Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 128 (2019) 69–81

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ymssp

An optical-based technique to obtain operating deflection

shapes of structures with complex geometries
Vanshaj Srivastava, Javad Baqersad ⇑
NVH & Experimental Mechanics Laboratory (NVHEM Lab), Kettering University, 1700 University Avenue, Flint, MI 48504, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The dynamic characteristics of structures are conventionally obtained by exciting the struc-
Received 13 November 2018 ture using an impulse hammer or a mechanical shaker and measuring the response using
Received in revised form 6 February 2019 uniaxial or multi-axial accelerometers. However, contact-based sensors can mass-load
Accepted 16 March 2019
the structure and do not provide full-field data. Hence, obtaining the true dynamics of
Available online 30 March 2019
the structure using conventional sensors can be challenging. That makes test engineers seek
different non-contact techniques that can provide full-field data without mass-loading the
Keywords:
structure. Recently, stereo-photogrammetry and three-dimensional digital image correla-
Digital image correlation
Operating deflection shapes
tion (3D DIC) have been adopted to collect operating data for structural analysis. These
Photogrammetry non-contact optical techniques provide a wealth of distributed data over the entire struc-
Optical technique ture. However, the stereo-camera system is limited by the field-of-view of the cameras; a
Vibration single pair of DIC cameras may not be able to provide deformation data for the entire struc-
ture. Hence, it is challenging to obtain the vibration characteristics of the entire structure. In
the current work, a multi-view 3D DIC approach is used and validated to predict the vibra-
tional characteristics of an automotive muffler with a complex structure. A pair of DIC cam-
eras travels over the entire structure to capture the deformation of each field of view. The
measured data includes the geometry and displacement data, which is later mapped into
a global coordinate system. The measured data in the time domain for each field-of-view
is transformed to the frequency domain to extract the operational deflection shapes and res-
onant frequencies for each field of view. The obtained deflection shapes are stitched
together in the frequency domain to extract the operating deflection shapes and resonant
frequencies of the automotive body panel with a complex structure.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

In last decade, the automotive and aerospace industries are increasingly using lightweight materials (e.g. aluminum, plas-
tic, carbon fiber, composite, and high-strength steel) to reduce fuel consumption and improve performance. However, this
can increase the radiation of structural noise through the body panels. Thus, care must be given in the modeling of these
lightweight structures. Because an accurate model is required for dynamic and vibrational analysis, researchers have made
many efforts to validate the analytical results using experimental techniques. Conventionally, the experimental modal anal-
ysis requires a structure to be excited with a known force using an impulse hammer or mechanical shaker, and the responses

⇑ Corresponding author at: Tel.: +1 (810) 762 7494.

E-mail addresses: Sriv0289@kettering.edu (V. Srivastava), jbaqersad@kettering.edu (J. Baqersad).
URL: http://newb.kettering.edu/wp/nvhem/ (J. Baqersad).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2019.03.021
0888-3270/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
70 V. Srivastava, J. Baqersad / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 128 (2019) 69–81

at few discrete points are recorded using unidirectional or multi-directional accelerometers to obtain the natural frequencies
and the mode shapes. There are some challenges associated with the conventional modal analysis, however. Using
accelerometers may mass-load the structure and can only provide measurements at discrete locations. Hence, the obtained
results may not predict the true dynamics of the structure. Thus, researchers and test engineers seek non-contact measure-
ment techniques that do not induce mass-loading effects and provide full-field response of structures.
Several non-contact optical techniques have been adopted in the field of structural dynamics. Laser Doppler Vibrometry
[1–5], digital speckle shearography (DSI), electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI), holographic interferometry, pho-
togrammetry, and digital image correlation (DIC) are some common non-contact optical techniques that are used to measure
vibrations. In the past few years, digital image correlation and photogrammetry have received special attention in the field of
structural dynamics [6,7] and structural health monitoring [8]. These techniques can be used to obtain the full-field response
in a very short acquisition time. This technique has been used to measure vibrations of helicopter rotors [9–12], wind turbine
blades [13–16], automotive components [17], bridges [18–21], infrastructures [22,23] and human skin [24]. Researchers
have also used motion magnification and blind-source separation techniques to extract the vibration characteristics of struc-
tures [25–30]. This measurement technique can also be performed using DSLR (Digital Single Lens Reflex) cameras [31].
However, the pair of DIC cameras may have a limited line-of-sight--only on a certain part of the large complex structure.
This makes it very difficult to use DIC technique for the vibration measurement of large structures. To cover the entire struc-
ture, researchers have used multiple pairs of synchronized cameras to measure the response of the large complex structures
[32,33]. The use of multiple pairs of cameras involves huge costs and may not be a viable choice. Patil, Baqersad, et al. pro-
posed a new technique to scale the DIC mode shapes using measured force and stitch the shapes in the frequency domain
[34,35]. However, it might not always be feasible to measure the excitation force.
In this paper, an approach is proposed to scale and stitch the operating mode shapes of a structure with a complex geom-
etry by obtaining the full-field response of the body panel. The DIC cameras travel over the automotive body panel to obtain
the response of the body panel in multiple views. The automotive body panel is excited by an unknown force and the
response is measured in several sections using stereo-cameras. The response of the body panel in the time domain obtained
using DIC technique is then filtered and transformed into the frequency domain. This frequency-domain data is then used to
extract the resonant frequencies and operating mode shapes of each section of the automotive body panel. Later, the
obtained operating mode shapes of each section are scaled and stitched together to obtain the operating mode shapes of
the entire structure. The proposed approach can expand the applications of DIC and can be used to obtain mode shapes
of virtually any object including lightweight structures.

2. Theory

In this section, the techniques used in this paper for obtaining operating deflection shapes, and scaling and stitching them
together are explained.

2.1. Transformation process

The 3D rotation and transformation matrices are utilized to reorient the coordinates of the points in two adjacent section
with an overlap region into a global coordinate system. This approach can be used to stitch multiple field of views captured
using DIC cameras. In the present work, the 3D translation and rotation matrices are used to transform the response in the
time domain to the defined global coordinate system before performing a FFT to obtain the operational deflection shapes.
Fig. 1(a) shows the geometry of individual section of the cantilever beam and (b) shows the stitched geometry of the entire
cantilever beam.

2.2. Operational modal analysis

Based on modal analysis theory, dynamic response of a structure is a linear combination of its mode shapes [36]. The
mode shapes of structures are obtained using frequency response functions (FRFs) measured with the experimental modal
analysis (EMA). A frequency response function is defined as the ratio of the output to the input (force). At times in operating
conditions, it becomes difficult to measure the excitation force and only response of the structure is captured. Hence, FRFs
cannot be obtained. In such cases, operational modal analysis is used. This method uses the output data to extract dynamic
characteristics of structures. The operational modal analysis (OMA) theory assumes that the input excitation is Gaussian
Noise and the measured response of the structure can be used to obtain the operating mode shapes (ODS) of the structure.
Because these shapes are not scaled by the input force, these shapes are also called unscaled mode shapes. Further informa-
tion about the operational modal analyses can be found at [37].
The current commercial DIC systems cannot measure the excitation force. Furthermore, it is sometimes challenging to
measure the excitation force acting on the structure. In this work, the authors propose a robust technique to obtain vibration
characteristics of structures using current DIC systems. In this technique, the response of the structure is captured by roving
a pair of high-speed cameras over the entire structure. Then, operational modal analysis is used to obtain operating deflec-
tion shapes for each section of the structure.
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Fig. 1. (a) Shows the geometry of individual section of the cantilever beam and (b) shows the stitched geometry of the cantilever beam.

2.3. Scaling deformed shapes

In this work, the operational modal analysis is performed to extract the resonant frequencies and operational deflection
shapes using the captured response of the structure. The amplitudes for the operational deflection shapes are proportional to
the excitation force at that resonant frequency; thus, sections of the structure many not have a uniform scaling factor. There-
fore, a least square minimization approach is used to obtain a uniform scaling factor for all sections of the structure.
The least square minimization approach uses a linear equation to minimize the sum of square of the differences between
two vectors. An overlap area is considered while roving the cameras in the adjacent field of views. The response of the points
in these overlap regions are used for scaling. If the deformation data of the points in overlap region of Section 1 in the fre-
quency domain is in the column matrix called A(m,1), and deformation data of the same points in overlap region for Section 2
in the frequency domain is in column matrix of B(m,1), the relation can be written as:

½A ½X ¼ ½B ð1Þ

T
In which, X is the least square error. The, the two sides of the equation can be pre-multiplied by [A] .

½AT ½A½X ¼ ½AT ½B ð2Þ

The final step is to calculate the least square error using a matrix inversion as shown in Eq. (3).

1
½X ¼ ð½AT ½AÞ ½AT ½B ð3Þ
The obtained least square error ([X]), is multiplied to the deformation data of points of Section 2 in the frequency domain
to facilitate the scaling of the operational mode shapes. Authors are referred to [38] for further information about the least
square minimization process.

3. Methodology

The core concept behind this paper is to propose a new technique to obtain the operating deflection shape of the auto-
motive structures having complex geometry. The proposed technique works by stitching the operational deflection shapes of
each section in the frequency domain rather than the time domain. A single pair of DIC cameras cannot cover entire structure
in single field of view. Therefore, the structure is divided into multiple sections and a pair of cameras are roved over the
entire structure to capture the response. Hence, the structure is excited with an unknown force using an impulse hammer
and the response of each individual field of view is measured using a pair of DIC cameras. This technique utilizes a least-
square minimization that facilitates the stitching and scaling of the operational deflection shapes extracted by roving the
pair of DIC cameras around the structure.
The proposed approach was verified by extracting the operating mode shapes of a cantilever beam. The operating mode
shapes and resonant frequencies extracted were validated through the conventional modal analysis technique (i.e., using
impact hammer and tri-axial accelerometers). Fig. 2 illustrates a flowchart of the proposed approach to extract the operating
mode shapes of 1.1 m long aluminum beam using digital image correlation technique. Due to the limited field of view for a
pair of the DIC cameras, the entire length of the cantilever beam cannot be captured in a single view. Therefore, the cantilever
72 V. Srivastava, J. Baqersad / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 128 (2019) 69–81

Fig. 2. A flowchart showing the proposed technique for extracting the operating mode shapes of a beam using multiple views.

beam is divided into two sections with an overlap area of 0.20 m (see Fig. 2). The deformation data for each individual section
is captured using a pair of Photron high-speed cameras.
The captured images are further analyzed and processed to obtain the natural frequencies and operating mode shapes
using VIC-3D by Correlated Solutions. A Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm converts the obtained time domain data from
DIC into the frequency domain for each section. A dynamic stitching of the two sections is performed to extract the operating
mode shapes of the entire beam. The orientation of the cameras and the relative distance between the cantilever beam and
cameras changes when different sections of the beam are captured. Because the excitation forces for the two sections are
different, the amplitudes of the vibration for the sections are different. A least square minimization technique is adopted
to normalize the displacement of two sections in the overlapped area. Three reference points are selected to define global
coordinate system in both the adjacent sections and redefine the coordinates of each point in both the sections. A minimum
of three points is required for 3D transformation. Using more points in the process can improve the transformation accuracy.
A 3D translation and rotation matrix are used to precisely overlap these reference points which stitched the two sections.
The obtained operating mode shapes for each section are then scaled and stitched together to obtain the operating mode
shapes of the entire beam. Fig. 3 shows the obtained operating mode shapes for both sections of the cantilever beam.
Two full-field operating mode shapes, one at 21 Hz and a second at 127 Hz, were obtained using the DIC.
The two operating mode shapes of the cantilever beam occur at resonant frequencies of 21 Hz and 127 Hz (see Fig. 4). Part
(a) of Fig. 4 shows the mode shapes obtained from DIC and part (b) shows the mode shapes obtained from LMS.test lab. The
results from DIC are validated with the results from LMS.test lab (see Fig. 5). As can be seen, the mode shapes obtained using
DIC show strong correlation to the mode shapes obtained using conventional modal analysis (LMS Test.lab).
After verifying the proposed approach using a beam experiment, the technique was further utilized to extract the
dynamic properties of a lightweight automotive part with a complex geometry. In this case, an oval-shaped exhaust muffler.
Fig. 6 shows the flowchart of the proposed approach to obtain the operating deflection shapes of a complex automotive
structure using the 3D digital-image correlation technique. A pair of stereo cameras cannot cover the entire length of the
automotive body panel in a single field-of-view because of its complex structure; therefore, the body panel was divided into
multiple sections. In this approach, the automotive structure was excited with an unknown force using an impact hammer.
The response of the individual field-of-view is measured using a pair of DIC cameras. A Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) is
performed on the measured data. Using the peak picking method, resonant frequencies and related operating deflection
shapes are obtained. A least-square minimization technique is adopted to stitch and scale the operating deflection shapes
of an individual field-of-view to obtain the operating mode shapes of the automotive body panel.
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Fig. 3. Operating deflection shapes of two sections of cantilever beam from DIC.

Fig. 4. Frequency Response Function of cantilever beam using EMA.

4. Experimental Set-up

Fig. 7 illustrates the experimental set up to extract the operational deflection shapes of an exhaust muffler using the DIC
technique. The initial step in performing the DIC measurement is to form a speckle pattern on the desired structure as shown
in Fig. 8. As per the general rule, the speckle pattern should be more than 50% of the desired area and have speckle size of 5-
pixel to obtain precise results using the DIC technique. The speckle size used was 1.5 mm. The pair of high-speed cameras
tracks the deformation of these speckles when the structure is excited using an impulse hammer. A pattern of dots was also
created on the surface of the muffler as shown in Fig. 8. These 600 bigger speckles are distributed over the exhaust muffler
and are to obtain the ODS.
The dynamic characteristics of the exhaust muffler with a speckle pattern created on it were evaluated on a free-free con-
dition. The exhaust muffler was placed on foam layers over an optical table and supported using foam and aluminum stand
to hold it in an upright position. The response of the individual field-of-view was captured using a pair of high-speed DIC
cameras (see Fig. 7). The exhaust muffler is excited using an impulse hammer with a hard-plastic tip. At times, it gets difficult
to capture the excitation force. Therefore, only the displacement of the individual field-of-view is recorded using the VIC-
Snap software by Correlated Solutions. The frame rate of the DIC cameras is set at 1080 fps and the cameras are calibrated
using a 28 mm calibration plate. The recorded images were further processed using the VIC-3D software to extract the real-
time displacement of each field-of-view.
A Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is performed to convert the time domain data extracted using the DIC system into the fre-
quency domain for a subset of points on the muffler (to reduce the computational cost, only the subset of points was used to
74 V. Srivastava, J. Baqersad / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 128 (2019) 69–81

Fig. 5. Mode shapes of the cantilever beam obtained using (a) DIC and (b) LMS Test.lab.

Fig. 6. A flowchart of the proposed approach to stitch the views measured using digital image correlation to obtain the mode shapes of structures.

obtain the ODS). The peak peaking method is used to obtain the operational deflection shapes of each field-of-view from the
FFT plot. To obtain the operating deflection shapes of the entire exhaust muffler, the operating deflection shape of the indi-
vidual field of view must be scaled.

5. Scaling & stitching

When exciting the structure using an impulse hammer, the response of the structure is captured by roving a pair of high-
speed DIC cameras over the entire automotive structure. The time-response data processed using VIC-3D is converted into
the frequency domain by performing a Fast Fourier Transform. However, the conventional DIC system does not measure the
 V. Srivastava, J. Baqersad / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 128 (2019) 69–81 75

Fig. 7. The experimental set-up to obtain the operating mode shapes using DIC technique.

Fig. 8. The speckle pattern and the dot pattern created on the oval-shaped exhaust muffler.

force. Furthermore, sometimes it’s difficult to capture the excitation force. Thus, only the operating deflection shape of the
individual field-of-view can be obtained. In the present work, we only capture the response of the structure and extract the
operating deflection shapes. The operating deflections shapes are proportional to the excitation force; thus, the displacement
of the structure varies with the applied force. Therefore, to obtain the operating deflection shape of the entire automotive
structure, we use the least-square minimization technique to scale operating deflection shapes of the individual field of view.
In the present work, the exhaust muffler is divided into multiple sections. To ease our analysis and have small datasets,
we selected a limited number of data points from the DIC in our data-processing stages (see Fig. 9). Fig. 8 illustrates the
speckle pattern made on the structure and if carefully seen, there are speckles which are bigger in size and are made on
exhaust muffler in a form of a grid. Over 600 bigger speckles are distributed over the exhaust muffler and are selected to
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Fig. 9. (a) & (b) Points defining the final two sections of the geometry going through 3D transformation and (c) points defining the geometry of the exhaust
muffler after stitching of the final two sections.

extract their real time response from DIC system to have high resolute results. The speckles from the grid are selected to
present the results in much clear and significant way. However, the number of data points can be easily extended to the
number of speckles in each field-of-view (i.e., to many thousands of points). There is an overlap between each adjacent field
of view that contains at least 3 points; these points are marked as reference coordinates. These reference points are used to
transform the geometry in the global coordinate system. To capture the response of each field-of-view, the DIC camera sys-
tem needs to be moved over the entire automotive structure. Consequently, the orientation of the cameras and the relative
distance between the cameras and exhaust muffler changes. This changes the coordinates of the points in the overlapped
area during the measurement. The 3D translation and rotation matrices are used to reorient the coordinates of the points
in each field-of-view using the three reference points in the overlap area. This technique can be used to stitch any number
of field-of-views using the camera system. The 3D transformation matrices are used to transform the coordinates of each
field-of-view in the time domain to the same reference coordinate system before performing the Fast Fourier Transform
and the scaling of operating deflection shapes. Fig. 9(a) and (b) show the translation and rotation transformation of the final
two halves of the exhaust muffler. Fig. 10 also shows the least square minimization approach to scale the operational mode
shapes of the exhaust muffler.

6. Conventional experimental modal analysis on exhaust muffler for validation

A conventional experimental modal analysis was performed on the muffler for validation of the proposed multi-view DIC
technique. The experimental setup to perform the conventional experimental modal analysis using the conventional tech-
nique on an exhaust muffler was kept similar to the setup shown in Fig. 7: a free-free condition. The roving impact hammer
method was adopted to perform the experimental modal analysis. The exhaust muffler was divided into 106 discrete mea-
surement points. The muffler was excited at the 106 discrete points using an impulse hammer, and the response was mea-
sured using three unidirectional accelerometers. The three accelerometers are used to validate the DIC based modal analysis.
The accelerometers are distributed and glued over the exhaust muffler considering the maximum deformation points on the
structure for mode shapes. The bandwidth of 512 Hz was selected, and 1024 spectral lines were used for the measurement.
The mode shapes between 300 Hz and 400 Hz were extracted in this paper. A sample FRF of a discrete point obtained using
the conventional experimental modal analysis is shown in Fig. 11. LMS PolyMAX was used to extract the mode shapes.
Fig. 11 also shows how the resonant frequency changes due to mass loading effects.
Various challenges were faced while performing the conventional modal analysis. Apart from the low spatial resolution of
the mode shapes, there are yet major problems in using the technique. Initially, two of three accelerometers were placed on
the exhaust muffler at a point having the maximum amplitude. However, it was observed that they could mass-load the
muffler; this can be seen by the shift in the frequencies of the mode shapes. Fig. 11 shows the FRF of a discrete point having
mass-loading effect.
Fig. 12 shows the placement of the accelerometer to minimize the mass loading effect. Thus, the position of the
accelerometers was changed by moving them to the points with less amplitude of vibration. Also, a lighter accelerometer
 V. Srivastava, J. Baqersad / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 128 (2019) 69–81 77

Fig. 10. Shows the scaling approach of using least square minimization to scale the operational deflection shapes of the exhaust muffler.

Fig. 11. Frequency response functions of the experimental modal analysis of the exhaust muffler using LMS Test.lab with mass loading effect (in red) and
without (in blue).

was placed at the point with the maximum amplitude of vibration. There was an area on the exhaust muffler which is very
difficult to excite in a specific direction. Fig. 12 shows the area on the exhaust muffler which is difficult to excite in z-
direction. Hence, it is difficult for the accelerometer to measure any significant displacement. An alternate solution would
be to excite the structure using a mechanical shaker and the roving-accelerometer technique. However, mounting the
accelerometers also would be difficult in such areas and roving the accelerometer can change the mass distribution in the
muffler.
After several trials, a proper measurement could be performed on the muffler, and the mode shapes of the muffler could
be obtained using the conventional modal analysis. These mode shapes were used to validate the multi-view DIC technique.

7. Results

The operating mode shapes obtained using the DIC technique and the proposed stitching approach were correlated to the
results obtained using conventional modal analysis for validation purposes.
The results were correlated using the Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC). A MAC value close to 1 shows a strong correla-
tion, while a MAC value close to 0 shows no correlation. A strong correlation can be seen between the results obtained using
78 V. Srivastava, J. Baqersad / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 128 (2019) 69–81

Fig. 12. An image showing the placement of the accelerometers on the muffler.

Fig. 13. (a) The operating mode shape of exhaust muffler at 304.2 Hz obtained using DIC and proposed stitching technique; (b) The mode shape of the
exhaust muffler at 304.4 Hz obtained using conventional modal analysis technique.

the DIC technique and conventional modal analysis. Also, the high MAC values validate the proposed technique for obtaining
operating mode shapes of an automotive body panel having a complex structure.
Figs. 13–15 show the obtained operating deflection shapes of the exhaust muffler. Part (a) shows the operating deflection
shapes of the exhaust muffler obtained using the proposed DIC approach. The shapes shown are from three different angles
to provide a clear view of the deformation for the readers. Part (b) of Figs. 13–15 show the mode shapes obtained using LMS
Test.Lab – impact testing. It can be seen that the obtained operating deflection shapes using DIC and the proposed stitching
technique show a high correlation to the mode shapes obtained using LMS Test.Lab.
 V. Srivastava, J. Baqersad / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 128 (2019) 69–81 79

Fig. 14. (a) The operating mode shape of exhaust muffler at 362.10 Hz obtained using DIC and proposed stitching technique; (b) The mode shape of the
exhaust muffler at 361.90 Hz obtained using conventional modal analysis technique.

Fig. 15. (a) The operating mode shape of exhaust muffler at 381.90 Hz obtained using DIC and proposed stitching technique (b) The mode shape of the
exhaust muffler at 381.80 Hz obtained using the conventional modal analysis technique.

8. Conclusion

Digital-image correlation is a state-of-the-art non-contact measurement technique which has received special attention
and is being used for structural dynamics. Even though this technique provides the full field response of the structures and
eliminates mass loading effects, this technique is limited by the field-of-view of the cameras. The proposed approach in this
paper can be used to obtain the dynamic characteristics of automotive panels having complex geometries using a single pair
of stereo-cameras. This paper details a successful attempt to overcome the limitation of the DIC technique in vibration mea-
surement for operating mode shapes extractions. This technique utilizes the stitching approach in the frequency domain
rather than in the time domain. This work further expands the use of the DIC technique for vibration measurement. The pro-
posed technique opens new doors for future applications of DIC in the automotive and aerospace industries for evaluating
dynamics characteristics.

Acknowledgments

This research presented in this paper is partly supported by the National Science Foundation (USA) under Grant Number
1625987 (Acquisition of a 3D Digital Image Correlation System to Enhance Research and Teaching at Kettering University).
80 V. Srivastava, J. Baqersad / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 128 (2019) 69–81

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the sponsoring organizations.

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