Journal of Constructional Steel Research 179 (2021) 106534

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Journal of Constructional Steel Research

Lateral-torsional deformations of single-span and two-span thin-walled

beams with continuous bracing
Raymond H. Plaut a,⁎, Cristopher D. Moen b
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
b
Run To Solve, LLC, 2 Smeton Place, Unit C, Towson, MD 21204, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: C-section and Z-section cold-formed steel beams subjected to a uniformly distributed load on the top flange are
Received 26 May 2020 analyzed. Single-span beams with each end pinned or fixed, and two-span beams with equal spans, are consid-
Received in revised form 1 October 2020 ered. Both gravity loading and wind uplift are treated. Continuous elastic restraints resist bending and twisting.
Accepted 17 November 2020
The lateral restraint acts on the top flange. It is assumed that the beams are linearly elastic and that the cross sec-
Available online 29 January 2021
tion maintains its shape during deformation. Lateral-torsional deformation for the C-section beam involves twist
and bending in the weak direction. For the Z-section beam, the deformation involves coupling between bending
in both the weak and strong directions, along with the twist. The governing equilibrium equations are solved nu-
merically. The problem is motivated largely by roof purlins in metal buildings. Numerical results demonstrate the
effects of load magnitude, bending and twisting restraint stiffnesses, and roof slope (with top flange facing either
upslope or downslope).
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
This paper is an extension of Plaut and Moen [1], which analyzed
single-span, pinned-pinned, C-section and Z-section beams (purlins or
girts). Here, in addition, pinned-fixed and fixed-fixed single-span
beams are investigated. The results for pinned-fixed beams are also ap-
plicable to symmetric two-span beams (when there is no roof slope),
which behave like two pinned-fixed beams with the fixed ends corre-
sponding to the central support.
The beams are partially restrained along their length. Gravity (pres-
sure) and uplift (suction) loadings are considered [2]. Applications in-
clude metal building roof and wall systems, with through-fastened
roofs (walls) or standing-seam roofs [2]. The resultant loading on the
purlin or girt acts eccentrically on a flange, causing translation, bending,
and twist. Distortion of the cross section is neglected.
Restrained, single-span, pinned-pinned, C-section and Z-section
beams under gravity and/or uplift loading have been analyzed and/or
tested in a number of investigations, including [3–20]. Pinned-fixed
and fixed-fixed beams were considered in [4,5,7]. Similar types of
beams with two spans were discussed in [21–28].
The analysis will be presented in Section 2. For no roof slope, results
for Example 1, involving a beam with a C section, will be described in
Section 3, followed by results for Example 2 in Section 4, where the
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rplaut@vt.edu (R.H. Plaut).
beam has a Z section. The effect of roof slope on both examples will be
investigated in Section 5, followed by concluding remarks in Section 6.
2. Formulation
The single-span beam is assumed to be uniform and linearly elastic.
It has length L, modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G, principal mo-
ments of inertia Ix and Iy about the centroid, product of inertia Ixy, torsion
constant J, and warping constant Cw. The weight of the beam is
neglected.
In the cross sections in Fig. 1 (with no roof slope), the centroid is de-
noted C and the shear center is denoted S. The centroidal coordinate
axes are x (horizontal) and y (vertical). The axis along the centroids is
z (into the page in Fig. 1), with 0 ≤ z ≤ L. The load is modeled as a uni-
formly distributed load q applied at the center of the top flange, with q
positive for gravity loading and negative for uplift loading. The distances
from the shear center to the point of application of q are ax parallel to the
x axis and ay parallel to the y axis.
The continuous bracing is linearly elastic. It has rotational stiffness kϕ
per unit length along the z axis, and lateral stiffness kx per unit length
resisting translation parallel to the x axis and acting at the top of the
top flange (Fig. 1).
The deflections of the centroid along the x and y axes are u(z) and
v(z), respectively, and the twist is ϕ(z), positive if clockwise in Fig. 1.
It is assumed that deformations are small, with 1 + (u')2 ≈ 1,
1 + (v')2 ≈ 1, sinϕ ≈ ϕ, and cos ϕ ≈ 1.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2021.106534
0143-974X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.H. Plaut and C.D. Moen
Fig. 1. Cross sections: (a) C section; (b) Z section.
Fig. 2. Cross sections with roof slope θ.
When the roof has a slope, the slope angle is denoted θ, as shown in
Fig. 2 [9,18]. If θ > 0, the top flange faces upslope; if θ < 0, the top flange
faces downslope, The components of q along the positive x and y axes
are denoted qx and qy, respectively, and are given by
qy ¼ q cosθ, qx ¼ −q sinθ
When there is no roof slope, θ = 0, qx = 0, and qy = q.
The governing equilibrium equations are as follows:

imum twist, which will occur at z = L/2 for pinned-pinned and fixed-
EIy u0000 þ EIxy ν0000 þ kx u þ ay ϕ ¼ qx
EIx ν 0000 þ EI xy u0000 ¼ qy



The case kx = 0 is considered in Fig. 3 for gravity loading and in Fig. 4
EC w ϕ0000 −GJϕ00 þ kx ay u þ ay ϕ þ kϕ ϕ ¼ qx ay −ax ϕ þ qy ax þ ay ϕ ð4Þ
where primes denote differentiation with respect to z. Some papers
(e.g., [10,11,20]) are missing the terms on the right-hand side of
Eq. (4) that involve ϕ. References [16, 29] include such terms.
One can eliminate v by solving Eq. (3) for v'''' and substituting the re-
sult into Eq. (2), giving
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 179 (2021) 106534
 

E Ix Iy −I2xy u0000 þ kx I x u þ ay ϕ ¼ qx Ix −qy Ixy ð5Þ
The ends of the beam at z = 0 and z = L are assumed to be simple
(pinned) or fixed, free to warp and to rotate about the x and y axes,
but not allowed to rotate about the z axis or to deflect in the x and y di-
rections. The boundary conditions at a pinned end are u = u'' = v =
v'' = ϕ = ϕ” = 0, and at a fixed end they are u = u’ = v = v’ = ϕ =
ϕ'’ = 0.
Eqs. (2)–(4), or (4) and (5), along with the boundary conditions, can
be solved analytically, but the solution is not simple unless kx = 0. Here
numerical results are obtained by solving the boundary value problem
using a shooting method with the subroutines NDSolve and FindRoot
in Mathematica [30].
3. Example 1: C section with no roof slope
The first example is a cold-formed steel stud beam with singly sym-
metric 9CS2.5×059 C cross section [31] (see Fig. 1(a)). The beam is as-
sumed to have L = 7620 mm, Ix = 4.287×106 mm4, Iy =
290,500 mm4, Ixy = 0, J = 424.56 mm4, Cw = 3.1956×109 mm6, E =
200 kN/mm2, G = E/2.6, thickness 1.50 mm, ax = 57.67 mm, and
ay = 114.3 mm.
Since Ixy = 0, Eq. (3) becomes uncoupled from Eqs. (2) and (4), so
ð1Þ
that the vertical deflection v becomes independent of the twist ϕ and
the deflection u in the weak direction. Therefore lateral-torsional defor-
mation in Example 1 only involves u and ϕ.
In Figs. 3-14, the load q will be plotted versus the maximum or min-
ð2Þ
fixed beams, and at or near z = 0.42 L for pinned-fixed beams in most
cases. For gravity loading, q and ϕ will be positive, and for uplift loading
ð3Þ they will be negative.
for uplift loading. Curves for kϕ = 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 N/rad
are presented. As kϕ increases, the load magnitude corresponding to a
given twist magnitude increases.
In Fig. 3, as the gravity load increases, the slope of each curve de-
creases. For given values of kϕ and q, the twist is smallest for a fixed-
fixed beam (dash-dot curve) and largest for a pinned-pinned beam
(dotted curve).
2
R.H. Plaut and C.D. Moen
Fig. 3. Gravity load versus maximum twist for Example 1 with kx = 0; pinned-pinned
(.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
Fig. 4. Uplift load versus minimum twist for Example 1 with kx = 0; pinned-pinned (.. .. .),
pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
Fig. 5. Gravity load versus maximum twist for Example 1 with kx = 0.1 N/mm2; pinned-
pinned (.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
In Fig. 4, as the load magnitude increases, the magnitude of the
slope of each curve increases. For a given kϕ and upward load, the
twist for the pinned-pinned beam is sometimes smaller and sometimes
larger than the twist for the fixed-fixed beam.
Similar results for the case kx = 0.1 N/mm2 are presented in Figs. 5 and
6. The values of kϕ associated with the curves are now 250, 500, 750, 1000,
1250, and 1500 N/rad. In Fig. 6, for kϕ = 1250 and 1500 N/rad, the curves
3
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 179 (2021) 106534
Fig. 6. Uplift load versus minimum twist for Example 1 with kx = 0.1 N/mm2; pinned-
pinned (.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
Fig. 7. Twist shapes for Example 1 with kx = 0.1 N/mm2, kϕ = 1000 N/rad, and q = ±1 kN/
m; pinned-pinned (.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
Fig. 8. Gravity load versus maximum twist for Example 1 with kϕ = 0; pinned-pinned
(.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
for the pinned-pinned beam (dotted) and pinned-fixed beam (solid) are
almost the same.
Typical twist functions ϕ(z) are plotted in Fig. 7 for Example 1 with
kx = 0.1 N/mm2 and kϕ = 1000 N/rad, where q = 1 kN/m for the upper
curves (gravity loading) and q = −1 kN/m for the lower curves (uplift
loading). The shapes for the pinned-pinned beam and pinned-fixed
R.H. Plaut and C.D. Moen
Fig. 9. Uplift load versus minimum twist for Example 1 with kϕ = 0; pinned-pinned
(.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
Fig. 10. Gravity load versus maximum twist for Example 2 with kx = 0; pinned-pinned (.. ..
), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
. Fig. 16 are almost identical. (For pinned-pinned beams, curves for
Fig. 11. Uplift load versus minimum twist for Example 2 with kx = 0; pinned-pinned (.. .. .),
pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
beam are almost the same near the left end, and are almost the same near
the right end for the fixed-fixed beam and pinned-fixed beam. The mag-
nitude of the twist tends to be greater for gravity loading than for uplift
loading.
In Figs. 8 and 9, the external rotational resistance is zero (i.e., kϕ =
0). Curves are plotted for kx = 0, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, and 0.1 N/mm2 in
Fig. 8, and for kx = 0, 0.001, 0.01, and 0.1 N/mm2 in Fig. 9. Curves for
4
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 179 (2021) 106534
kx > 0.1 N/mm2 would be almost the same as the curve for kx =
0.1 N/mm2. The sets of curves for the three sets of boundary conditions
are almost separate from each other. (For pinned-pinned beams, curves
for kϕ = 1000 N/rad and several values of kx are presented in [1].)
4. Example 2: Z section with no roof slope
The second example is a cold-formed steel beam with 8ZS2.25×059
Z cross section [31] (see Fig. 1(b)). The beam has L = 7620 mm, Ix =
3.230×106 mm4, Iy = 449,530 mm4, Ixy = −865,760 mm4, J =
397.09 mm4, Cw = 3.4104×109 mm6, E = 200 kN/mm2, G = E/2.6,
thickness 1.50 mm, ax = 27.826 mm, and ay = 101.6 mm. (The sign
of Ixy is positive in [31] where the y axis is upward, but negative here
where the y axis is downward.) During uplift, the line of action of the
vertical load q passes through the shear center when ϕ = −0.278 rad.
Since Ixy ≠ 0, the deformation involves coupling between the twist ϕ
and the deflections u and v.
Figs. 10 and 11 depict results for the case kx = 0 under gravity and
uplift loading, respectively, with kϕ = 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, and
500 N/rad. For pinned-pinned beams, the maximum slope magnitude
|u’(0)| of the lateral deflection is larger than 0.3 if q > 2.6 kN/m in
Fig. 10, and if q < −2.6 kN/m in Fig. 11.
Results for the case kx = 0.1 N/mm2 are presented in Figs. 12 and 13,
respectively, for gravity and uplift loading. The values of kϕ are 250, 500,
750, 1000, 1250, and 1500 N/rad. In Fig. 12, the curves initially rise
sharply and then flatten considerably. In Fig. 13, for a given uplift load,
the pinned-pinned beam has less twist than the others.
For Example 2, sometimes the shapes are similar to those in Fig. 7.
However, sometimes they are wavy. The case kx = 0.1 N/mm2, kϕ =
1500 N/rad and q = 1 kN/m is considered in Fig. 14 for the three sets
of boundary conditions. For the pinned-pinned and pinned-fixed
cases, ϕ(z) < 0 in the central portion of the beam; with respect to
Fig. 1(b), this central portion twists counter-clockwise and the outer
portions twist clockwise for this case.
In Figs. 15 and 16, kϕ = 1000, with curves plotted for kx = 0, 0.001,
0.005, and 0.1 N/mm2. The pinned-fixed and fixed-fixed curves in
kϕ = 0 and several values of kx are presented in [1]). In Fig. 15, the max-
imum slope magnitude |u’(0)| of the lateral deflection is larger than 0.3
for pinned-pinned beams if q > 2.64 and 4.74 kN/m, respectively, for
kx = 0 and 0.001 N/mm2. In Fig. 16, where the abscissa only ranges
from −0.1 rad to 0, |u’(0)| > 0.3 for pinned-pinned beams if
q < −2.64 and − 4.71 kN/m, respectively, for kx = 0 and 0.001 N/mm2.
5. Examples 1 and 2 with roof slope
The effect of the roof slope angle θ is considered now (see Fig. 2). Nu-
merical results are presented for pinned-pinned and fixed-fixed beams
over the range − 0.5 rad ≤ θ ≤ 0.5 rad. A low slope with pitch 1:12 cor-
responds to θ = 0.083 rad (4.76°), and a high slope with pitch 6:12 cor-
responds to θ = 0.46 rad (26.57°). It is noted that θ is positive if
counter-clockwise, whereas the beam twist ϕ is positive if clockwise
(see Figs. 1, 2).
Uplift pressure due to wind is perpendicular to the roof. Therefore it
acts the same as wind uplift for the case when there is no roof slope, and
the uplift results in the previous two sections are applicable when there
is roof slope.
For gravity loading, results are presented in Figs. 17-21. In Figs. 17
and 18, for Example 1, the twist ϕ(L/2) at the center of the beam is plot-
ted as a function of the roof slope angle θ. In Fig. 17, kx = 0.1 N/mm2,
kϕ = 1000 N/rad, and curves are plotted for q = 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, and
3.5 kN/m. In Fig. 18, q = 1 kN/m, kx = 0.1 N/mm2, and curves are plotted
for kϕ = 250, 300, 400, 500, 700, and 1000 N/rad.
As q decreases or kϕ increases, the effect of changes in the roof slope
angle θ decreases (i.e., the curves become flatter). Each curve for a
pinned-pinned beam (dotted) has a maximum value of the central
R.H. Plaut and C.D. Moen
Fig. 12. Gravity load versus maximum twist for Example 2 with kx = 0.1 N/mm2; pinned-
pinned (.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
Fig. 13. Uplift load versus minimum twist for Example 2 with kx = 0.1 N/mm2; pinned-
pinned (.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
Fig. 14. Twist shapes for Example 2 with kx = 0.1 N/mm2, kϕ = 1500 N/rad, and q = 1 kN/
m; pinned-pinned (.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
twist at some positive value of θ, i.e., with the beam in an upslope orien-
tation as in Fig. 2. For fixed-fixed beams (solid), the maximum central
twist sometimes occurs for a positive value of θ and sometimes for a
negative value.
Example 2 is considered in Figs. 19-21. The maximum magnitude of
ϕ(z) is plotted as a function of the roof slope angle θ. In Fig. 19, kx =
0.1 N/mm2, kϕ = 1000 N/rad, and the loads are q = 1, 3, and 5 kN/m.
5
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 179 (2021) 106534
Fig. 15. Gravity load versus maximum twist for Example 2 with kϕ = 1000 N/rad; pinned-
pinned (.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
Fig. 16. Uplift load versus minimum twist for Example 2 with kϕ = 1000 N/rad; pinned-
pinned (.. .. .), pinned-fixed (_____), fixed-fixed (. _. _. _).
Fig. 17. Central twist versus roof slope for Example 1 with kx = 0.1 N/mm2 and kϕ =
1000 N/rad; pinned-pinned (.. .. .), fixed-fixed (_____).
The twist is quite small. On each curve, the maximum twist magnitude
occurs for ϕ(z) > 0 to the left of the minimum point, and for ϕ(z) < 0 to
the right. At the minimum point, the twist shape is wavy with the max-
imum value ϕ(L/2) equal to the minimum value of ϕ occurring near z =
0.18 L and z = 0.82 L. Sometimes the maximum twist magnitude is
larger for the fixed-fixed beam than for the pinned-pinned beam.
R.H. Plaut and C.D. Moen
Fig. 18. Central twist versus roof slope for Example 1 with q = 1 kN/m and kx =
0.1 N/mm2; pinned-pinned (.. .. .), fixed-fixed (_____).
Fig. 19. Central twist versus roof slope for Example 2 with kx = 0.1 N/mm2 and kϕ =
1000 N/rad; pinned-pinned (.. .. .), fixed-fixed (_____).
Fig. 20. Central twist versus roof slope for pinned-pinned Example 2 with q = 5 kN/m and
kx = 0.1 N/mm2.
In Figs. 20 and 21, with q = 5 kN/m and kx = 0.1 N/mm2, curves are
plotted for a given value of kϕ. The pinned-pinned case is shown in
Fig. 20, with the values of kϕ chosen to demonstrate an interesting set
of curves. The lowest curve is the same as the top dashed curve in
Fig. 19. The other curves in Fig. 20 exhibit a maximum for an upslope
6
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 179 (2021) 106534
Fig. 21. Central twist versus roof slope for fixed-fixed Example 2 with q = 5 kN/m and
kx = 0.1 N/mm2.
Fig. 22. Combination of Figs. 10 and 11 for pinned-fixed ends in Example 2 with kx = 0.
configuration (θ > 0), and the values of max|ϕ(z)| on those curves are
always associated with ϕ > 0.
The fixed-fixed case is considered in Fig. 21. The lowest curve is the
same as the top solid curve in Fig. 19. The minima occur near θ =
0.345 rad. The top two curves also exhibit a maximum, for a downslope
configuration. Near the right side of the graph, ϕ < 0 all along the beam
for all the curves.
6. Conclusion
Lateral-torsional deformations of partially restrained, single-span,
C-section and Z-section beams were investigated with pinned-pinned,
pinned-fixed, and fixed-fixed boundary conditions. (The results for
pinned-fixed beams can be applied to each span of symmetric two-
span beams when there is no roof slope.) On the top flange, the beams
were subjected to distributed loading (gravity or uplift) and to elastic
restraints modeled as distributed lateral and rotational springs.
It was assumed that the beam and restraints were linearly elastic,
and that the deformations were small. Distortion of the cross section
was neglected; the results may change if the distortion of the cross sec-
tion were taken into account, depending on the slenderness of the sec-
tions. The equilibrium equations were presented and were solved
numerically. Results for the two examples demonstrate the effects of
load magnitude, lateral and torsional restraint stiffnesses, and roof
slope on the twist at the center of the beam.
R.H. Plaut and C.D. Moen
Naturally, the stiffness of the torsional restraint tends to have a large
effect on the twist. In some cases, the lateral restraint has little influence
on the twist. For kx > 0.1 N/mm2, additional lateral stiffness has little
effect.
The effect of roof slope on deformations of thin-walled beams has re-
ceived little attention previously. Figs. 17-21 demonstrate clearly how
the twist depends on the slope of the roof. As the roof slope is varied
from a high downslope configuration to being flat and then to a high up-
slope configuration, the maximum twist occurs for a slight upslope for
pinned-pinned beams. For fixed-fixed and pinned-pinned beams, the
twist may have different senses (signs) in the central portion of the
beam and the outer portions of the beam.
For the C-section beam, the lateral deflection u(z) in Fig. 1(a) tends
to be negative for gravity loading and positive for uplift loading. For
the Z-section beam (Fig. 1(b)), the opposite is true.
Fig. 22 demonstrates how curves for gravity and uplift loading can be
connected. It combines the solid curves in Figs. 10 and 11 for pinned-
fixed beams into a single graph.
Internal forces, moments about the principal axes, and torsion can be
calculated from the deformations and used with recently developed ca-
pacity prediction interaction equations for design (e.g., see [32]). Also,
the work here may be valuable for verifying numerical solutions that
are being used in metal building roof and wall design (e.g., see [33]).
The concept of a critical load was considered in [1] for the case of no
roof slope. The linearly elastic analysis used in this paper, with the load
applied at the midpoint of the top flange of a C-section or Z-section
beam, does not lead to any buckling. For a modified loading (vertical
gravity load acting through the shear center for a C-section beam, or act-
ing with a particular location and angled orientation for a Z-section
beam with no lateral bracing), lateral-torsional buckling can occur.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their helpful
comments.
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