... The ratio of the weight of a material Ceroxide . . . See Inclusions. developed during casting, in order to avoid hot tears or
to its overall volume (including any inherent porosity). Chaplet... Metal support that holds a core in place facilitate the separation of the sand and the casting.
Bull Ladle . . . See Ladle, Bull. within a mold; molten metal solidifies around the chap- Colloids, Colloidal Material . . . Finely divided
Burn . . . 1) Process of cutting metal by a stream of let and fuses it into the finished casting. material less than 0.5 micron (0.00002 in.) in size, such
fuel and oxygen. 2) To permanently damage a metal or Charpy Impact T e s t . . . A pendulum-type single- as albumin, glue, starch, gelatin, and bentonite.
alloy by heating to cause either incipient melting or blow impact test in which the specimen, usually Colloidal Clay... Finely divided clay of montmoril-
intergranular oxidation. notched, is supported at both ends as a simple beam and lonite, kaolinite, or illite class; prepared for foundry
Burned-On-Sand... A misnomer usually indicating broken by a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in purposes as in sand bonding.
metal penetration into sand resulting in a mixture of fracture, as determined by the subsequent rise of the Columnar Structure... Acoarse structure of paral-
sand and metal adhering to the surface of a casting. See pendulum, is a measure of the impact strength or notch lel columns of grains, which is caused by strong direc-
Penetration, Metal. toughness. tional solidification.
Burnishing . . . Developing a smooth finish on a Cheek... The intermediate section of a flask that is Combined Water . . . That water in mineral matter
metal by tumbling or rubbing with a polishing tool. used between the cope and the drag when molding a which is chemically combined and driven off only at
shape requires more than one parting plane. temperatures above 230 °F (110 °C).
Chicken Wire Cracks . . . See Craze Cracking. Compressive Strength—(Yield)... The maximum
Chill (External) . . . Metal, graphite, or carbon stress in compression that can be withstood without
c blocks that are incorporated into the mold or core to plastic deformation or failure.
locally increase the rate of heat removal during solidi- Conductivity (Thermal) . . . The quantity of heat
CAD . . . Computer-Aided Design. fication and reduce shrinkage defects. that flows through a material measured in heat units per
CAE . . . Computer-Aided Engineering. Chill (Internal)... A metallic device/insert in molds unit time per unit of cross-sectioned area per unit of
Calcium Silicon... An alloy of calcium, silicon, and or cores at the surface of a casting or within the mold to length, (electrical) the quantity of electricity that is
iron containing 28-35% Ca, 60-65% Si, and 6% Fe, increase the rate of heat removal, induce directional transferred through a material of known cross-section
max., used as a deoxidizer and degasser for steel and solidification and reduce shrinkage defects. The inter- and length.
cast iron; sometimes called calcium silicide. nal chill may then become a part of the casting. Constantan . . . An alloy of nickel and copper used
Calcium Wire Injection . . . Wirefeeding of steel Chromel... A 90Ni-10Cr alloy used in thermocou- in thermocouples.
clad calcium wire into a molten bath to provide favor- ples. Constituent... A micrographically distinguishable
able kinetics for inclusion modification. Chromite... FeCr 2 0 4 . Specialty sand used in mold- part of an alloy or mixture.
CAM . . . Computer-Aided Manufacturing. ing, has a similar effect to chills. Continuous Annealing Furnace . . . Furnace in
Camber . . . Deviation from edge straightness usu- CLAS . . . A casting process in which metal fills the which castings are annealed or heat treated by passing
ally referring to the greatest deviation of side edge from mold through the drag by application of a vacuum. through different zones at constant temperatures.
a straight line. Cleaning . . . The removal of gates, runners, and Continuous Mixer . . . Used to continuously mix
Carbide... A compound of carbon with one or more risers from the rough casting. This term also involves chemically bonded sand.
metallic elements. any hand finishing such as grinding or blasting. Continuous Phase . . . The phase that forms the
Carbon . . . Element occurring as diamond and as CMM . . . Coordinate Measuring Machine. matrix or background in which the other phase or
graphite. Carbon reduces many metals from their ox- CNC Machine Tools . . . Computer Numerical Con- phases are present as isolated units.
ides when heated with the latter, and small amounts of trolled Machine Tools. Contraction . . . The volume change occurring in
carbon greatly affect the properties of iron. Coalescence . . . 1) The growth of particles of a metals and alloys on solidification and cooling to room
Carbon B o i l . . . See Boil. dispersed phase by solution and reprecipitation. 2) The temperature.
Carbon Dioxide Process (Silicate Process, growth of grains by absorption of adjacent grains. Contraction Cracks . . . See Hot Tear.
Schmidt-Philipp Process)... A process for hardening Cobalt . . . Blue-white metal, melting at 2715 °F Convection . . . The motion in a fluid resulting from
molds or cores in which carbon dioxide gas is blown (1492 °C). the differences in density. In heat transmission, this
through dry clay-free silica sand to precipitate silica in Cobalt-60... A radioactive isotope used in industrial meaning has been extended to include both forced and
the form of a gel from the sodium silicate binder. radiography. natural motion or circulation.
Carburizing . . . A form of case hardening that Coefficient of Expansion . . . Unit increase in size Cooling, Controlled . . . A process of cooling from
produces a carbon gradient inward from the surface, resulting from a unit increase in temperature; measured an elevated temperature in a predetermined manner
enabling the surface layer to be hardened by either in inch per inch per degree Fahrenheit (in./in./°F) or used to produce a desired microstructure to avoid hard-
quenching directly from the carburizing temperature or millimeter per millimeter per degree Celsius ening, cracking, or internal damage.
by cooling to room temperature, then reaustenitizing (mm/mm/°C). Cooling Curve... A curve showing the relationship
and quenching. Coercive Force... The magnetizing force that must between time and temperature during the solidification
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome . . . Pressure on the me- be applied in the direction opposite to that of the pre- and cooling of a metal sample. Since most phase
dian nerve at the point at which it passes through the vious magnetizing force in order to remove residual changes involve evolution or absorption of heat, there
carpel tunnel of the wrist. Causes soreness and tender- magnetism; thus, an indicator of the strength of mag- may be abrupt changes in the slope of the curve.
ness of the muscles of the thumb. (See CTD). netically hard materials. Conduction . . . The transmission of heat, sound,
Case Hardening... A process of hardening a ferrous Cohesion . . . The force by which like particles are etc., by the transferring of energy from one particle to
alloy so that the surface layer or case is made substan- held together. It varies with different metals and de- another.
tially harder than the interior or core. Typical case pends upon molecular arrangement due to heat treat- Cope . . . Upper or topmost section of a flask, mold,
hardening processes are carburizing, carbonitriding, ment. or pattern.
and nitriding. Coining . . . 1) A process of straightening and sizing Coping Out. . . The extension of sand of the cope
Cast-Weld . . . Welding one casting to another to castings by die pressing. 2) A process for shaping metal. downward into the drag, where it takes an impression
form a complete unit. (See Fabrication). Cold-Box Process . . . 1) Any core binder process of a pattern.
Casting Drawing... An engineering drawing which that uses a gas or vaporized catalyst to cure a coated Core . . . A preformed sand aggregate inserted in a
depicts the shape and size of the part to be cast. sand while it is in contact with the core box at room mold to shape the interior or that part of a casting which
Casting Layout... A check of dimensions against temperature. cannot be shaped by the pattern.
applicable drawings and specifications. Cold Cracking . . . Cracks in cold or nearly cold Core Assembly . . . Putting together a core made of
Cavitation... The formation and collapse of cavities metal due to excessive internal stress caused by con- a number of sections.
or bubbles within a liquid. traction. Core Arbor . . . An iron framework embedded in a
Cementite . . . A compound of iron and carbon Cold Lap . . . Wrinkled markings on the surface of large core to stiffen it and for convenience in handling.
commonly known as iron carbide and having the ap- an ingot or casting due to incipient freezing of the Core Extruder . . . A special shell-core-making
proximate chemical structure, Fe3C. It is characterized surface. machine that produces a continuous length of cores,
by an orthorhombic crystal structure. Cold S h u t . . . See Cold Lap. usually of cylindrical cross-section.
Glossary of Foundry Terms G-3
Core Filler... Material used in place of sand in the critical resolved shear stress if the shear stress reaches Densitometer... Instrument utilizing the photoelec-
interiors of large cores—coke, cinder, sawdust, etc., a threshold level. tric principle to determine the degree of darkening of
usually added to aid collapsibility. Critical Strain . . . A term used in stress corrosion developed photographic film.
Core Float . . . A casting defect caused by core cracking tests to indicate the maximum strain rate nec- Density (Photographic) . . . Density is used to de-
movement towards the cope surface of the mold, as a essary to promote stress corrosion cracks. note the degree of darkening of photographic film.
result of core buoyancy in liquid steel, resulting in a Croning Process (C Process, Cronizing) . . . A Logarithm of opacity of exposed and processed film.
deviation from the intended wall thickness. casting process named after its German developer Opacity is the reciprocal of transmission; transmission
Core Prints . . . Portions of a pattern that locate and Croning. (See Shell Molding). is the ratio of transmitted to incident intensity.
anchor the core in the proper position in the mold. Crown . . . Furnace roof, especially when dome- Deoxidation . . . Removal of oxygen from molten
Core Rod... A wire or rod of steel used to reinforce shaped; highest point of an arch. metal, usually accomplished by adding materials with a
and stiffen the core. Crucible . . . A ceramic pot or receptacle made of high affinity for oxygen, the oxides of which are either
Core Setting Jig/Gage . . . A device used to help materials such as graphite or silicon carbide, with rela-
gaseous or readily form slags.
position a core in the mold. tively high thermal conductivity, bonded with clay or
Dewaxing... The process of melting out the expend-
Core Shooter... A device using low air pressure to carbon, and used in melting metals; sometimes applied
to pots made of cast iron, steel, or wrought steel. able wax pattern from an investment mold by the appli-
fluidize the sand mix which is released quickly in such cation of heat, usually at temperatures less than 250 °F
a way as to force it into a core box. Crush . . . Buckling or breaking of a section of mold
due to incorrect register when closing. Also, an inden- (121 °C).
Core Vents . . . 1) Holes made in the core for the Dextrin . . . Soluble gummy carbohydrate formed by
escape of gas. 2) A metal screen or slotted piece used to tation in the casting surface due to displacement of sand
in the mold when the mold was closed. the decomposition of starch by heat, acids, or enzymes;
form the vent passage in the core box employed in a it is used in core compounds, mold compounds, mold
core-blowing machine. 3) A wax product, round or oval Crush Strip or Bead . . . An indentation in the
parting line of a pattern plate which ensures that cope washes, core pastes, and other compounds requiring
in form, used to form the vent passage in a core.
and drag have good contact. high, dry compressive strengths.
Coreless Induction Furnace... See Induction Fur-
Crystallization . . . The formation of crystals by the Diaspore Clay . . . A rocklike mineral consisting
nace.
atoms assuming definite positions in the crystal lattice, chiefly of diaspore (HA102) bonded by fire clay sub-
Coring (Metallurgical) . . . Variable composition
e.g. when a metal solidifies. stance with an alumina content higher than 63%.
due to the solidification characteristics of an alloy.
C T D . . . Cumulative Trauma Disorder. Illnesses that Diatomaceous Earth (Infusorial Earth)... A hy-
Typically these compositional differences occur on a
develop gradually over time and involve disorders of drous form of silica which is soft, light in weight, and
micro scale, the distances between compositional ex-
the soft tissues of the body. Caused or aggravated by consists mainly of microscopic shells of diatoms or
tremes being controlled by the solidification structure
repeatedly or constantly applied excessive forces, awk- other marine organisms.
of the alloy.
ward postures, or highly repetitive movements of the Die Casting . . . A rapid, watercooled permanent
Corrosion . . . 1) Gradual chemical or electrochemi- body. mold casting process limited to non-ferrous metals.
cal attack on a metal by atmosphere, moisture, or other Cutoff Machine, Abrasive... A device using a thin Differential Heat Treatment... A heating process
agents. 2) Chemical attack of furnace linings by gases, abrasive wheel rotating at high speed to cut off gates
slags, ashes, or other fluxes occurring in various melt- by which the temperature is varied within the object so
and risers from castings, or in similar operations. that, after cooling, various parts may have different
ing practices.
properties as desired.
Corrosion Index... A number expressing the maxi-
mum depth in mils to which corrosion would penetrate Dilatometer . . . An instrument for measuring the
in one year on the basis of a linear extrapolation of the D length of a metal sample during heating and cooling.
penetration occurring during the lifetime of a given test Dip C o a t . . . See Investment Precoat.
or service. Direct-Arc Furnace . . . An electric arc furnace in
Corrosive Wear . . . Wear in which chemical or D (Fordath Process)... Shell molding in which the which the metal being melted is one of the poles.
electrochemical reaction with the environment is sig- shell is made by blowing sand into a box-like heated Dirt Trap... A well, employed in a gating system to
nificant. structure so that a shell of controlled thickness is cre- trap the first metal poured, which may contain dirt or
Corundum . . . Native alumina, or aluminum oxide, ated. unwanted particles (ineffective). (See Slag Trap).
A1 2 0 3 , occurring as rhombohedral crystals and also in Datum Plane . . . In layout and machining opera- Dispersion Hardening . . . See Precipitation Hard-
masses and variously colored grains. Applied specifi- tions, the reference plane from which dimensions are ening.
cally to nontransparent kinds used as abrasives. Corun- measured in the perpendicular direction. Disruptive Strength . . . Maximum strength of a
dum and its artificial counterparts are abrasives espe- Datum Points . . . In layout and machining opera- metal when subjected to three principal tensile stresses
cially suited to the grinding of metals. tions, the reference points that define the datum plane at right angles to one another and of equal magnitude.
from which dimensions are measured. Distribution, Sand Grain . . . Variation or uniform-
Cover Core . . . A core set in place during the
Deadburned . . . A term applied to refractory mate- ity in particle size of a sand aggregate.
ramming of a mold to cover and complete a cavity
rials obtained by calcining at a temperature high enough Dolomite... A mineral calcium-magnesium carbon-
partly formed by the withdrawal of a loose part of the
to form a product inert to atmospheric moisture and ate [Ca, Mg (C0 3 ) 2 ] used as a flux in iron melting and
pattern. Also used to form part or all of the cope surface
carbon dioxide, and less prone to contract. smelting; also as a base in refractories.
of the mold cavity. A core placed over another core to
Deadburned Dolomite . . . Dolomite burned at high Double Annealing . . . As applied to hypoeutectoid
create a flat parting line.
temperature with additions of an agent, such as oxide of steel, a process of heating above the upper critical point
Cracking Strip . . . A fin of metal molded on the iron.
surface of a casting to prevent hot tearing. (AC3) and holding at that temperature until complete
Decarburization... Loss of carbon from the surface
Craze Crack (Crazing) . . . 1) Minute crack on solution of the carbide microstructure has been
of a ferrous alloy as a result of heating in a medium,
ceramic or refractory surface caused by thermal or usually oxygen, that reacts with carbon. achieved, then cooling rapidly and reheating immedi-
mechanical shock. 2) The shallow tight cracks exhib- Defect . . . A discontinuity in the product whose ately to above A 3 followed by slow cooling.
ited on the surface of a casting along the austenite grain severity is judged unacceptable in accordance with the Double Tempering . . . A retempering operation
boundaries. applicable product specification. sometimes necessary for steel containing retained
Creep . . . The flow or plastic deformation of metals Deformation T e s t . . . An AFS test using an instru- austenite which breaks down during cooling from the
held for long periods of time at stresses lower than the ment such as the Dietert Universal Sand-Strength Test- first tempering to form new untempered martensite.
normal yield strength. ing machine (with deformation accessory) to determine Dowel... A wooden or metal pin used in the parting
Creep Limit... The maximum stress that will result the amount, in inches, that the sand specimen is com- surface of patterns and core boxes.
in creep at a rate lower than an assigned rate. pressed before it ruptures. Downsprue (Sprue, Downgate). .. The first chan-
Cristobalite . . . Simplest crystallographic form of Degassing . . . Usually a chemical reaction resulting nel, usually vertical, which the molten metal enters.
Si0 2 . from a compound added to molten metal to remove Drag . . . Lower or bottom section of a mold or
Critical Cooling Rate . . . The minimum rate of gases from the metal. Often inert gases are used in this pattern.
continuous cooling just enough to prevent undesired operation. Draw . . . A term used for 1) to temper, 2) to remove
transformations. Dendrite . . . A crystal of branched appearance, pattern from mold, 3) an external contraction defect on
Critical Shear Stress . . . The shear stress required formed during soUdification of alloys, the branching surface of mold.
to cause slip in a single crystal, in a designated slip habit being controlled by specific crystallographic di- Draw Plate . . . A plate attached to a pattern to
direction on a given slip plane. Referred to as the rections. facilitate drawing of a pattern from the mold.
Drum, Magnetic . . . An electrically energized pul- Eutectic . . . 1) An isothermal reversible reaction in transformation temperature, Ac 3 , followed by quench-
ley or drum used for removing magnetic materials from which a liquid solution decomposes, on cooling, into ing.
sand, nonferrous borings, and turnings, etc. two or more intimately mixed solids. The number of Flash... A thin section of metal formed at the mold,
Dry and Baked Compression Test... A sand test to solids formed are the same number of components in core or die joint, or parting in a casting due to the cope
determine the maximum compressive stress that a the system. 2) An alloy having the chemical composi- and drag not contacting completely, or where core and
baked sand mixture is capable of developing. tion indicated by the eutectic point on an equilibrium core print do not contact completely.
Dry Permeability... The property of a molded mass diagram. Flask . . . A metal frame used for making or holding
of sand bonded or unbonded, dried at 220-230 °F (105- Eutectoid... 1) An isothermal reversible reaction in a sand mold. The upper part is the cope and the bottom
110 °C) and cooled to room temperature that allows which a solid solution on cooling is converted into two half is the drag.
passage of gases resulting during pouring of molten or more intimately mixed solids. The number of solids Flask B a r . . . A reinforcing member attached within
metal into a mold. formed are the same number of components in the either half of a flask to assist in holding the rammed
Dual Metal Centrifugal Casting . . . Centrifugal system. 2) An alloy having the same chemical compo- sand in position.
castings produced by pouring a different metal into the sition indicated by the eutectoid point on an equilibrium Flask Clamp . . . A device for holding together the
rotating mold after the first metal poured. diagram. cope, drag and cheek of a flask.
Duplex Stainless Steel . . . A cast stainless steel Evaporative Pattern Casting/Expendable Pattern Flask Pin Guides... Guides used to accurately align
containing ferrite and austenite. Sometimes more nar- Casting/EPC . . . See Lost Foam Process. the match plate pattern in the flask and flask to flask
rowly defined as a 50/50 austenite-ferrite structure. Exothermic Reaction . . . Chemical reactions in- location.
Ductile I r o n . . . See Nodular Iron. volving the liberation of heat. Flat Back... A pattern with a flat surface at the joint
Extensometer... An instrument used in the testing of the mold. It lies wholly within the drag, and the cope
of metals to measure small increments of strain. is a plane surface.
Floor Molding . . . Used where the pattern size
E prohibits the use of molding machines. The pattern is
bolted to the floor and the assembled mold is moved by
F crane.
Flow-Off (Pop-OH)... A large vent, usually located
Eddy Current Testing . . . The detection of discon-
at the high point of the mold cavity. In addition to letting
tinuities by observation of the interaction between elec- Fabrication . . . The joining, usually by welding, of air and mold gases escape as metal fills the mold cavity,
tromagnetic fields and metals. two or more parts to produce a finished assembly. The the flow-off fills with metal and acts to relieve the surge
Elastic Limit . . . Maximum stress that a material components of the assembly may be a combination of of pressure near the end of the pouring.
will withstand without permanent deformation. (See cast and wrought materials.
Fluidize . . . To impart fluid-like properties to pow-
Yield Strength). Facing Sand . . . Specially prepared molding sand
ders or sands, e.g., fluidized beds.
Elasticity . . . The property of recovering original mixture used in the mold adjacent to the pattern to
Fluidity . . . The ability of molten metal to flow.
shape and dimensions upon removal of a stress. produce a smooth casting surface.
Common devices used to measure fluidity are: spiral
Electrochemical Corrosion (Contact Corrosion, Fatigue Crack or Failure . . . A fracture starting casting and the Chinese Puzzle.
Electrolytic Corrosion, Galvanic Corrosion)... Lo- from a nucleus where there is an abnormal concentra-
Foundry Returns . . . Metal in the form of sprues,
calized corrosion from exposure of an assembly of tion of cyclic stress. The fracture surface is smooth and
gates, runners, risers, and scrapped castings, with
dissimilar metals in contact or coupled with one an- frequendy shows concentric (sea shell) markings with
known chemical composition that are returned to the
other, i.e., electrochemical action. a nucleus as the center.
furnace for remelting. Sometimes referred to as "re-
Electrode... Compressed graphite or carbon cylin- Fatigue Limit (Endurance Limit) . . . Maximum vert."
der or metal rod used to conduct electric current in stress that a material will endure widiout failure for an
Froude Number... Used in hydraulics as an analog
electric arc furnaces, arc lamps, carbon arc welding, etc. infinite number of loading cycles.
to the Reynolds number. It is the ratio of inertial forces
Electron Microprobe Analyzer . . . An instrument Fatigue Strength . . . See Fatigue Limit.
to gravitational forces.
for selective analysis of a microscopic area, in which an Feeding . . . The process of supplying molten metal
electron beam bombards the point of interest. Intensity to compensate for volume shrinkage while a casting is
of backscatter is measured to interpret which chemical solidifying.
elements are present, and by scanning a large area the Ferrite... A solid solution of one or more elements G
microprobe can analyze chemical composition and in- in the body-centered-cubic iron.
dicate the distribution of an element. Ferritic Steels . . . Steels in which ferrite is the
Elongation . . . Amount of permanent extension in predominant phase. These steels are magnetic. Gage Length... The original length of that portion
the vicinity of the fractures in the tensile test; usually Ferromagnetic . . . The ability to become highly of the specimen over which strain or change of length
expressed as a percentage of original gage length. magnetic and have the ability to retain a permanent is determined.
Embrittlement. . . Loss of ductility of a metal due magnetic moment. The elementary magnetic dipoles Gage Marks... Reference marks; in tensile testing,
to a chemical or physical change. (See Acid Embrittle- inside a domain are all oriented in a direction parallel to the marks which indicate the gage length, used in deter-
ment, Hydrogen Embritflement). each other. mination of tensile elongation.
End-Quench Hardenability Test... A standardized Fettle... See Cleaning. Gaggers . . . Metal pieces of irregular shape used to
method for comparing the hardenability of different F i l l e t . . . A concave corner piece used on foundry reinforce and support die sand in the mold.
steels. patterns, a radiused joint replacing sharp inside corners. Gamma iron... A face-centered cubic form of pure
Endothermic Reaction... A reaction which absorbs Finish Allowance... The amount of stock left on the iron, stable from 1670 to 2550 °F (910 to 1400 °C).
heat. surface of a casting for machining. Gannister . . . An acid (siliceous) refractory often
Engineering Strain (e)... The average linear strain, Finish M a r k . . . A symbol (f, fl, (2, etc.) appearing used in furnace linings.
obtained by dividing the elongation of the gage length on the line of a drawing that represents the edge of the Gate... The end of a runner in a mold where molten
of the specimen by the original gage length. surface of the casting to be machined or otherwise metal enters die mold cavity.
Engineering Stress (s). . . The load divided by the finished. Gating System... The complete assembly of sprues,
original area. Finishing Welding . . . Production welding carried runners, and gates in a mold through which steel flows
EPC (Expendable Pattern Casting) . . . See Lost out in order to ensure the agreed quality of the casting. before entering the casting cavity.
Foam Process. Finite Difference Analysis (FDA)... A computer- Grain Fineness Number... A system developed by
Ergonomics . . . The science which deals with the ized numerical modeling approach for solving differen- AFS for expressing the average grain size of a given
interaction between people, their work place and envi- tial equations. Used primarily in solving heat transfer sand. It approximates the number of meshes per inch of
ronment. It also considers the physiology of workers in and solidification problems. that sieve that would just pass the sample if its grains
the design of tools, equipment, and the work methods Finite Element Analysis (FEA)... A computerized were of uniform size.
needed. numerical analysis technique used for solving differen- Green Sand . . . A naturally bonded sand or a com-
Erosion . . . Abrasion of metal or other material by tial equations to primarily solve mechanical engineer- pounded molding sand mixture which has been tem-
liquid or gas. ing problems relating to stress analysis. pered with water for use while still in the damp or wet
Etchant... A solution for the chemical etching of Firecracker C o r e . . . See Pencil Core. condition.
the polished surface of a metal specimen to reveal Flame Hardening . . . A surface hardening process Green Strength... The strength of a tempered sand
macro- or microstructures. involving localized flame heating above the austenite mixture at room temperature.
Induction Furnace . . . An AC melting furnace in the combined form. Irons to be malleablized are cast
H
which utilizes the heat of electrical induction. white, as are many abrasion-resistant irons.
Induction Hardening... A surface hardening proc- Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram . . . A phase diagram
Hadfield Manganese Steel . . . A specialty steel ess involving the localized use of pulsating magnetic representing metastable equilibrium conditions be-
which is austenitic and usually contains approximately currents to achieve heating above the austenite transfor- tween Fe and Fe3C over the entire range of carbon steels
12% manganese. It is used in mining, earth-moving mation temperature, Ac3, followed by quenching. and cast irons.
equipment, and in railroad track work. It is austenitic Induction Heating... Process of heating by electri- Iron-Carbon (Graphite) Diagram . . . A diagram
and usually contains approximately 12% manganese. cal resistance and hysteresis losses induced by subject- representing equilibrium conditions between iron and
Hardness... Resistance of a material to indentation ing a metal to the varying magnetic field surrounding a graphite (pure carbon) phase over the range of iron and
as measured by such methods as Brinell, Rockwell, and coil carrying an alternating current. steel.
Vickers. The term hardness also refers to the ability of Infrared Radiation Pyrometer . . . An instrument Iron Oxide . .. Added to molding sand mixtures for
the metal to resist scratching, abrasion, or cutting. It is which uses the ratio of the radiated energy from a body control of finning and veining. Also may reduce carbon
related to yield strength and ultimate tensile strength. in two wavelength bands and then is a measure of the pick up.
H e a t . . . The total amount of metal produced which body's surface temperature. Temperatures down to 392 Isothermal. . . Pertaining to changes or other phe-
can be represented by one analysis sample and one set °F (200 °C) may be measured. nomena occurring at a constant temperature.
of mechanical tests. Ingates . . . See Gate. Isothermal Annealing . . . A process in which a
Heat Treatment... A combination of heating and Ingot Iron . . . Iron of comparatively high purity ferrous alloy is heated to produce a structure partly or
cooling operations and applied to a metal or alloy to produced under conditions that produce low levels of wholly austenitic, and is then cooled to and held at a
produce desired properties and microstructures. carbon, manganese, and silicon; e.g., Armco Iron. temperature that causes transformation of the austenite
High-alloy steel... Ferrous alloy with more than 12 Inoculant... Material which when added to molten to a relatively soft ferrite-carbide aggregate.
weight percent of noncarbon additions. metal modifies the structure, and changes the physical Isothermal Transformation . . . 1) The process of
High Pressure Mold... A strong high-density mold. and mechanical properties to a degree not explained by transforming austenite in a ferrous alloy to ferrite or a
Horizontal Axis Casting Machine... A centrifugal the change in composition resulting from its use. ferrite-carbide aggregate at any constant temperature
casting machine in which the axis of rotation of the Inoculation . . . See Inoculant. within the transformation range. 2) Transformation of
mold is horizontal. Insert... A part usually formed from metal, which one phase in an alloy system to another phase at any
Hot Box Process... A furan resin-based process. is placed in a mold and may become an integral part of constant temperature.
Hot Tear . . . A crack or fracture formed prior to the casting.
completion of metal solidification as a result of hin- Insulating Pads and Sleeves... Insulating material,
dered contraction. A hot tear is frequently open to the such as gypsum, diatomaceous earth, etc., used to lower J
surface of the casting and is commonly associated with the rate of solidification. When used as sleeves on open
design limitations. risers, the metal remains liquid for an extended period
Hot Strength (Sand) . . . (compressive, shear or increasing the feed efficiency.
J i g . . . Any device that will hold or position a part so
transverse) Strength of a sand mixture determined at Intercrystalline Failure . . . Cracks or fractures that
that it will expedite a hand or machine operation.
any temperature above room temperature. follow along the grain boundaries in the microstructure
J-Integral . . . A mathematical expression used to
HSLA... High Strength Low Alloy steel. Steel with of metals and alloys.
characterize the fracture toughness of a material having
relatively high strength and impact properties. The Interdendritic Attack... A type of electrochemical appreciable plasticity prior to fracture. The J-integral
carbon level is low and the alloying additions are sig- corrosion that occurs between dendrites. eliminates the need to describe the behavior of the
nificantly less than 5 weight percent. Intergranular Corrosion . . . Corrosion in a metal material near the crack tip. Units are MN/m or in.-
Hydrogen Embrittlement . . . A condition of low taking place preferentially along the grain boundaries. lb/in.2.
ductility resulting from the absorption of hydrogen. A Internal Shrinkage . . . A void or network of voids
time dependent fracture process which results in a loss Jobbing Foundry . . . A foundry engaged in the
within a casting caused by inadequate feeding of that manufacture of numerous types of castings.
of ductility. section during solidification.
Joint Welding . . . Production welding used to weld
Hypereutectoid Steel . . . A steel containing more Internal Stresses (or Thermal Stresses)... Gener- cast components togemer to obtain an integral unit.
than the eutectoid percentage of carbon (0.83 wt.%). ally stresses which occur during the cooling of a part. Jolt-Squeezer Machine... A combination machine
Hypoeutectoid Steel... A steel containing less than Interrupted Quench... Removing the casting from that employs a jolt action followed by a squeezing
the eutectoid percentage of carbon (0.83 wt.%). a quenching bath before it has reached the temperature action to compact the sand around the pattern.
Hysteresis (Cooling Lag) . . . Difference between of the bath. Jominy Test... See End-Quench Hardenability Test.
the critical points on heating and cooling due to ten- Invar . . . An alloy having a very low coefficient of
dency of physical changes to lag behind temperature expansion; 36% Ni, 0.5% Mn, 0.2% C, balance Fe.
changes. Investment . . . A flowable mixture of a graded
refractory filler, a binder, and a liquid vehicle which K
when poured around the patterns conforms to their
I shape which subsequently sets hard and forms the in-
vestment mold. K . . . Symbol used in linear elastic fracture mechan-
Investment Casting... Casting produced in a mold ics to describe the intensification of applied stress at the
Ideal Critical Diameter, D j . . . The largest diameter obtained by investing an expendable pattern with a tip of a crack of known size and shape. At the onset of
of a bar which, upon quenching in an ideal quench, will refractory to produce a shell. The expendable pattern rapid crack propagation, the factor is called the critical
exhibit 50% martensite at the center of the bar. may consist of wax, plastic, or other material, and is stress-intensity factor (KJc) or fracture toughness. Vari-
Ideal Quench... A quench in which the temperature removed prior to filling the mold with metal. ous subscripts denote different loading conditions or
of an object being quenched instantaneously drops to Investment Precoat... An extremely fine invest- fracture toughnesses. Units are MPaVm or ksiVin7(See
that of the quench bath and remains constant. ment coating applied as a thin slurry directly to the LEFM).
Elite . . . A mineral, typically KAl3Si3O10(OH)2, surface of the pattern to produce maximum surface Kaolin . . . The purest form of china clay consisting
found in many clays, large workings of which are found smoothness. The coating is surrounded by a coarser, of silicate of aluminum.
in Illinois and Michigan. cheaper, and more permeable investment to form the Kelvin Temperature Scale... One in which the unit
Impact Strength... The resistance to impact loads; mold. (See Dip Coat). of measurement equals that of the centigrade degree
usually expressed as the foot pounds of energy absorbed Iridium . . . A noble metal of the platinum group. and according to which absolute zero is 0 degrees Kel-
in breaking a standard specimen. (See Charpy Test). Used extensively as a radiation source. For radiography vin, equivalent to -273.16 °C.
Impregnation . . . The treatment of castings with a of thin walled castings. K e r f . . . The width of a cut.
sealing medium to stop leaks. Iron... 1) A metallic element, melting point 2795 °F Keyhole Specimen... A type of notched impact test
Inclusions . . . Nonmetallic materials in a metal (1535 °C), 2) irons not falling into the steel categories, specimen which has a hole-and-slot notch shaped like a
matrix. Sources include reoxidation, refractories, slag, e.g., gray iron, ductile iron, malleable iron, white iron, keyhole.
and deoxidation products. ingot, and wrought iron. Kc (Plane-stress fracture toughness)... The value
Indirect-Arc Furnace . . . An AC (Alternating Cur- Iron Carbide . . . See Cementite. of stress intensity at which crack propagation becomes
rent) electric-arc furnace in which the metal is not one Iron, Hard or White . . . Irons possessing white rapid in sections thinner than those in which plane-
of the poles. fractures because all or substantially all of the carbon is strain conditions prevail. Units are MPaVm or ksiVinT
Kfc (Plane-strain fracture toughness)... The mini- Machine Allowance . . . Stock added to the part to modulus. In torsion, modulus of rupture is the torque at
mum value of K,.. Represents the fracture toughness of permit machining to final dimensions. fracture divided by the polar section modulus.
a material independent of crack length, or loading sys- Machine Drawing . . . An engineering drawing Modulus of Toughness (u,)... Amount of work per
tem. Units are MPaVnTorksiVmT which depicts the final size and shape of the part. unit volume of a material required to carry diat material
Kieselguhr... Diatomaceous earth. Manganese Steel (Austenitic) . . . See Hadfield to failure under static loading. Equal to the area under
Kiln . . . An oven or furnace for burning, calcining, Manganese Steel. me entire stress-strain curve. Units are Pa or psi.
or drying a substance. Maraging Steel . . . A high alloyed steel that is Mold Blower... Molding equipment for blowing a
Kilovolt (kV)... Unit of electrical potential equal to hardened by both martensite transformation and by age sand mixture onto me pattern with compressed air;
1,000 volts. hardening. allows for faster production than gravity rollover dump.
Kilovolts Constant Potential . . . The potential in Martempering (Interrupted Quenching) . . A Mold Board (Follow Board) . . . The board upon
kilovolts of a constant voltage generator. hardening treatment of a steel involving a slow cool which die pattern is placed to make die mold.
Kish . . . Free graphite which separates upon slow through the martensitic transformation range to reduce Mold Cavity... The space in a mold which is filled
cooling of molten hypereutectic iron. stresses associated with the quenching of austenite. An with liquid metal to form the casting upon solidifica-
Kissing (Touching)... Gating with minimum metal important aspect of martempering is mat no transformation.
left at casting breakoff point, having a gate just "kiss" tion product other than martensite should form. Mold Clamps... Devices used to hold or lock cope
the surface. Martensite . . . A generic term used for microstruc- and drag flask parts togetiier.
Knockout Pins (Ejector Pins) . . . Small diameter tures formed by diffusionless phase transformations. A Mold Coating (Mold Facing, Dressing) . . . 1)
pins affixed to a pattern back-up plate for removing the constituent found in hardened steel; has a needlelike Coating to prevent surface defects on permanent mold
cured mold in the shell-molding process. microstructure. See Mf and Ms. castings and die castings. 2) Coating on sand molds to
Knoop Hardness Number (HK) . . . A number Martensitic Stainless Steels . . . A corrosion-resis- prevent metal penetration and improve metal finish.
related to the applied load and to the projected area of a tant ferrous alloy with a predominant martensitic phase. Mold J a c k e t . . . A wooden or metal form slipped
rhombic-based pyramidal diamond indentor, with edge Mass Effect... The effect that the mass of a compo- over a mold to support die sides during pouring.
angles of 172° 30 ft and 130°. nent has on the properties of the material from which Mold Shift... A casting discontinuity resulting from
the part is made. In castings, such effects may arise due misalignment of the cope and drag halves.
to the effect of mass on the solidification rate and on the Molding, Floor . . . Making sand molds from loose
rate of temperature change during heat treatment. patterns of such size mat they cannot be satisfactorily
L Matchplate... A plate on which patterns and gating handled on a bench or molding machine, the equipment
systems, split along the parting line. Matchplates are being located on the floor during the entire operation of
mounted back to back to form an integral piece. making the mold.
Mechanical Properties . . . Properties of a material Molding, P i t . . . Molding method in which the mold
Ladle, Bottom-Pour . . . Ladle from which metal is made in a pit or hole in the floor.
flows through a nozzle in the bottom. mat reveal its strength and elastic behavior.
Metallurgical Bond . . . The bond between two Molybdenum... A metal used widely in die alloying
Ladle, Bull . . . A large ladle for carrying molten of steels. Used as a hardening element for steel, and for
metal. Frequently used to designate a transfer ladle. metals whose interface is free of voids, oxide films, or
discontinuities. diecasting dies. Melting point 4748 °F (2620 °C),
Ladle, Lip-Pour . . . Ladle in which the metal is atomic number 42.
poured over a lip. Metallurgy . . . The science and technology of met-
als. A broad field that includes but is not limited to the M o n e l . . . A high nickel alloy, approximately 67%
Ladle Metallurgy . . . Any processing treatment Ni, 28% Cu, the balance Fe, Mn, Si, and omer elements.
performed in a pouring or intermediate vessel which study of internal structures and properties of metals and
the effects on mem of various processing methods. Monel is resistant to corrosion and is widely used to
upgrades metal quality, e.g., by refining, alloying, or resist me action of acids.
temperature control. Addition of alloys to the ladle prior Metastable (Unstable)... A state of pseudo-equilib-
rium. Monotectic... An isothermal reversible reaction in
to casting of the molten metal into the mold.
M f . . . The temperature at which martensite forma- a binary system, in which a liquid on cooling decom-
Ladle, Teapot... A ladle in which, by means of an poses into a solid and a second liquid of different
external spout, metal is removed from the bottom rather tion finishes during cooling.
Microhardness . . . The hardness of microconsti- composition. (Compare with Eutectic).
than me top of the ladle.
tuents of a material. Montmorillonite . . . A very plastic clay, more sili-
Lance, Oxygen . . . A device which uses the heat of
Microinch . . . 0.000001 in. (1/1,000,000th) of an ceous than kaolinite; die principal constituent of ben-
oxidizing steel for melting. Frequently used to open
inch. A common unit of measurement in surface meas- tonite.
frozen tap or slag holes.
urement research and in standard roughness (surface) Moore, R.R., Fatigue Machine... A constant load
Lateral Expansion... A measured property used in
unit values. rotating bending type fatigue testing machine.
Charpy Impact Testing. Refers to the increased width of
Microporosity... See Microshrinkage. M s . . . The temperature at which transformation of
me specimen after fracture.
Microshrinkage . . . Very finely divided porosity austenite to martensite starts during cooling.
LEFM (Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics)... A
resulting from interdendritic shrinkage resolved only by Muffle Furnace (Kiln) . . . A furnace in which the
method of fracture analysis that can determine the stress
heating is indirect; the material to be heated is contained
required to induce fracture instability in a structure with use of the microscope; may be visible on radiographic
in a refractory container heated from the outside.
a cracklike flaw of known size and shape. films as mottling. Etching shows mey occur at intersec-
tions of convergent dendritic directions. Muller... A type of foundry sand-mixing machine.
Lining, Monolithic . . . A lining made without the
Mulling and Tempering... The thorough mixing of
customary layers and joints of a brick wall. Usually Micro-Tester... A low load hardness tester, suitable
sand witii a binder, eimer natural or added, wim lubri-
made by tamping or casting refractory material into for both Vickers and Knoop tests, working with loads of
cant of other fluid, as water.
place, drying, and then burning in place. between 10 to 3000 grams.
Loose Molding . . . The molding process utilizing Mild Steel . . . Plain carbon steel of about 0.25%
unmounted patterns. Gates and runners are usually cut carbon or less.
by hand. Misrun . . . Denotes an irregularity of the casting
surface caused by incomplete filling of the mold.
N
Loose Piece . . . 1) Core box: part of the core box
which remains embedded in the core and is removed Modulus of Elasticity ( E ) . . . In tension, it is the
after lifting off the core box. 2) Pattern: laterally pro- ratio of stress to the corresponding strain within the Naturally Bonded Molding Sand . . . A sand con-
jecting part of a pattern so attached that it remains in the limit of elasticity (Yield Point) of a material. For carbon taining sufficient bonding material as mined to be suit-
mold until the body of the pattern is drawn. Back-draft and low alloy steels of any composition and treatment, able for molding purposes. Seldom used today in the
is avoided by this means. 3) Permanent mold: part the value is approximately 30,000,000 psi. metalcasting industry.
which remains on the casting and is removed after the Modulus of Resilience (u r )... The amount of strain Navy (USA) Tear T e s t . . . A method of evaluating
casting is ejected from the mold. energy per unit volume required to stress a material me susceptibility of ship plate to brittle or cleavage-
Lost Foam Process . . . Casting process in which a from zero to the yield stress limit. The modulus of type fracture.
foam pattern is removed from the cavity by the molten resilience is proportional to die area under the elastic NDTT... Nil ductility transition temperature, deter-
metal being poured. portion of me stress-strain diagram. Units are Pa or psi. mined in the dropweight test. Refers to the absence of
Modulus of Rigidity... See Shear Modulus. die ductile fracture appearance and any reduction in
Modulus of Rupture . . . Used in both bending and area due to the brittle behavior of me steel.
torsion testing. In bending, the modulus of rupture is the Neck Down (Knock-Off, Wafer Core, Washburn,
M bending moment at fracture divided by the section Cameron Core)... A dun core or tile used to restrict
the riser neck, making it easier to break or cut off the undesirable coarse grain structure, but is not necessarily binder for cores and sand molds. (See Urea-Formalde-
riser from the casting. damaged permanently. Unlike burned structure, the hyde Resin).
Neutral Refractories . . . A loose term designating structure produced by overheating can be corrected by Photomicrograph . . . A photograph of the grain
refractories which presumably will not react with so- suitable heat treatment, by mechanical work, or by a structure of a metal as observed when optically magni-
called acid or basic refractories and slags. combination of the two. fied more than 10 diameters. The term micrograph may
Nichrome . . . Oxidation-resistant alloy 65% Ni, Oxidation . . . Any reaction of an element witii be used.
20% Fe, and 15% Cr. Applications include electric oxygen. In a narrow sense, oxidation means the taking Physical Metallurgy... The science concerned with
resistant heating elements. on of oxygen by an element or compound, and on the me physical and mechanical characteristics of metals
Nickel. . . Element used for alloying iron and steel basis of the electron theory, it is a process in which an and alloys.
as well as nonferrous metals; melting point 1455 °C element loses electrons. P i c r a l . . . An etchant for ferrous alloys; 4% picric
(2651 °F). Nickel is also a base metal for many casting Oxidizing Atmosphere... An atmosphere resulting acid in alcohol.
alloys resistant to corrosion and high-temperature oxi- from the combustion of fuels in an atmosphere where Pig Iron, Basic . . . A grade of iron made from die
dation. excess oxygen is present. basic openhearth process of steelmaking; P, 0.40% max.
Ni-Hard . . . Hard white cast iron containing 4% Ni Oxygen Lance . . . See Lance, Oxygen. for Northern iron, 0.70 to 0.90% for Southern iron; S,
and 2% Cr. 0.05% max. and Si, 1.50% max.
Nitriding... A surface hardening process involving Pilot Casting . . . Casting produced prior to the
heating in an atmosphere of ammonia or in contact with production run to verify correctness of procedures, ma-
a nitrogen-bearing material so as to promote the absorp- P terials, and process to be used in production.
tion of nitrogen. Pipe . . . A cavity formed by shrinkage of the metal
Non-destructive Testing (NDT) . . . Testing or in- during solidification, usually occurring in a riser having
spection that does not destroy the object being tested or feeder metal for the casting.
Pack Hardening (Pack Carburizing)... See Case
inspected. Pitting . . . A form of wear characterized by the
Hardening.
Normal Segregation . . . Concentration of alloying presence of surface cavities, the formation of which is
Padding . .. The process of adding metal to a cross
constituents that have low melting points in those por- attributed to processes such as fatigue, local adhesion,
section of a casting wall, usually extending from a riser,
tions of a casting that solidify last. cavitation, or corrosion.
to ensure adequate feed to a localized area where a
Normalizing... Heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable Plane Strain . . . A stress condition in linear elastic
shrink would occur if the added metal were not present.
temperature above the transformation temperature Ac 3 , fracture mechanics (see LEFM) in which there is zero
Parted Pattern . . . A pattern made in two or more
followed by cooling at a suitable rate, usually in still air strain in a direction normal to both the axis of applied
parts.
to a temperature substantially below the transformation tensile stress and the direction of crack growth. Under
range. Particulate Matter... In air pollution control, solid
plane strain conditions, the plane of fracture instability
or liquid particles, except water, visible with or without
N T P . . . Normal temperature and pressure reference is normal to the axis of the principal tensile stress.
a microscope, that make up the obvious portion of
point; zero centigrade 760 mm mercury pressure. Plasma Refining . . . Process used to reduce sulfur
smoke.
Nucleation . . . 1) (Homogeneous). The initiation of and oxygen to very low levels.
Parting Line . . . A line on a pattern or casting
solid crystals from the liquid stage, or a new phase PMMA . . . Polymethymethacrylate—Foam used in
corresponding to the separation between the cope and
within a solid without outside interference—rarely oc- the lost foam process, does not release as much carbon
drag portions of a sand mold.
curs. 2) (Heterogeneous). Foreign particles altering the as polystyrene.
Pattern . . . A form of wood, plastic, foam, metal, or
liquid-solid interface energy during phase changes— Polystyrene... A polymer of styrene used in making
other material around which molding material is placed
usually occurs. molding products. In particular, used in the lost foam
to make a mold.
Pattern Draft. . . The taper on vertical elements in process.
a pattern which allows easy separation of pattern from Pouring Cup . . . The flared section of the top of die
compacted sand mixture. downsprue.
o Pattern Layout. .. Full-sized drawing of a pattern

showing its arrangement and structure features.
Powder Cutting . . . Introducing iron powder in an
oxygen stream to accelerate oxygen torch cutting by the
PCE . .. See Pyrometric Cone Equivalent. combination of fluxing and oxidation. Generally used
Oil Sands... Sands bonded with such oils as linseed Peen . . . Peening action obtained by impact of metal for cutting stainless steel.
and the synthetics. shot, often used to improve fatigue properties by putting Precipitation Hardening . . . A process for harden-
Olivine . . . (Mg2Fe2Si04) A naturally occurring the surface in compression. ing an alloy in which precipitates form from a super-
mineral composed of fosterite and fayalite, crushed and Penetrometer . . . A strip of metal with stepped saturated solid solution.
used as a molding sand. Usually the sand of choice in thickness variation and with holes at varying depths; Process Capability . . . The amount of variation in
manganese steel castings due to its basicity. used in radiography to indicate the sensitivity of the the product of a controlled manufacturing process, the
One-Piece Pattern . . . Solid partem, not necessarily radiograph. range defined by plus or minus three standard devia-
made from one piece of material. May have one or more Penetration, Metal . . . Condition where molten tions.
loose pieces. metal has penetrated into the sand, resulting in a mix- Product Analysis... In castings, the analysis of the
One-Screen . . . A distribution of a clean sand or a ture of metal and sand adhering to the casting. casting as opposed to the analysis of the steel from
sand with two maximum screens separated by a mini- Periclase . . . Natural magnesia in nodular form, which the casting was poured.
mum screen. These high-expansion problem sands are formed by heating. Production Welding . . . Any welding carried out
also referred to as camel back distributions. Permanent Mold . . . A metal mold of two or more during manufacturing before final delivery to the pur-
Optical Pyrometer . . . A temperature measuring parts; not an ingot mold. It is used repeatedly for the chaser. This includes joint welding of castings and fin-
device through which the observer sights the heated production of many castings of the same form. ishing welding.
object and compares its incandescence with that of an pH . . . A symbol denoting the negative logarithm of Proeutectoid . . . The constituent that separates out
electrically heated filament whose brightness can be the concentration of the hydrogen ion in gram-atoms of a solid solution before the formation of eutectoid.
regulated; or the intensity of the light admitted from the per liter, used in expressing both acidity and alkalinity; Pugmill . . . A mill for mixing foundry sands, and
object may be varied through filters and compared with pH = log 1/H per liter. An important factor in foundry sand mixtures consisting essentially of a shaft fitted
a constant light source. sand control, pH7 is neutral; values less than 7, acid, with plows or paddle wheels which revolve in a tub or
Optimum Moisture... That moisture content which and higher than 7, basic. vat.
results in developing the maximum of any property of a Phase Diagram... A graphical representation of the Punchout Machines... A machine used to force the
sand mixture. equilibrium temperature and composition limits of entire sand and casting contents from the molding box
Overaging... Aging a precipitation-hardening alloy phase fields and phase reactions in an alloy system. In in one motion, without the use of vibration.
under conditions of time and temperature greater than a binary system, temperature is usually the ordinate and Pyrometric Cone . . . A slender trihedral pyramid
those required to obtain maximum strength or hardness. composition the abscissa. Ternary and more complex made of a mixture of minerals similar in composition to
Overfiring... Heating refractories to a temperature systems require several two-dimensional diagrams to that of the clay or other refractory being tested. Each
sufficient to cause pronounced vitrification, deforma- show the temperature-composition variables com- cone is assigned a number indicating its fusion tempera-
tion, or bloating. pletely. ture.
Overheated... A term applied when, after exposure Phenolic Resin (One-Step)... A resin made by the Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE) . . . An index
to an excessively high temperature, a metal develops an polymerization of a phenol with an aldehyde; used as a of refractoriness obtained by heating on a time-tem-
perature schedule a cone of the sample material and a Remelt... See Revert. Scab . . . An expansion discontinuity defect on the
series of standardized pyrometric cones of increasing Repair Welding . . . Any welding carried out after surface of a casting which appears as a rough, slightly
refractoriness. delivery to the end user, i.e., after the casting has been raised surface blemish, crusted over by a thin porous
Pyrometry . . . A method of measuring temperature in service. layer of metal under which is a honeycomb or cavity
with any type of temperature-indicating instruments. Replicast Process ( C S ) . . . A ceramic shell process that usually contains a layer of sand.
similar to the investment casting process. Uses a pattern Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) . . . An in-
made from expanded polystyrene (EPS) and is sur- strument used for obtaining microstructural images us-
rounded by a thin ceramic shell.
Q Residual . . . Any element remaining in an alloy
ing an electron beam. The micrographs obtained give
depth perception of the metal being observed.
following melting and casting which was not added to Scarfing . . . Cutting off surface projections such as
Quartz . . . A form of silica occurring in hexagonal meet an analytical specification limit. gates and risers from castings by means of a gas torch.
crystals which are commonly colorless and transparent, Resolved Shear Stress . . . Stress operating on a Screen Analysis (Sieve Analysis)... Distribution of
but sometimes also yellow, brown, purple, green, etc. It crystallographic slip system. particle size sand expressed in terms of the percentage
is the most common of all solid minerals. (See also Revert.. . Recycled sprues, gates, risers, defective of weight retained on each of a series of standard
Silica). castings, and machining chips. screens decreasing in mesh size, and the percentage
Quartzite... A compact granular rock composed of Reynolds Number . . . Used in hydraulics and in passed by the screen of finest mesh.
quartz. It is a metamorphosed sandstone, and siliceous casting gating theory. A dimensionless value (dynamic Screen (Sand)... A sieve or riddle with openings of
cement is often so blended with the quartz grains as to viscosity/density) describing the fairly sudden shift of definite size used to separate one grain size from an-
give the rock a nearly homogeneous texture. Primary flow from laminar to turbulent. Re > 2000 represents other, or to remove lumps from sand.
material in silica brick. turbulent flow. Laminar flow is seldom experienced in Seam . . . A surface defect on a casting related to but
Quench Crack . . . A crack resulting from thermal runner and gating systems. of lesser degree than a Cold Shut; a ridge on the surface
stress induced during rapid cooling or quenching, or Rigging . . . Gates, risers, loose pieces, etc., needed of a casting caused by a crack in the mold face.
from stresses induced by delayed transformations some on the pattern to deliver the metal to the mold cavity and Segregation... A concentration of alloying elements
time after the article has been fully quenched. produce a sound casting. at specific regions usually as a result of the primary
Quench Severity... The quench severity is charac- Riser . . . Reservoir of molten metal from which crystallization of one phase with the subsequent con-
terized by the H value and relates to the rate of tempera- casting feeds as it shrinks during solidification. centration of other elements in the remaining liquid.
ture change during quenching. Riser, Blind . . . A riser that does not break through Selenium... An element melting at 428 °F (220 °C),
Quenching . . . Rapid coohng for hardening; nor- the top of the cope and is entirely surrounded by sand; added to stainless steel to improve machinability.
mally achieved by immersion of the object to be hard- opened to the atmosphere by means of a firecracker Shakeout... 1) The operation of removing castings
ened in water, oil, or solutions of salt or organic com- core. from the mold. 2) A mechanical unit for separating the
pounds in water. Riser-Gating . . . Practice of running metal from the molding materials from the solidified metal casting.
casting through the riser to help in directional solidifi- Shaw (Osborn-Shaw) Process... A precision cast-
cation. ing technique in ceramic molds which do not require
Riser N e c k . . . The connecting passage between the
R riser and casting. Usually only the height and width or
wax or plastic investment.
Shear Modulus ( G ) . . . In a torsion test, the ratio of
diameter of the riser neck are reported, although the the unit shear stress to the displacement caused by it per
shape can be equally important. unit length in the elastic range. Units are Pa or psi.
Ramming... Packing sand in a mold by raising and
Riser, Open . . . Conventional form of riser usually Shear Strain . . . Elastic displacement produced by
dropping the sand, pattern, and flask on a table. Jolt
located at the heaviest section of the casting and extend- pure shear loading.
squeezers, jarring machines, and jolt rammers are ma-
ing through the entire height of the cope. Shear Stress . . . Load per unit area parallel to the
chines using this principle.
Riser Pad (Riser Contact)... An enlargement of the plane of contact.
Rapping . . . Knocking or jarring the pattern to
riser neck where it joins the casting. The purpose of the Shear Strength... Maximum shear stress a material
loosen it from the sand in the mold before withdrawing
pad is to prevent the riser from breaking into the casting is capable of withstanding without failure.
the pattern.
when it is struck or cut from the casting. Shell Molding... A process for forming a mold from
Rapping Plate... A metal plate attached to a pattern
Rockwell Hardness... See Hardness. resin-bonded sand mixtures brought in contact with
to prevent injury to the pattern and assist in loosening it
Rollover Board . . . A wood or metal plate on which preheated (300-500 °F) metal patterns, resulting in a
from the sand.
the pattern is laid top face downward for ramming the firm shell with a cavity corresponding to the outline of
Rare Earth (RE) . . . Any of a group of 15 similar
drag half mold, the plate and half mold being turned the pattern.
metals with atomic numbers 57 through 71. Also rare
over together before the joint is made.
earth element, rare earth metal, lanthanide series, un- Shift... A casting defect caused by mismatch of cope
Runner Extension... In a mold, that part of a runner
common metals, Mischmetal. and drag, or of cores and mold.
which extends beyond the farthest ingate as a blind end.
Rat Tail . . . An expansion discontinuity in a sand Shortness (Hot) . . . Brittleness in a metal at an
Runout . . . A casting defect caused by incomplete
casting, featured as a long, narrow, linear depression, elevated temperature.
filling of the mold due to molten metal draining or
resulting from sand expansion and minor buckling of Sieve Analysis . . . See Screen Analysis.
leaking out of some part of the mold cavity during
the mold surface during filling of the mold. Silica . . . Silicon dioxide, the prime ingredient of
pouring; escape of molten metal from a furnace, mold,
Recrystallization . . . A process whereby the dis- sand and acid refractories.
or melting crucible.
torted grain structure of cold-worked metals is replaced Silicon... An abundant element, chemically classed
by a new, strain-free grain structure during annealing as a nonmetal, metallurgically a metal, used extensively
above a specific minimum temperature. in ferrous and nonferrous alloys; melting point 2593.4
Recrystallization Temperature... The lowest tem- °F (1423 °C).
perature at which the distorted grain structure of a s Simultaneous Engineering... Refers to the process
cold-worked metal is replaced by a new, strain-free where user/designer and producer interact to reduce
grain structure during prolonged annealing. Time, pu- lead time and improve the efficiency of a part. This
rity of the metal, and prior deformation are important Salt Bath... A bath of molten salts used for heating process is faster and more efficient than the traditional
factors. steels, for hardening or tempering. sequential process of design and manufacture.
Reduction... The removal of oxygen or addition of Sand Control... Procedure whereby various prop- Sintering . . . The bonding of adjacent surfaces of
hydrogen. erties of foundry sand, such as fineness, permeability, particles of a mass of powder or a compact by heating
Regression Analysis . . . A statistical method of green strength, moisture content, etc., are adjusted to to a suitable temperature and cooling.
determining, or predicting, the value of a dependent obtain castings free from blows, scabs, veins, and simi- Skewed Tolerances . . . Tolerances which are non-
variable, based on levels of one or more known inde- lar defects. symmetrically distributed about the design parameter.
pendent variables. Sand Mulling . . . A method of evenly distributing Skim Core (Skimmer)... A flat core or tile placed
Release Agent (Parting Agent)... A material, e.g., the bond around the sand grain by a rubbing action. in a mold to skim a flowing stream of metal. Commonly
silicone, stearate, oil, or wax for lubricating a pattern or Sand Reclamation . . . Processing of used foundry used in pouring basins.
core box to facilitate easy removal of a mold or core. sand grains by thermal, attraction, or hydraulic methods Skin-Drying . . . Drying the surface of the mold by
Remanence . . . The remaining flux density after the so that it may be used in place of new sand without direct application of heat.
magnetizing force has been removed. substantially changing current foundry sand practice. SLA . . . See Stereolithography Apparatus.
Slip Casting... In ceramics, a pouring slip, a water ing sleeves, and a stopper head. It may also be a single Tempered Martensite .. . Martensite that has been
suspension of finely ground clay, into a plaster of pans piece manufactured from graphite. heated to produce BCC iron and a fine dispersion of
mold. After it hardens, it is dried and fired. Strainer Core . . . See Core, Strainer. iron carbide.
Slurry . . . A term loosely applied to any clay-like Streamline Flow . . . Steady flow of liquid without Tensile Strength... The maximum stress in uniaxial
dispersion. It may be used to wash ladles or other turbulence. Generally, not experienced in metalcasting. tension testing which a material will withstand prior to
refractory linings to impart a smoother surface. Stress-Corrosion Cracking... Spontaneous failure fracture. The ultimate tensile strength is calculated from
Soaking . . . Prolonged heating of a metal, furnace, of metals by cracking under combined conditions of the maximum load applied during the test divided by
or ladle at a selected temperature. corrosion and stress, either residual or applied. the original cross-sectional area.
Sodium Silicate . . . See Water Glass. Stress Relieving . . . A heat treatment to reduce Thermal Conductivity . . . The property of matter
Sorbite . . . Tempered martensite that has a micro- residual stresses followed by sufficiently slow cooling by which heat energy is transmitted through particles in
structure of distinctly granular appearance. Further to minimize development of new residual stresses. contact. For engineering purposes, the amount of heat
tempering causes the appearance of clearly resolvable Stress, Residual... Those stresses set up in a metal conducted through refractories is usually given in Btu
carbide particles (spheroidite). as a result of nonuniform plastic deformation or the per hour for one square foot of area, for a temperature
SPAL Process . . . See Surface Protection Air unequal cooling of a casting. difference of one degree fahrenheit, and for a thickness
Liquide. Strike-Off . . . Operation of removing excess sand of one inch, Btu/hr • ft2 • F/in.
Spading . . . Buckling or flaking off of the surface from top of core box or flask. Thermal Fatigue . . . Failure resulting from rapid
material. Stripper Pins . . . On certain molding machines, a cycles of alternate heating and cooling.
Specific Gravity... A numerical value representing series of pins (usually four in number) which support Thermal Shock . . . Stress developed by rapid and
the weight of a given substance as compared with the the rammed flask-half at the parting surface so that the uneven heating of a material.
weight of an equal volume of water at 39 "F (4 °C), for mounted pattern may be drawn by lowering. Thermal Spalling . . . Breaking up of refractory
which the specific gravity is taken as 62.4 lb/ ft3 (1,000 Stripping . . . Removing the pattern from the mold from stresses which arise during repeated heating and
kg/m3). or core box from core. cooling.
Specific H e a t . . . Equivalent to thermal capacity, or Stripping Time . . . In air setting sand mixtures, the Thermal Stability . . . Resistance of a material to
the quantity of heat required to produce a unit change in moment when the core box may be satisfactorily drawn drastic changes in temperature.
the temperature of a unit mass. from the core, or pattern from the sand. Thermocouple... A device for measuring tempera-
Specific Volume . . . Volume of one gram of a Subcutaneous Blowhole . . . Blowholes at or near tures by the use of two dissimilar metals in contact; the
substance at a specific temperature, usually 68 °F (20 the surface of solidified metal, covered with a thin layer junction of these metals gives rise to a measurable
°C). of metal. May also be called pinhole porosity. electrical potential which varies with the temperature of
Spheroidite . . . A cementite aggregate of globular Sulfur . . . A nonmetallic element, melting point the junction. Thermocouples are used to operate tem-
carbide and ferrite. 831.2 °F (444 °C), occurring as an undesirable tramp perature indicators or heat controls.
Spheroidized Cementite... The globular condition (trace) element in most ferrous alloys. Tie Bar, Rod... Bar or rod-shaped part of the casting
of iron carbide after a spheroidizing treatment. Superheat. .. Any increment of temperature above added to prevent distortion caused by uneven contrac-
Spiral Test... A method of interpreting the fluidity the melting point of a metal; sometimes construed to be tion between separated members.
of an alloy by pouring molten metal into a mold with a any increment of temperature above normal casting Tight Flask . . . A type of flask which remains on
long narrow channel. The length of such casting, under temperatures introduced for the purpose of refining, mold during pouring. Lugs are normally provided for
standardized conditions, is taken as the fluidity index of alloying, or improving fluidity. clamping cope and drag together for pouring.
that alloy. Supersaturated... Metastable solution in which the Titanium... A white metallic element, melting point
Splash Core . . . A core of tile placed in a mold to dissolved material exceeds the amount the solvent can 3020 °F (1660 °C), having a high strength-to-weight
prevent erosion of the mold at places where metal hold in normal equilibrium at the temperature and under ratio; useful in aircraft parts.
impinges with more than normal force. Splash cores are the other conditions that prevail. Tool Steel... Any high-carbon or alloy steel used to
commonly used at the bottom of large rammed pouring Surface Protection Air Liquide (SPAL)... The use make a cutting tool for machining metals and for met-
basins, at the bottom of long downsprues, or at the of liquid argon, liquid nitrogen, or carbon dioxide snow al-casting dies.
ingates of large molds. to minimize the reaction of air and molten metal that Tooling Points... The fixed positions on the casting
Spray Quenching... After solution heat treating, a normally occurs in an induction furnace. The liquid or surfaces used for reference during layout and machin-
snow is fed onto the surface of the molten metal where ing.
mode of quenching in which a spray of water is directed
it vaporizes, displacing the air thus reducing slag and Tramp Element (Trace) . . . Contaminant in the
upon material just removed from the furnace.
oxygen levels. components of a furnace charge, or in the molten metal
Squeeze Board... A board used on the cope half of
Swing Frame Grinder . . . A device for grinding or castings, whose presence is felt to be either unimpor-
a green sand mold to permit squeezing of the mold.
large castings where the work remains stationary. This tant or undesirable to the quality of the casting.
Squeeze Head . . . In certain types of molding ma-
chines, a stationary or movable plate against which a grinder, too large to be hand lifted, is usually suspended Transformation (Temperature) Range . . . The
from a hoist. critical temperature at which a change in phase occurs.
filled mold is compressed, in order to complete the
Synthetic Molding Sand... Any sand compounded To distinguish between the critical points in heating and
compaction of the sand.
from selected individual materials which, when mixed cooling, heating is referred to with the acronym Ac and
Stainless Steel... A wide range of steels containing
together, produce a mixture of the proper physical and cooling by Ar.
chromium or chromium and nickel, exhibiting high
mechanical properties from which to make foundry Tungsten . . . Steel-gray, metallic element, mp 6116
resistance to corrosion.
molds. °F (3380 °C), used for electric lamp filament, x-ray tube
Standard Deviation... A statistical quantity used to
target, and as alloy element in high-speed steels.
describe the variation of a measurable attribute about
some average value.
Steels, SAE . . . Designation for the standard grades T
of steels approved by the Society of Automotive Engi-
neers. u
Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) . . . Equip- Temper . . . 1) Reheating hardened, normalized, or
ment used for computerized building of three-dimen- mechanically worked steel to a temperature below the
sional models and patterns. Enables the data repre- critical range to soften it and improve impact strength. Ultrasonic Cleaning . . . Immersion cleaning aided
sentation of a CAD solid model to be directly converted 2) The moisture content of a sand at which any certain by ultrasonic waves which cause microagitation.
into a plastic model of a casting. physical test value is obtained, i.e., temper with respect Ultrasonic Testing . . . A nondestructive method of
Stock Core . . . Core of standard diameter usually to green compressive strength, permeability, retained testing metal for flaws based on the fact that ultrasonic
made on a core machine and kept on hand, cut to compressive strength, etc. 3) To mix material with waves are reflected and refracted at the boundaries of a
required length. enough liquid to develop desired molding properties. solid medium.
Stopper Head . . . A refractory shape at the end of a Temper Brittleness... Brittleness that results when Undercooling . . . See Supercooling.
stopper rod, usually clay and graphite, seated in a ladle certain steels are held within or are cooled slowly Upgrading . . . In castings, the removal of disconti-
nozzle. through a certain range of temperature below the trans- nuities.
Stopper R o d . . . A device in a bottom-pour ladle for formation range. The brittleness is revealed by notched- Upper Yield Point (Also Yield Point) .. . Denoted
controlling the flow of metal through the nozzle into the bar impact tests at room temperature or lower tempera- in yield point phenomenon as a distinct break from the
casting. The stopper rod consists of a steel rod, protect- tures. elastic region accompanied by a drop in load, yet prior
to plastic deformation in the stress-strain curve in a target with electrons in a high vacuum. In nuclear reac- Tel:(212)705-7722 Fax:(212)705-7674
low-carbon steel. tions, it is customary to refer to photons originating in ASNT . . . American Society for Nondestructive
Urea Formaldehyde Resin . . . A thermosetting the nucleus as gamma rays, and to those originating in Testing,
product of condensation from urea or thio-urea and the extranuclear part of the atom as x-rays. 1711 Arlingate Plaza, P.O. Box 28518, Columbus, OH
formaldehyde, soluble in water, and used as a sand 43228-0518
binder in core and mold compounds. Tel:(614)274-6003 Fax:(614)274-6899
Y ASTM .. . American Society for Testing and Mate-
rials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187
V Tel:(215)299-5585 Fax:(215)977-9679
Yield . . . Comparison of casting weight to total B S I . . . British Standards Institute
weight of metal poured into mold, expressed as a per- Canadian Standards Board . . . Ottawa, Canada
Vacuum Casting . . . A casting process in which centage. K1A1G6
metal is melted and poured under very low atmospheric Yield Strength . . . The stress at which a material Tel:(819)997-5710
pressure; a form of permanent mold casting where the exhibits a specified limiting permanent strain. Canadian Standards Association . . . 178 Rexdale
mold is inserted into liquid metal, vacuum is applied, Young's Modulus (E)... See Modulus of Elasticity. Boulevard, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada, M9W 1R3
and metal drawn up into the cavity. Tel:(416)747-4044 Fax:(416)747-2475
Value Analysis . . . In manufacturing, an analysis to Foundry Education Foundation... 484 Northwest
determine the most economical method of manufactur-
ing, taking into account the cost and the process capa- z Highway, Des Plaines, IL 60016
Tel:(708)299-1776 Fax:(708)299-1789
bility of alternate manufacturing system(s) under con- Iron and Steel Society . . . 410 Commonwealth
sideration, their degree of variation, the benefits of the Zircon... The mineral zircon silicate, ZrSi0 4 , a very Drive, Warrendale, PA 15086-7512
resultant product, and desired quality and production high melting point acid refractory material used as a Tel:(412)776-1535 Fax:(412)776-0430
quantity and rate. molding material in steel foundries. ISO . . . International Organization for Stan-
Vanadium . . . A white, hard, metallic element, mp Zirconia . .. Zr0 4 , an acid refractory up to 4532 °F dardization. 3, rue de Varembe, 1211 Geneva 20, Swit-
3272 °F (1800 °C), used as an alloy in iron and steel; a (2500 °C) having good thermal shock resistance and zerland (Also see ANSI)
powerful carbide stabilizer and deoxidizer. low electrical resistivity. Tel:(022)734-0150 [national]
Veins... A discontinuity on the surface of a casting Zirconium . . . Silvery-white, metallic element, mp Tel:(4122)734-0150[international]
appearing as a raised, narrow, linear ridge that forms 3380 °F (1860 °C), a powerful deoxidizer and alumi- Fax:(4122)733-3843
upon cracking of the sand mold or core due to expan- num stabilizer, when added to molten steel. Japanese Industrial Standards... 1-24, Alaska 4,
sion of the sand during filling of the mold with molten
Minato-ku.Tokyo 107, Japan
metal.
Tel:(03)583-8001
Vertical Axis Casting Machine . . . A centrifugal
NACE . . . National Association of Corrosion Engi-
casting machine in which the axis of rotation of the
mold is vertical.
TRADE NAMES neers, 1440 South Creek Drive, Houston TX 77084
Tel:(713)492-0535 Fax:(713)492-8254
Vickers Diamond Pyramid Hardness Tester . . .
National Association of Patternmakers . . . See
Patented indentation hardness machine. (See Hard-
ness). Pattern, Model and Plastic Toolbuilders Association
AAR . . . (For Engineering Related Inquiries see National Bureau of Standards (NBS)... See NIST
Virgin Metal (Primary Metal)... Metal extracted American Railway Engineering Association). Associa-
directly from the ore; not previously used. National Industrial Sand Association . . . 900
tion of American Railroads, American Railroad Bldg., Spring St., Silver Spring, MD 20910
Viscosity . . . The resistance of fluid substance to 50 F St. N.W., Washington, DC 20001-1564
flowing, quantitatively characteristic for an individual Tel:(301)587-1400 Fax:(301)585-4219
Tel:(202)639-2100 Fax:(202)639-5546.
substance at a given temperature, and under other defi- National Machine Tool Builders Association . . .
AFNOR . . . Association Francaise de Normalisa-
nite external conditions. See NMTBA
tion, Tour Europe - Cedex 7, 92080 Paris la Defense,
France National Safety Council... 444 N. Michigan Ave-
Tel:33(l)778-1326 nue, Chicago, IL 60611
Tel: (312)527-4800 Fax: (312)527-9381
w AFS . . . American Foundrymen's Society, 505 State
Street, Des Plaines, IL 60016-8399
N B S . . . See NIST.
Tel:(708)824-0181 Fax:(708)824-7848 NFFS . . . Non-Ferrous Founders' Society, 455 State
Washburn Core... A thin core which constricts the American Bureau of Shipping . . . 45 Eisenhower Street, Des Plaines, 111. 60616
riser at the point of attachment to the casting. The thin Drive, PO Box 910, Paramus, NJ 07653-0910 Tel:(708)299-0950 Fax:(708)299-3598.
core heats quickly and promotes feeding of the casting. Tel:(201)368-9100 Fax:(201)368-0255 NIST . . . National Institute of Standards and Tech-
Riser removal cost is minimized. American Railway Engineering Association . . . nology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
Water Glass... Sodium silicate (an inorganic binder Engineering Department of AAR, 50 F St. N.W., Suite Tel:(301)975-2000 Fax:(301)975-2128
system), a viscous liquid which when mixed with pow- 7702, Washington, DC 20001 NMTBA - The Association for Manufacturing
dered fireclay forms a refractory cement. Tel:(202)639-2190 Fax:(202)639-2285 Technology... 7901 WestparkDr,McLean, VA22102-
Widmannstatten Structure . . . Platelike structure American Welding Society . . . 550 N.W. LeJeune 4269 Tel: (703)893-2900 Fax:(703)893-1151
seen in grains of steel in the course of transformation of Road, PO Box 351040, Miami, FL 33135 Pattern, Model and Plastic Toolbuilders Associa-
a solid solution. Tel:(305)443-9353 Fax:(305)443-7559 tion . . . P.O.Box 7286, Toledo, OH 43615
A N S I . . . American National Standards Institute, 11 Tel:(419)826-4465 Fax:(419)476-6478
West 42nd St., 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036. SAE . . . Society of Automotive Engineers, 400
Tel:(212)642-4900 Fax:(212)398-0023
X ASM International, The Materials Information So-
Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001
Tel:(412)776-4841 Fax:(412)776-5760
ciety, 9639 Kinsman Road, Materials Park, OH 44073- Steel Founders' Society of America... Cast Metals
X-Ray . . . Form of radiant energy with wave length 0002 Federation Building, 455 State Street, Des Plaines, IL.
shorter than that of visible light, and with the ability to Tel:(216)338-5151 Fax:(216)338-4634
60016
ASME . . . American Society of Mechanical Engi-
penetrate materials that absorb or reflect ordinary light. Tel:(708)299-9160 Fax:(708)299-3105
neers, 345 East 47th St. New York, NY 10017-2392
X-rays are usually produced by bombarding a metallic


Steel Casting Handboock

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Steel Casting Handboock

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Introduction to Steel Castings

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Melting and Pouring Operations

with three openings for graphite electrodes. Melting is accom-

Finishing and Heat Treating

Steel Castings Compared to

Buying and Specifying Steel

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Industrial Applications of Steel Castings

Transportation Industries 2-2

The Mining Industry 2-8

The Construction Industry 2-12

The Agricultural Industry 2-16

Power Generating Equipment and Electrical Machinery 2-18

Oil, Gas Field, and Petrochemical Equipment 2-21

Materials Handling Equipment 2-26

Building Construction 2-27

Metal Making, Shaping, Finishing, and Forming 2-28

Gears, Pinions, and Worms 2-31

Special Machinery, Products, and Components 2-36

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The rotary coupling system consists of the rotary dump coupler,

Table 2-1 Steel Castings Used in the

Fig. 2-4 Rotary coupler showing cast steel components. It withstands

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The railroad freight car wheel (Figure 2-6) is a steel casting of

Fig. 2-13 Cast steel suspension part. Weight 61 lb (28 kg)

Fig. 2-15 Truck spring hanger. Weight 38 lb (17 kg)

Fig. 2-16 On-highway truck axle suspension bracket

Fig. 2-22 Brake shoes for a heavy-duty truck. Outside diameter 24

Fig. 2-25 Axle bracket casting for a trailer suspension system

Fig. 2-26 Hawse pipe casting for a cargo ship

Fig. 2-28 Cast-weld six-blade cutter for hydraulic dredge. Weight

Fig. 2-29 Track shoe assembly for

The Mining Industry

Fig. 2-32 Walkina cam assembly

gear is also a steel casting weighing 29,000 lb (13,154 kg) and is

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Fig. 2-34 Far left, a cast jaw for

Fig. 2-35 Gyratory crusher mantle and miscellaneous wear-resistant

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Fig. 2-39 Mining truck front spindle weighing 2656 lb

A mining truck rear spindle weighing 3992 lb is illustrated in

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liners which are heat-treated alloyed steel castings having a through

The Construction Industry

Fig. 2-44 High manganese drop cross

replaceable and made of low alloy wear-resistant castings having a

Fig. 2-49 Tread casting or crawler shoe. High strength, weight 15

Fig. 2-51 An adapter weighing 314 lb is welded onto a bucket to

types, from small highway structures to huge suspension spans,

Fig. 2-55 Hitch housing. Weight 1400 lb (635 kg)

Fig. 2-52 Dipper bucket teeth with differently designed bases

Fig. 2-58 Bridge fixed shoe casting

Fig. 2-61 Combined rear axle and differential housing for an

Fig. 2-63 Original fabrication of flapper valve housing. Note the

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Fig. 2-72 Stainless cast steel impellers of CA-15 grade

The cutter blade holder (Figure 2-68) is used in farm equipment.

Power Generating Equipment