Engineering Structures 207 (2020) 110183

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Blind, simultaneous identification of full-field vibration modes and large T

rigid-body motion of output-only structures from digital video
measurements
Yongchao Yanga,b,1, , Charles Dornc, Charles Farrard, David Mascareñasd
⁎

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering – Engineering Mechanics, Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
b
Los Alamos National Lab – Engineering Institute, PO Box 1663, MS T001, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
c
Graduate Aerospace Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
d
Los Alamos National Lab – Engineering Institute, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Many operating structures undergo vibration associated with significant rigid-body motion, such as earthquake-
Rigid-body motion excited structures which vibrate while moving (and/or rocking) along with the shaking ground, rotating
Vibration structures such as the blades of helicopter, aircraft, wind turbine, and in UAV’s measurements (images/videos) of
Full-field measurement infrastructure response which is coupled with the motion of the UAV itself. In many such cases, the rigid motion
Operational modal analysis
is very dominant; measurement and identification of the relatively subtle deformation (flexible) motion of the
Photogrammetry
Blind source separation
structure in their operations is very challenging, especially when high-resolution vibration measurement and
high-fidelity dynamics modeling are required to capture and characterize spatially local and temporally transient
dynamics behaviors and features of the structure. Traditional contact-type wired or wireless sensors, such as
accelerometers, strain gauges, and LVDT’s, are discrete point-wise sensors that only allow instrumentations at a
limited number of places, providing very low spatial resolution vibration measurements. Non-contact inter-
ferometry-based optical measurement techniques using laser beams such as laser Doppler vibrometers, electronic
speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) and holographic interferometry, can provide high spatial resolution vi-
bration measurement without the need to install sensors on the structure. However, they are very vulnerable to
ambient vibration and rigid-body motion. As an alternative non-contact optical measurement method, photo-
grammetry uses white-light imaging of digital video cameras that are relatively low-cost, agile, and provides
simultaneous measurements with very high spatial resolution where every pixel effectively becomes a sensing
unit. Furthermore, it is robust to rigid-body motion. Using image processing algorithms such as optical flow and
image correlation, photogrammetry has been successfully used for vibration measurements and experimental
modal analysis of structures (including rotating-type) where full-field (or as many points as the pixel number of
the image frame on the structure) modal parameters (mode shapes) can be obtained. However, existing such
methods typically rely on installing and tracking the optical markers or speckle paints on the structure’s surface,
which becomes less applicable for large measurement area or in harsh environment (high temperature and
corrosion). In addition, they are computationally extensive.
Aiming to alleviate these challenges, this study presents the development of adapting a recently-proposed
video-based method for output-only, simultaneous identification of both the subtle, full-field deformation modes
and the dominant rigid-body motion from only the video of the vibrating while moving structure. Full-field
dynamic parameters (deformation modes) of structure, as well as its rigid-body motion can be efficiently esti-
mated, respectively. Laboratory experiments were conducted on a bench-scale building structure with “free-free”
boundary condition. Comparisons were made with an analytical finite element model. Results demonstrate that
the method can efficiently and accurately extract the full-field, (total) motion of the structure and further
identify or separate the subtle deformation modes and large rigid-body motion, respectively. Furthermore, vi-

Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering – Engineering Mechanics, Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton,
⁎

MI 49931, USA.
E-mail address: ycyang@mtu.edu (Y. Yang).
1
Formerly Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Ave., Lemont, IL 60439, USA.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.110183
Received 2 July 2018; Received in revised form 4 January 2020; Accepted 6 January 2020
0141-0296/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Yang, et al.
deos reconstructed by the method (provided in the supplementary materials) show that it enables realistic vi-
sualization of the subtle deformation modes of the structure in presence of large rigid-body motion. Several
practical limitations for implementing the method are also discussed.
1. Introduction
Modal analysis is the primary technique for modeling and analysis
of structural vibration and dynamics behaviors. Identifying the ex-
perimental modal parameters (modal frequencies, damping ratios, and
mode shapes) from the vibration measurements is essential for dynamic
modelling and analysis, validating and updating the mathematical
model for response prediction, and vibration-based health monitoring
of civil, mechanical, and aerospace structures [1–3]. It can be accom-
plished by either experimental modal analysis [1] using both system
inputs (excitation) and outputs (response) measurements or operational
modal analysis [4] relying only on structural response measurements.
Operational modal analysis is considered a more practical alternative
for larger-scale structures (subjected to broadband excitation which is
usually available such as traffic and wind excitation on bridges) where
controllable excitation is difficult to apply or the excitation is challen-
ging to measure. In addition, identifying the modal parameters of the
structure in their operating conditions is valuable as they more closely
characterize its operational dynamics behaviors.
Many structures undergo vibration associated with significant rigid-
body motion in their laboratory testing scenarios and operational
conditions. Examples include earthquake-excited structures or during
shake table testing where they vibrate while moving (and/or rocking)
along with the shaking ground; dynamics testing (e.g., shaker excita-
tion) of mechanical systems in free-free boundary conditions; rotating
structures in operations such as the blades of helicopter, aircraft, wind
turbine. In the recent years, UAV’s emerge as a promising tool to per-
form sensing and assessment of infrastructure response which, in the
measurements (images/videos), is coupled with the movement of the
UAV itself. In many such cases, the rigid-body motion is very dominant;
measurement and identification of those relatively subtle deformation
(flexible) motion of the structure in their operational condition is re-
quired but becomes very challenging.
Meanwhile, high-resolution vibration measurements and subse-
quently identifying high-resolution experimental modal parameters are
required for high-fidelity characterization of the dynamics behaviors
and accurate condition assessment of the structure. Incorporating more
spatial measurement points or higher order (frequency) modes con-
tributes to a high-fidelity dynamics model, which can more accurately
characterize its spatially local or temporally transient dynamic behaviors
and features. Such high-resolution dynamics information (e.g., high-
density mode shapes) has been recently shown experimentally as the
enabling factor to achieve successful vibration-based damage detection
and localization [5–7].
Measuring and identifying high spatial resolution structural vibra-
tion, which possibly couples with large rigid-body motion, is difficulty
for traditional techniques such as accelerometers, strain gauges, and
LVDT’s because they are discrete point-wise sensors that can only be
placed in a limited number of positions, providing sparse, low spatial
sensing resolution measurements. Non-contact optical measurement
techniques, mostly belong to a family of interferometry techniques
using laser beams such as laser Doppler vibrometers [8–10], electronic
speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) and holographic interferometry
[11,12], can provide high spatial resolution vibration measurement
without the need to install sensors on the structure. However, these
measurement devices are relatively expensive, and very vulnerable to
ambient or rigid-body motion [13,14].
Photogrammetry is an alternative non-contact optical measurement
method using white-light imaging of digital video cameras that are
relatively low-cost, agile, and provides simultaneous measurements
2
Engineering Structures 207 (2020) 110183
with very high spatial resolution. Furthermore, it is applicable to
measure structural vibration associated with rigid-body motion. Using
image processing algorithms such as optical flow [15] and digital image
correlation [16], video camera imaging measurements have been suc-
cessfully used for vibration measurements [17–24] and full-field ex-
perimental modal analysis [25–27 14] where full-field modal para-
meters (mode shapes) can be obtained, including for the rotating
structures [28–34]. However, many of existing such methods typically
rely on installing and tracking the optical markers or speckle paints on
the structure’s surface, which becomes less applicable for large mea-
surement area or in harsh environment (high temperature and corro-
sion). In addition, they are computationally extensive.
Lately, phase-based video motion processing technique [35–37] has
been explored to perform output-only modal identification without the
need for installing markers or speckle paints on a structure’s surface
[38–47], as required by traditional photogrammetry techniques. The
recently-developed technique enables extraction and visualization of
full-field, high-spatial-resolution modal parameters in a relatively effi-
cient and automated manner [5,39], even with temporally-aliased (sub-
Nyquist) video measurements [48]. However, they have not addressed
the issue of measuring and identifying the possibly subtle vibration
associated with rigid-body motion that may be significant.
This work studies this problem by further adapting the video-based
output-only full-field modal identification approach to enable blind,
simultaneous identification (separation) of the subtle full-field de-
formation and the dominant rigid-body motion from the video of the
vibrating while moving structure. Full-field (or as many points as the
pixel number of the video frame on the structure) dynamic parameters
(deformation modes) of structure, as well as its rigid-body motion, can
be efficiently estimated, respectively. Laboratory experiments were
conducted to validate the method on a bench-scale building structure
with “free-free” boundary condition which had subtle deformation vi-
bration associated with large rigid-body motion (translation-type).
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 in-
troduces the development of adapting the video-based algorithm for
identifying (separating) deformation modes and the rigid-body motion
of the structure. Section 3 demonstrates the laboratory experiments on
a bench-scale building structure with “free-free” boundary setup and
comparisons were made with an analytical (finite element) model.
Section 4 presents conclusions and future work.
2. Approach
Identification of the full-field, high-spatial (pixel)-resolution motion
from the digital video measurement of a vibrating structure undergoing
rigid-body motion is accomplished by the recently-developed auto-
mated full-field output-only modal identification method [39]; it is
reviewed in Section 2.1. Subsequently, a scheme of identifying, separ-
ating, and visualizing rigid-body modes and deformation modes and
subsequently reconstructing the total rigid-body motion of the struc-
ture, is presented in Section 2.2–2.4.
2.1. Extracting full-field motion from the video of the vibrating structure
A video of a vibrating structure records its vibration information in
its frames with temporally displaced image intensity measurements
I (x + (x , t )) (assuming each frame has N pixels and there are T
frames); x is the pixel coordinate and (x , t ) is the spatially local,
temporally varying, motion. Structural motion information is contained
in its local amplitudes (x , t ) and local phases (x , t ) of I (x + (x , t )),
Y. Yang, et al. Engineering Structures 207 (2020) 110183

which are extracted by the spatially multi-scale, localized, complex

steerable pyramid filters [49 36]. Phase (x , t ) was shown to provide a
more robust approximation of the motion information than the ampli-
tudes (x , t ) ; furthermore, it is relatively insensitive to the changes in
illumination and perspective [35].

2.2. Separating full-field motion into individual components

After normalization, the extracted local phases (x , t ) directly cor-

respond to the local motion (x , t ) . Using modal superposition to re-
present (x , t ) as linear mixtures of modal coordinates qi (t ) associated
with mode shapes i (x )
n
(x , t ) = (x ) q (t ) = i (x ) qi (t )
i=1 (1)
Because the pixel dimension of (x , t ) , N , is much higher than the
mode dimension (number), n , i.e., N n , Eq. (1) is a high-spatial-di-
mensional, low-modal-dimensional over-complete model representation Fig. 1. The experimental setup to perform video measurement of a bench-scale
of the spatiotemporal (x , t ) . Principal component analysis (PCA) is building structure which is allowed to freely move along the rails. The illumi-
used to perform spatial dimension reduction of the over-complete nation is the ordinary indoor fluorescent office lighting. No markers were ap-
system Eq. (1). It starts with the singular value decomposition (SVD) plied on the structure.
representation of the motion matrix N ×T
(assuming N > T )
n 2.3. Distinguishing deformation modes and rigid-body motion components
=U V = i ui vi
(2)
i=1
After separating into different qi (t ) (i = 1, , r ), one can distin-
where is a diagonal matrix containing T non-decreasing di-
N ×T guish them between deformation modes qi (t ) and rigid-body compo-
agonal elements i as the i th singular value ( 1 0 ), nents q¯j (t ) from their associated mode shapes i (x ) (i = 1, , r ).
i T
indicating the participating energy of the i th principal component, and Obviously the rigid-body components have uniform, non-deformed
U = [u1, , uN ] N × N and V = [v , , vT ] T × T (“ ” denotes “trans- shapes ¯j , while deformation modes have deformed shapes i . Such
1
pose”) are the matrices of the left- and right-singular vectors. The rank difference is easily visualized when the extracted mode shapes are full-
of is r if the number of non-zero singular values is r field, high-spatial resolution. See Fig. 6 for illustrations, which will be
( 1 = T = 0 ). For lightly damped structures with detailed in Section 3.
r > r+1 =
uniform mass distribution, the principal directions will converge to the Limitation: it is expected that when the rigid-body component has
mode shape direction [50]. Since the structural motion are mostly exactly the same frequency with the deformation mode, BSS may not be
contained in the first few active modes, PCA can project the structure’s able to separate them into individual components. On the other hand, if
active modes in onto the first few r n principal components (r N) their frequencies are close, they may be treated as two closely-spaced
by modes and still be separated by BSS [51]. However, this issue needs
further validations and is not considered in this study.
= Ur (3)
where Ur = [u1, , ur ] N × r is
the first r ( N ) columns of U , and the 2.4. Reconstruction of the (total) rigid-body motion
i th row of the resultant = [ 1, , r ] r×T
, i , is the i th principal
component of . The above linear, invertible, PCA preserves the high Since deformation modes are usually subtle in presence of the rigid-
spatial resolution of N ×T
by its inverse transform (projection) of body motion, it is very difficult to determine the exact number of active
the low-modal-dimensional r × T back to high-spatial-dimensional modes that are contained in the r principal components . Therefore,
one should retain r > n principal components to allow redundant
Ur (4) components, rather than miss the subtle deformation modes contained
The projected r n principal components r×T are linear mix- in . Therefore, after applying BSS on the r > n principal components, if
tures of the modal coordinates n 1 deformation modes are identified, the dominant rigid-body mode
has been separated into r n + 1 individual rigid-body motion com-
r
(x , t ) = Y(x ) q (t ) = ponents q¯j (t ) ( j = r n + 2, , r ) with the associated ¯j . Therefore, the
i (x ) qi (t )
i=1 (5) overall rigid-body motion ¯ is reconstructed by
r
and can be further separated into individual modes by blind source ¯= ¯j q¯j (t )
separation technique [39]
j=r n+2 (8)
q (t ) = W(x ) (x , t ) (6)
Therefore, individual deformation modes qi (t ) (i = 1, , n 1) and
simultaneously yielding the de-mixing matrix W r×r
and the modal the rigid-body motion ¯ is identified from the video of the vibrating
coordinates q (t ) , and structure in presence of large rigid-body motion, respectively.
Υ= W 1. Substituting Eq. (1) and Eq. (5) into Eq. (4) yields mode
shapes 2.5. Visualization of each of the subtle deformation modes in presence of
rigid-body motion
i Ur i, i = 1, ,r (7)
Therefore the high-resolution mode shapes i (x ) (i = 1, , r ), at a Now that the individual deformation modes qi (t ) (i = 1, , r 1)
high spatial (pixel) resolution of , are estimated as per Eq. (3) to Eq. (7). and rigid-body motion ¯ are identified (separated), new videos can be
Modal frequencies i and damping ratios i (in free vibration) can be reconstructed to enable visualization of each of the subtle deformation
estimated from the obtained modal coordinates qi (t ) (i = 1, , r ). modes in presence of large rigid-body motion. Each video is

3
Y. Yang, et al. Engineering Structures 207 (2020) 110183

Fig. 2. A few temporal frames from the video measurements of the vibrating while moving structure. Linked to Video 1.

Fig. 3. Demonstrations of arbitrarily-selected 6 pixels: The time histories and their Fourier spectra of the extracted local phases of 6 pixels from the video of the
vibrating and moving structure. Note that the method uses the phase time history of all pixels.

reconstructed as follows: take the 1st mode for example, only the se-
parated 1st deformation mode q1 (t ) as well as the rigid-body motion ¯
are retained from Eq. (6) and fed into the inverse transform of as per Eq.
(5) to Eq. (4) and the multi-scale filtering. Therefore, the reconstructed
video will contain only the 1st deformation mode in presence of the
rigid-body motion for high-spatial (pixel)-resolution visualization in the
spatial-temporal video domain. Since the deformation motion is very
subtle and the rigid-body motion is dominant, the deformation mode
q1 (t ) could be magnified by a scalar factor 1 before fed into the re-
construction process for its better visualization in presence of the rigid-
body motion. Note that higher modes usually require larger magnifi-
cation factors since their motion are weaker contained in the structural
motion. More details are referred to Ref. [39].
3. Experimental validations
3.1. Laboratory experimental setup
A bench-scale model of a three-story building structure was used to
validate the approach. The structure consists of aluminum columns and
lumped mass plates on each of the three floors, with its base mass slides
on the rails to allow free rigid-body motion in the horizontal direction.
An impact hammer was used to excite the structure horizontally on the
top floor. A stationary camera (Sony NXCAM with a pixel resolution of
1920 × 1080) mounted by a Zeiss lens with a fixed focal length of
24 mm was used to perform video measurements of the moving while
vibrating structure at a frame rate of 480 frames per second (Video 1 in

4
Y. Yang, et al. Engineering Structures 207 (2020) 110183

Fig. 4. The estimated first six principal component coordinates and their Fourier spectra, extracted from the video of the vibrating and moving structure by applying
the PCA on the phase time histories (see Fig. 3 for demonstration) of all pixels.

Fig. 5. The estimated modal coordinates and their Fourier spectra, extracted from the video of the vibrating and moving structure by applying the PCA-CP full-field
output-only modal identification method.

5
Y. Yang, et al. Engineering Structures 207 (2020) 110183

Fig. 6. The full-field mode shapes identified from the video measurements of 3-story structure by applying the PCA-CP full-field output-only modal identification
method (Linked to Video 3–5 for visualization of deformation modes in presence of rigid-body motion). (a–c) are associated with the 3 deformation modes in
Fig. 5 (from the top), and (d–f) are with the other 3 rigid-body mode components. The vertical (frame height) and horizontal (frame width) axis represent pixel
locations. The colorbars represent normalized mode shape magnitude scales and are different among plots. Note that the rigid plates are not presented in the plots.

Table 1 supplementary material). The illumination is the ordinary indoor

Modal frequencies estimated from the video compared with those computed fluorescent office lighting without any external illumination enhance-
from FEM* ment. For validations and comparisons, a Keyence laser displacement
Mode FEM computed (Hz) Video estimated (Hz) sensor (model LK-G152) was used to measure the (rigid-body) dis-
placement of the base mass plate, and an analytical finite element
0 0.00 0.60 model (FEM) of the lumped-mass structure with free-free boundary was
1 11.61 10.20
established. Fig. 1 shows the experimental setup.
2 21.32 19.80
3 27.66 25.80
3.2. Implementation, results, and discussions
* Modal assurance criterion (MAC) is not computed between the mode
shapes because of the huge difference in the number of the spatial points: FEM 3.2.1. Blind separation of individual deformation modes and rigid-body
is a 4-DOF lumped-mass model, whereas mode shapes estimated from video modes
have more than thousands of points. The video of structure motion (including deformation and rigid-
body motion) consisting of 400 frames (Video 2 and Fig. 2) was used as
an example to explain the processing procedures of the method. For
more efficient computation, the pixels of each frame were

6
Y. Yang, et al.
Fig. 7. The computed mode shapes of the analytical finite element mode of the structure. From (a–d): Mode 3, Mode 2, Mode 1, and Mode 0 (rigid-body mode).
downsampled to 384 × 216. It was then processed by the full-field
output-only modal identification method [39], as presented in Sections
2.1–2.2. Fig. 3 shows the local phase time histories of a few arbitrarily-
selected pixels, which are proportional to the structural displacements.
It is seen that the rigid-body motion, whose frequency is very close to
zero, dominated the extracted displacements, where the deformation
was very subtle or weakly present in all the pixels. This is consistent
with what can be observed in the original video (Video 1 or Video 2 in
supplementary material).
After applying PCA on the high-dimensional motion (displacement)
matrix, six principal components are obtained (Fig. 4) to allow possibly
redundant components. It can be seen that the first principal compo-
nent (most active with the largest singular value) is a rigid-body motion
mode, while other principal components contain mixtures of deforma-
tion modes and rigid-body motions. After applying BSS on the six
7
Engineering Structures 207 (2020) 110183
principal components, the deformation modes and rigid-body motions
are clearly separated: it is seen in Fig. 5 that three deformation modes
are identified associated with the simultaneously-estimated full-field
deformed mode shapes shown in Fig. 6 (a)-(c), whereas the rest are the
rigid-body motion associated with the full-field uniform, non-deformed
shapes (Fig. 6 ((d–f)).
3.2.2. Validating the video-estimated results
The modal parameters identified by the method from the video
measurements were compared with those computed from the lumped-
mass FEM model. Table 1 shows the comparisons of the modal fre-
quencies, which match closely with each other. The slightly higher
modal frequencies of the deformation modes computed from the FEM
than those estimated from the video may be because: (1) the damping is
not included in the FEM; (2) friction occurred when the structure slid
Y. Yang, et al.
Fig. 8. The estimated rigid-body motion of the 3-story structure compared with
the laser displacement measurement. Both are normalized by their maxima to
exclude the calibration factors.
on the rails while the FEM assumes free-free boundary. In addition, the
frequency resolution of the Fourier Transform (about 0.6 Hz with only
less than 2 s in signal length) in estimation of the modal frequencies
from the modal coordinates extracted from the video also causes errors.
The vibrating patterns of the estimated full-field, high-spatial-resolu-
tion mode shapes match closely with those computed from the lumped-
mass FEM of very low spatial resolution (Fig. 7).
3.2.3. Reconstructing the rigid-body motion of the structure
The three separated rigid-body motion modes were combined to
reconstruct the overall rigid-body motion using Eq. (8). The re-
constructed rigid-body motion were compared with that directly mea-
sured by the laser displacement sensor. Fig. 8 shows reasonable corre-
lation between them. This shows that the method is able to estimate
both the subtle deformation modes and large rigid-body motion of the
structure from digital video measurements.
3.2.4. Visualization of individual subtle deformation modes in presence of
large rigid-body motion
After the individual deformation modes and rigid-body motion are
identified (separated), new videos (Video 3–5 in supplementary ma-
terial) were reconstructed to enable visualization of each of the subtle
deformation modes in presence of large rigid-body motion. Scalar
magnification factors of 10, 20, and 40 are used for Mode 1 (Video 3),
Mode 2 (Video 4), and Mode 3 (Video 5), respectively. Take Video 3
for example, the 1st deformation mode can be clearly visualized while
the structure was going through large rigid-body motion.
4. Conclusions and future work
This study presents the development of adapting a video-based
method for output-only, simultaneous identification of both the subtle,
full-field deformation modes and the dominant rigid-body motion from
only the video of the vibrating while moving structure. The method is
able to efficiently and blindly estimate the full-field dynamic para-
meters of the deformation modes of structure, as well as its rigid-body
motion. This approach enhances the previously-developed full-field
output-only modal analysis method by explicitly allowing retaining
redundant components where subtle deformation modes are retained
and further blindly separated, and the dominant rigid-body motion is
reconstructed. This enables estimations of both the subtle, full-field
deformation modes (modal parameters) and the dominant rigid-body
motion, respectively, which is very challenging for existing vibration
measurement and analysis techniques.
Laboratory experiments were conducted on a bench-scale building
structure with “free-free” boundary condition. Results demonstrate that
8
Engineering Structures 207 (2020) 110183
the method can efficiently and accurately extract the full-field, total
motion of the structure from the video measurement and further
identify or separate the subtle deformation modes (subsequently ob-
taining the full-field modal parameters) and large rigid-body motion
(translation-type), respectively. Furthermore, it also enables realistic
visualization of each of the subtle deformation modes in presence of
large rigid-body motion.
Several practical limitations for implementing the method are dis-
cussed. Future study is needed to extend the method to account for
rotating-type rigid-body motion of the structure because it involves
different structural dynamics models (formulations). Implementations
of the video-based approach on real-world full-scale cable structures,
e.g., using UAV imagers to measure structural response, also need to
address the issues associated with the video camera measurement under
varying and harsh imaging environment (such as variant illuminations
and perspectives, appearance of obstructions, etc), and therefore testing
on large-scale structure is needed in future work to validate the ro-
bustness of the proposed method.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yongchao Yang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Charles Dorn:
Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Charles Farrar:
Conceptualization, Supervision, Resources, Writing - review & editing.
David Mascareñas: Conceptualization, Supervision, Resources,
Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest for the manuscript
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Los
Alamos National Laboratory Lab Directed Research and Development
(LDRD) program for a Director’s Funded Postdoctoral Fellowship and
the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) “Physics
of AI” program for Yongchao Yang. Yongchao Yang would also like to
acknowledge the discussions with Dr. Peter Avitabile of University of
Massachusetts – Lowell in July 2016 and with Dr. Eric Flynn of Los
Alamos National Laboratory in April 2017.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.110183.
References
[1] Ewins D. Modal testing: theory, practice and application, Baldock, Hertfordshire.
England: Research Studies Press LTD; 2000.
[2] Friswell M, Mottershead J. Finite Element model updating in structural dynamics.
Springer; 1995.
[3] Doebling S, Farrar C, Prime M. A summary review of vibration-based damage
identification methods. Shock Vibrat Digest 1998;30(2):91–105.
[4] Brincker R, Ventura C. Introduction to operational modal analysis. Wiley; 2015.
[5] Yang Y, Dorn C, Mancini T, Talken Z, Theiler J, Kenyon G, et al. “Reference-free
detection of minute, non-visible, damage using full-field, high-resolution mode
shapes output-only identified from digital videos of structures. Struct Health
Monitor Int J 2017. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921717704385.
[6] Wei S, Zhang Z, Li S, Li H. Strain features and condition assessment of orthotropic
steel deck cable-supported bridges subjected to vehicle loads by using dense FBG
strain sensors. Smart Mater Struct 2017;26(10):104007.
[7] Li S, Wei S, Bao Y, Li H. Condition assessment of cables by pattern recognition of
vehicle-induced cable tension ratio. Eng Struct 2018;155:1–15.
[8] Stanbridge A, Ewins D. Modal testing using a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer.
Mech Syst Sig Process 1999;13(2):255–70.
[9] Castellini P. Laser Doppler Vibrometry: Development of advanced solutions an-
swering to technology's needs. Mech Syst Sig Process 2006;20(6):1265–85.
Y. Yang, et al.
[10] Di Maio D, Ewins D. Continuous Scan, a method for performing modal testing using
meaningful measurement parameters; Part I. Mech Syst Sig Process
2011;25(8):3027–42.
[11] Pedrini G, Wolfgang O, Gusev M. High-speed digital holographic interferometry for
vibration measurement. Appl Opt 2006;45(15):3456–62.
[12] Steton K. calculating modal assurance criterion from electronic holography data.
Sound Vibrat Mag 2008;42(3):6–8.
[13] Schmidt T, Tyson J, Galanulis K. Full-field dynamic displacement and strain mea-
surement using advanced 3d image correlation photogrammetry: Part 1. Exp Tech
2003;27(3):47–50.
[14] Baqersad J, Poozesh P, Niezrecki C, Avitabile P. Photogrammetry and optical
methods in structural dynamics – a review. Mech Syst Sig Process 2017;86:98–115.
[15] Horn B, Schunck B. Determining optical flow. Artif Intell 1981;17:185–204.
[16] Sutton M, Orteu J, Schreier H. Image correlation for shape, motion and deformation
measurements: basic concepts, theory and applications. Springer Science & Business
Media; 2009.
[17] Olaszek P. Investigation of the dynamic characteristic of bridge structures using a
computer vision method. Measurement 1999;25(3):227–36.
[18] Wahbeh A, Caffrey J, Masri S. A vision-based approach for the direct measurement
of displacements in vibrating systems. Smart Mater Struct 2003;12(5):785.
[19] Lee J, Shinozuka M. A vision-based system for remote sensing of bridge displace-
ment. NDT E Int 2006;39(5):425–31.
[20] Chang C, Ji Y. Flexible videogrammetric technique for three-dimensional structural
vibration measurement. J Eng Mech 2007;133(6):656–64.
[21] Yoon H, Elanwar H, Choi H, Golparvar-Fard M, Spencer B. Target‐free approach for
vision‐based structural system identification using consumer‐grade cameras. Struct
Control Health Monitor 2016. https://doi.org/10.1002/stc.1850.
[22] Feng D, Feng M. Vision-based multipoint displacement measurement for structural
health monitoring. Struct Control Health Monitor 2016;23(5):876–90.
[23] Khuc T, Catbas F. Completely contactless structural health monitoring of real‐life
structures using cameras and computer vision. Struct Control Health Monitor 2016.
https://doi.org/10.1002/stc.1852.
[24] Zimmermann M, Gülan U, Harmanci Y, Chatzi E, Holzner M. Structural health
monitoring through video recording. EWSHM. 2016.
[25] Siebert T, Wood R, Splitthof K. High speed image correlation for vibration analysis.
J Phys Conf Ser 2009;181(1):012064.
[26] Helfrick MN, Niezrecki C, Avitabile P, Schmidt T. 3D digital image correlation
methods for full-field vibration measurement. Mech Syst Sig Process
2011;25(3):917–27.
[27] Wang W, Mottershead J, Ihle J, Siebert T, Schubach H. Finite element model up-
dating from full-field vibration measurement using digital image correlation. J
Sound Vib 2011;330(8):1599–620.
[28] Stasicki B, Boden F. Application of high-speed videography for in-flight deformation
measurements of aircraft propellers. 28th International Congress on High-Speed
Imaging and Photonics, International Society for Optics and Photonics. 2008.
[29] Helfrick M, Pingle P, Niezrecki C, Avitabile P. Optical non-contacting vibration
measurement of rotating turbine blades. Proceedings of the IMAC-XXVII. 2009.
[30] Ozbek M, Rixen D, Eme O, Sanow G. Feasibility of monitoring large wind turbines
using photogrammetry. Energy 2010;35(12):4802–11.
[31] Abrego A, Olson L, Romander E, Barrows D, Burner A. Blade displacement mea-
surement technique applied to a full-scale rotor test. NASA 2012.
[32] Sicard J, Sirohi J. Measurement of the deformation of an extremely flexible rotor
blade using digital image correlation. Meas Sci Technol 2013;24(6):065203.
Engineering Structures 207 (2020) 110183
[33] Lundstrom T, Niezrecki C, Avitabile P. Appropriate rigid body correction of ste-
reophotogrammetry measurements made on rotating systems. Exp Tech
2015;39(6):25–34.
[34] Baqersad J, Poozesh P, Niezrecki C, Avitabile P. A noncontacting approach for full-
field strain monitoring of rotating structures. J Vib Acoust 2016;138(3):031008.
[35] Fleet D, Allan D. Computation of component image velocity from local phase in-
formation. Int J Comput Vision 1990;5(1):77–104.
[36] Wadhwa N, Rubinstein M, Durand F, Freeman W. Phase-based video motion pro-
cessing. ACM Trans Graph 2013;32(4).
[37] Gautama T, Van Hulle M. A phase-based approach to the estimation of the optical
flow field using spatial filtering. Neural Netw IEEE Trans 2002;13(5):1127–36.
[38] Chen J, Wadhwa N, Cha Y, Durand F, Freeman W, Buyukozturk O. Modal identi-
fication of simple structures with high-speed video using motion magnification. J
Sound Vibrat 2015;345:58–71.
[39] Yang Y, Dorn C, Mancini T, Talken Z, Kenyon G, Farrar C, et al. Blind identification
of full-field vibration modes from video measurements with phase-based video
motion magnification. Mech Syst Sig Process 2017;85:567–90.
[40] Yang Y, Farrar C, Mascarenas D. Full-field structural dynamics by video motion
manipulation. 58th AIAA/ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural dynamics, and
materials conference. 2017.
[41] Dorn C, Dasari S, Yang Y, Kenyon G, Welch P, Mascarenas D. Efficient full-field
operational modal analysis using neuromorphic event-based imaging. Shock & vi-
bration, aircraft/aerospace, energy harvesting, acoustics & optics. 2017.
[42] Roeder A, Zhang H, Sanchez L, Yang Y, Farrar C, Mascarenas D. Identification of
full-field dynamic loads on structures using computer vision and unsupervised
machine learning. Shock & vibration, aircraft/aerospace, energy harvesting,
acoustics & optics. 2017.
[43] Sanchez L, Zhang H, Roeder A, Bowlan J, Crochet J, Yang Y, et al. Establishment of
full-field, full-order dynamic model of cable vibration by video motion manipula-
tions. Special Top Struct Dyn 2017.
[44] Javh J, Slavič J, Boltežar M. The subpixel resolution of optical-flow-based modal
analysis. Mech Syst Sig Process 2017;88:89–99.
[45] Sarrafi A, Mao Z, Niezrecki C, Poozesh P. Vibration-based damage detection in wind
turbine blades using Phase-based Motion Estimation and motion magnification. J
Sound Vib 2018;421:300–18.
[46] Zhao J, Bao Y, Guan Z, Zuo W, Li J, Li H. Video-based multiscale identification
approach for tower vibration of a cable-stayed bridge model under earthquake
ground motions. Struct Control Health Monitor 2019;26(3):e2314.
[47] Bao Y, Tang Z, Li H, Zhang Y. Computer vision and deep learning–based data
anomaly detection method for structural health monitoring. Struct Control Health
Monitor 2018. DOI: 1475921718757405.
[48] Yang Y, Dorn C, Mancini T, Talken Z, Nagarajaiah SKG, Farrar C, et al. Blind
identification of full-field vibration modes of output-only structures from uniformly
sampled, possibly temporally aliased (sub-Nyquist), full-field video measurements.
J Sound Vib 2017;390:232–56.
[49] Portilla J, Simoncelli E. A parametric texture model based on joint statistics of
complex wavelet coefficients. Int J Comput Vision 2000;40(1):49–70.
[50] Feeny B, Kappagantu R. On the physical interpretation of proper orthogonal modes
in vibration. J Sound Vib 1998;211:607–16.
[51] Yang Y, Nagarajaiah S. Blind modal identification of output-only structures in time-
domain based on complexity pursuit. Earthquake Eng Struct Dyn
2013;42(13):1885–905.