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Theoretical and Experimental

Investigation of a Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe
Solar Collector
a a a a
S. B. Riffat , X. Zhao , R. Boukhanouf & P. S. Doherty
a
School of the Built Environment , The University of Nottingham ,
Nottingham, UK
Published online: 22 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: S. B. Riffat , X. Zhao , R. Boukhanouf & P. S. Doherty (2005) Theoretical and
Experimental Investigation of a Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector, International Journal of Green
Energy, 1:4, 515-542, DOI: 10.1081/GE-200038727

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GREEN ENERGY
Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 515–542, 2004

Theoretical and Experimental Investigation

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of a Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector

S. B. Riffat, X. Zhao,* R. Boukhanouf, and P. S. Doherty

School of the Built Environment, The University of Nottingham,

Nottingham, UK

ABSTRACT

This article describes a novel flat plate heat-pipe solar collector, namely,
the hybrid heat-pipe solar collector. An analytical model has been developed
to calculate the collector efficiency as well as simulate the heat transfer processes
occurring in the collector. The effects of heat pipes/absorber, top cover, flue gas
channel geometry, and flue gas temperature and flow rate, on the collector
efficiency were investigated based on three modes of operation, i.e., solar only
operation, solar/exhaust gas combined, and solar, exhaust gas and boiler
combined. Experimental testing of the collector was also carried out for each
of these modes of operation under real climatic conditions. The results were used
to estimate the efficiency of the collector and determine the relation between
the efficiency and general external parameter. The modeling and experimental
results were compared and a correlation factor was used to modify the theoretical
predictions. It was found that the efficiency of the collector was increased
by about 20–30% compared to a conventional flat-plate heat pipe solar collector.

Key Words: Heat pipes; Solar collector; Flue gas; Efficiency; Simulation;
Testing.

*Correspondence: X. Zhao, School of the Built Environment, The University of Nottingham,

Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK; Fax: 44-115-951-3159; E-mail: xudong.zhao@nottingham.
ac.uk.

515

DOI: 10.1081/GE-200038727 1543-5075 (Print); 1543-5083 (Online)

Copyright & 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. www.dekker.com
 516 Riffat et al.

1. INTRODUCTION

Solar collectors transform solar radiation into thermal energy. There are several
types of solar collector available for practical applications, including evacuated
tubes, flat plate solar collectors, and parabolic dish collectors.
Heat pipes are devices of high thermal conductance, which transfer thermal
energy by two-phase circulation of fluid, and can easily be integrated into most types
of solar collector. The basic difference in thermal performance between a heat-pipe
solar collector and a conventional one lies in the heat-transfer processes from
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the absorber tube wall to the energy-transporting fluid. In the case with a heat pipe,
the process is evaporation–condensation–convection, while for conventional solar
collectors, heat transfer occurs only in the absorber plate. Thus, solar collectors with
heat pipes have a lower thermal mass, resulting in a reduction of start-up time.
A feature that makes heat pipes attractive for use in solar collectors is their
ability to operate like a thermal-diode, i.e., the flow of the heat is in one direction
only. This minimizes heat loss from the transporting fluid, e.g., water, when incident
radiation is low. Furthermore, when the maximum design temperature of the
collector is reached, additional heat transfer can be prevented. This would prevent
over-heating of the circulating fluid, a common problem in many applications
of solar collectors (Bienert and Wolf, 1976; DeVriers et al., 1980).
Integration of heat pipes also provides the advantage of high heat transfer in the
latent form. Heat pipes are self-contained devices and can be used for collection and
transfer of energy in solar collectors. Solar collectors used for heating of liquids may
incorporate the evaporator sections of the heat pipes as part of the flat plate
collector, and the condenser section inserted in the storage tank containing the liquid
to be heated. The system therefore needs no piping or fittings between the storage
tank and the collector, and this reduces both the cost and the heat loss of the system.
If the working fluid of the heat pipes is chosen to have a low freezing point,
the collector may offer freeze protection (Ismail and Abogderah, 1998).
One of the first studies of heat pipes in solar applications was carried out
by Bienert and Wolf (1976). In this case the evaporator end of a heat pipe was
inserted in a flat-plate collector, and the condenser protruded into a water manifold
attached to the upper end of the collector. Their results were neither conclusive nor
optimistic. Since then numerous studies have been carried out, including theoretical
analysis and calculation (Franken, 1979; Hussein et al., 1999; Lu and Guo, 1984;
Ortabasi and Fehlner, 1979), experimental testing (Bairamov and Toiliev, 1981;
El-nasr et al., 1993; Ramsey, 1986; Ribot and McConnell, 1983; Riffat et al., 2000;
Terpstra and Van Veen, 1987; Zanardi, 1989), combined investigation through both
theoretical analysis and experimental trials (Ernst, 1981; Ismail and Abogderah,
1991, 1992a, b, 1998), as well as a number of applications in practice (Balzar et al.,
1996; Bong et al., 1993; Chun et al., 1999; Mathioulakis and Blessiotis, 2002). It was
found that most of the previous works involved with investigation of thermal
performance of different types of heat pipe solar collectors by using analytical,
numerical, or experimental methods. One of the major aims was to design suitable
structures or system layouts, as well as establish favorite operating conditions to
enable a high efficiency to be achieved. Of existing collector designs, evacuated tube
and flat plate collectors are most widely used and the former is usually found to be
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 517

most efficient for high temperature applications. Flat plate heat-pipe solar collectors,
on the other hand, have their own set of advantages, including simpler structure,
lower cost, easier manufacture, and simple operation.
The lower efficiency of flat plate collectors is mainly due to the heat loss via the
cover surface due to conduction and convection. Standard flat plate collectors have
efficiencies of typically 50% or less (Riffat et al., 2000), while evacuated devices
have efficiencies of about 50–80% (Ramsey, 1986; Ribot and McConnell, 1983;
Zanardi, 1989). It would be desirable to develop a new structure for flat plate
collectors that would overcome heat loss problems and allow a high efficiency to be
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achieved, while its capital cost still remains low.

This article introduces a novel flat plate heat pipe solar collector, termed
as ‘‘hybrid heat pipe solar collector.’’ This collector is expected to achieve a higher
efficiency, but with comparative capital cost, compared to normal flat plat heat
pipe solar collectors. One prototype of such kind of collector was constructed,
and an analytical model that is able to simulate heat transfer processes occurring
in the collector and calculate its efficiency, was developed based on the prototype
structure. Modeling and experimental testing of the collector were carried out for
three modes of operation, i.e., solar-only, solar–gas, and solar–gas–boiler combined,
and the results were used to estimate the efficiency of the collector and determine the
relation between the efficiency and general external parameter.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

A prototype of such a kind of heat-pipe collector has been constructed to allow

both solar and flue gas energies to be collected (Riffat et al., 2002), hence called
‘‘hybrid’’ type. Calculations have been carried out using an analytical model
previously developed by the School of the Built Environment, University
of Nottingham, to estimate the performance of heat pipes embedded in the
evaporator plate of the hybrid collector. Analytical simulation indicated that wicked
heat pipes had a lower heat transport performance than wickless heat pipes of the
same size. However, as the heat-pipe solar collector would be installed at a degree
of inclination relative to the horizontal, wicked heat pipes would offer the advantage
of assisting even distribution of the liquid over the inner surface of the pipes. Further
investigation showed that the geometry of the heat pipes is an important factor
influencing thermal performance. Of the geometries investigated, the circular heat
pipes type was shown to have a larger heat transport capacity than the rectangular
ones. It was therefore decided to use circular and wicked heat pipes as the basic
element of solar collector unit. In addition, 8 mm was found to be a suitable diameter
for this type of heat pipe.
The casing of the solar collector was constructed from aluminium framework,
comprising an insulated lower chamber and a top cover. The top cover consisted
of insulated, high performance double-glazing, or thermo-clear polycarbonate
sheets. The double-glazing had a low solar transmission of 0.5 but a smaller U
(overall heat transfer coefficient) value of 1.2 W/m2
 C, which would result in lower
solar absorption and lower convective and conductive heat losses. The thermo-clear
cover had a high solar transmission of 0.85 and a larger U value of 3.0 W/m2
 C,
 518 Riffat et al.
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Figure 1. Solar collector configuration.

which would result in higher solar absorption and relatively larger heat losses.
The bottom chamber of the enclosure contained a number of channels to allow
exhaust gas discharged from a boiler to pass through them to improve the efficiency
of the collectors, as well as provide back-up (or compensation) when solar
irradiation is unavailable (or low). Fibre-glass insulation was fitted beneath and
around the channels to reduce heat loss through the chamber. As heat from both the
sun and boiler exhaust gas is used, the unit is termed a ‘‘Hybrid Heat Pipe Solar
Collector.’’ Schematic diagrams showing the structure of the collector are given
in Figs. 1a–c.
The embedded panel included 20 heat pipes, and had a gross absorbing area
of 2.4 m2. The heat pipes had integrated bodies and therefore no physical separation
between the evaporators and condensers. The manifold was connected to the
condensers of the heat pipes using copper rods, which were drilled with co-axial
cylindrical cavities. Heat transfer between the condensers and the manifold was
largely dependent on the conductivity of the rods. The structure is shown
schematically in Fig. 2. Photograph of the collector is shown in Fig. 3.
The prototype collector was mounted outside a laboratory building of the
University of Nottingham, adjacent to a shed housing the boiler that was to be used
as part of heat source of a CHP system. The collector was co-operated with the
boiler to supply heat for the CHP system. It was intended to direct the exhaust flue
gas from the boiler across the flow channels fitted to the backside of the solar
collector to enhance its heat transfer, and provide compensation, or back up, when
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 519
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Figure 2. Structure design of the wicked heat pipe panel.

Figure 3. Prototype heat pipe solar collector.

 520 Riffat et al.

solar irradiation was low or unavailable. However, it was not possible to carry this
out in practice for safety reasons. In order to simulate the intended situation, a flue
gas simulator was used to generate hot air equivalent to gas flow. T-type
thermocouple probes were mounted on the inlet and outlet of the collector
to measure water temperature, and a single jet water meter was mounted on the
pipeline connected to the collector to measure water flow rate. A normal T-type
thermocouple was hung in air to measure outdoor temperature, and a pyranometer
was fixed to the absorber surface of the collector to measure instant global solar
radiation. Each of item measurement instrumentation was connected to a Datataker
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(DT 500) which acquired data from the measured points and transferred these
to a computer. The collector was connected to the main flow system that included
the boiler and CHP test rig. When CHP operation stopped, the boiler also ceased
operation. The layout of the integrated system, including the outdoor and indoor
parts, is shown in Figs. 4a and 4b.

3. ANALYTICAL MODEL SET-UP

The analytical model focused on the heat transfer processes in the prototype
heat pipe solar collector. In fact, heat transfers exist in three major parts of the
collector prototype, i.e., the top cover, the absorber (evaporator plate), and
the condenser/manifold. These heat transfers finally achieve balance themselves and
are inter-linked by a distributed temperature profile. In the modeling development,
a few assumptions were made in order to simplify the analysis, including:

. A steady state condition has been achieved and heat balance exists in each
component and whole area of the collector prototype.
. The absorber has uniform temperature distribution over its surface area,
such that a uniform heat input is exerted onto it.
. The top cover has uniform temperature distribution over its surface area,
such that a uniform solar irradiation strikes on its outer surface.
. There is no heat loss on the edge area of the absorber where the top cover and
the bottom chamber are covered, due to a good insulation applied.
. The multi-flue gas channels, which are adjacent to each other, are treated
as a continuous, straight channel.

3.1. Heat Transfer Process in the Top Cover

For a given collector area and total solar irradiation, the heat striking the top
cover surface is partly absorbed by the cover, partly transmitted through the cover
and reaching the absorber, and the remaining is reflected to the atmosphere. This
heat transfer process can be expressed as:
Qinc ¼ Qabs þ Qref þ Qtra ð1Þ
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 521

Solar
collector
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Shed for boiler

Condenser

(a)

CHP
system

(b)
Figure 4. Layout of the integrated hybrid solar collector/CHP system. (a) Outdoor part. (b)
Indoor part.
 522 Riffat et al.

The absorbed heat will be dispersed to the surroundings or (and) absorber by ways
of convection, conduction, or radiation, to achieve a heat balance relative to the top
cover. This balance may be expressed as:
Qabs ¼ Qtcab  Qtca ð2Þ
Heat dissipation to the surroundings occurs mainly by the combined effect
of conduction and convection. However, heat transfer between the top cover and
absorber may be complex. If the absorber chamber were perfectly evacuated, heat
transfer between the top cover and absorber would only be induced by radiation.
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If the chamber were not evacuated, heat transfer between the top cover and the
absorber will be a combined effect of conduction, convection, and radiation.

3.2. Heat Transfer Process in the Absorber (Evaporator) Plate

Heat reaching the absorber plate comes mainly from two sources: the sun and
the exhaust gas. Part of the heat will be transferred to the working fluid through the
flat plate and heat pipe wall, which causes the liquid to vaporise, and this is therefore
termed the effective heat input. The remainder will be dispersed to the environment
through the top cover and bottom casings, resulting in heat losses due to conduction,
convection, and radiation. If Qtcab is negative, the absorber has an upward heat
loss. If Qtcab is positive, the absorber has a heat addition from the top cover.
There are temperature differentials in the absorber area, which result in heat
transmission from the flat plate to the pipes, or from one part to another part of the
area. However, these differentials are small as both the plate and pipes are made
of copper—an excellent heat conductor. In order to simplify the thermal analysis,
the differentials are considered to be negligible and thus the absorber surface
is assumed to be at the same temperature over the whole area.
As the collector is fitted with channels allowing exhaust gas to pass through,
as shown in Fig. 1c, there will be heat transfer between the flue gas, absorber panel,
and surroundings. However, under the situation without gas flow, there will be heat
loss from the downside wall to surroundings, Qdwa. Thus, actual heat obtained
by the absorber (evaporator) plate is then expressed as:
Qab ¼ Qtra  Qtcab  Qdwa ð3Þ
In normal situations, the exhaust gas passes through a number of adjacent
rectangular channels and heat transfer occurs through the enclosure walls.
To simplify the analysis, the adjacent channels are treated as a continuous, straight
channel. The heat transfer between channel flow, absorber, and enclosure walls may
then be expressed as follows (Yang and Tao, 1998):
hf Aab
tf ab þ hf Adw
tf dw ¼ mf cp, f ðtf1  tf2 Þ ¼ Qf ab þ Qf dw ð4Þ
where
tfab is the log mean temperature difference between the flue gas and
absorber,
tfdw is the log mean temperature difference between the flue gas and
downside wall, and hf is the flue gas convective heat transfer coefficient and is largely
dependant on the flow of the flue gas in channels. Since this flow is normally
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 523

turbulent, hf may be computed using Dittus–Boelter correlation (Yang and Tao,

1998), which may be written as follows:
Nuf ¼ 0:023Re0:8 n
f Prf ð5Þ

If the gas flow is heated by the side-walls, then n ¼ 0.4. Otherwise, n ¼ 0.3.
The formula is most suitable for the situation with medium temperature difference,
i.e., 50 C or less, which matches the conditions for this application. In this case
the mean temperature of the gas flow is taken as the characteristic temperature, and
the inner diameter of the channel is taken as the characteristic length. For the
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rectangular channel, hydraulic diameter should be used.

It is difficult to solve the coupled equations governing the heat transfer between
the flue gas, absorber, and ambient, as several parameters are undetermined.
It is therefore necessary to assume values for some parameters, such as tf2, and use
an iterative method for the solution.
The heat obtained by the absorber (evaporator) plate may then be expressed
as follows:
Qob ¼ Qtrans þ Qtcab þ Qf ab ð6Þ
The heat obtained should be transferred to the heat pipes, causing evaporation of the
operating fluid inside the pipes. However, if the heat transport capacity of the heat
pipes is exceeded, then part of the heat will be dispersed to the surroundings via the
top cover and metal surface of the chamber, resulting in a change of temperature
over the absorber area.
To investigate the heat transfer of a heat pipe solar collector, it is necessary
to determine its heat transport limitation. The limit of the heat transport capacity for
a single heat pipe may be determined by using the analytical model developed
by Riffat S. B. et al. (2002). The maximum heat transport capacity of the collector
may then be obtained as:
Qmax ¼ nQlim ð7Þ
where n is the number of heat pipes included. If Qob is less than Qmax, then the heat
obtained will be transported without any restriction. However, if Qmax is less than
Qob, then part of the obtained heat will be dispersed to the surroundings, resulting in
reduced heat transportation from the absorber to condenser. In this case, the
temperature of the absorber surface would be adjusted automatically until a new
thermo-equilibrium is achieved.

3.3. Heat Transfer Processes in the Condensers and Manifold

The heat obtained from the absorber, Qob, will be transported to the cooling
fluid passing across the manifold through evaporation and condensation of the
working fluid in the heat pipes. There are several thermal resistances in this process,
namely, the evaporator wall resistance, the equivalent resistance of the working fluid
and wick in the evaporator, the vapor flow resistance, the equivalent resistance of the
working fluid and wick in the condenser, and the condenser wall resistance. These
 524 Riffat et al.

resistances can be calculated using the equations given in Dunn and Reay (1982).
The total resistance would be the sum of the individual resistances.
For a single heat pipe, heat transportation from the evaporator outer surface
to the condenser outer surface may be written as:

Qhp,i ¼
r2hp ðthp,evap  thp,cond Þ=Rhp ð8Þ

The heat will be transferred to the cooling liquid by heat conduction through
the copper rods and manifold wall, and heat convection between the manifold wall
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and the cooling liquid. The cooling liquid will be heated when flowing through
the manifold channel, which is tightly fixed to the copper rods and heat pipe
condensers by means of clamps. For an inlet temperature given as t0, a temperature
increase
t1, (t1t0), will be achieved after the fluid passes around the first heat pipe
due to heat absorption from the pipe. The fluid temperature increases gradually
along the flow direction due to continuous heat transfer from the parallel-array
of heat pipes. The heat transfer between a single heat pipe and the cooling liquid may
be expressed as:

Acon,i ðthp,cond  ðti1 þ ti Þ=2Þ

Qcon;i ¼ ¼ Cp,cl mcl ðti  ti1 Þ ¼ Qhp,i ð9Þ
con =kcon þ cop Acon =kcop Acop,av þ 1=hcl

where hcl is the convective heat transfer coefficient of the cooling fluid, which
is largely dependent on the velocity of fluid passing over the surface, and the
cross-sectional area, as well as the geometry of the flow channel. For the collector
indicated above, the flow of the cooling liquid flow and the manifold geometry are
shown schematically in Fig. 5. The flow may be treated as half of the annular flow.
To solve for the convective heat transfer coefficient, hcon, the channel needs to be
treated as an annular geometry rather than a semi-annular one, and correspondingly,
heat flow from the inner wall needs to be doubled to comply with this treatment.

a1
Manifold a2

Cooling liquid

Figure 5. Schematic diagram showing cooling liquid flow and manifold geometry in the
hybrid heat pipe solar collector—wicked type.
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 525

Heat transfer through the outer walls was negligible as a satisfactory insulation
was provided. For both situations, calculation of hcl could be carried out using
the annular flow model (Incropera Frank and De Witt David, 1997)
hcl Dhy,con
Nucl ¼ ð10Þ
kcon

Dhy,con ¼ Do,con  Di,con ð11Þ

where Di,con and Do,con are the hydraulic diameter of the internal and external wall
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of the equivalent annular flow channel, respectively. Cooling liquid flow in the
manifold is taken as fully developed laminar flow, which has a Reynolds number
less than 400 due to its very low velocity and the relatively large cross-sectional area.
Hence, Nucl is known as a constant for the given geometry (Frank and De Witt
David, 1997).
For a single heat pipe, given the inlet temperature ti1 and the outlet
temperature ti may be obtained by solving Eq. (11). For the whole condenser/
manifold configuration, the overall heat transfer may be expressed as:
Qcon ¼ Qcon,1 þ Qcon,2 þ


þ Qcon,n ¼ Cp,cl mcl ðtn  t0 Þ ð12Þ
where Qcon should be equal to Qob according to the principle of energy balance.
Equations (8)–(12) may be used to obtain solutions for the outlet temperature and
the mean temperature of the cooling water, as well as the temperatures in different
parts of the heat pipe panel.

3.4. Numerical Procedure

The three heat transfer processes described previously are actually inter-linked,
and hence an iterative numerical procedure is implemented for the solution as stated
below:

1. Given the collector configuration, geometrical and thermodynamic param-

eters of the collector unit are determined.
2. Given the incident radiation and ambient temperature, the heat striking the
absorber is determined.
3. Given the manifold configuration, as well as the cooling liquid flow
condition, geometrical, thermodynamic, and flow parameters of the cooling
fluid are determined.
4. Assuming an absorber temperature tab, heat analysis is carried out as
follows:

. Heat balance of the top cover could be analysed by using Eqs. (1) and (2),
which results in the surface temperature of the top cover.
. Heat balance of the absorber (evaporator) plate could be analysed using
Eqs. (3)–(7), which results in the absorber heat gain, Qab.
. Heat balance of the heat pipes, and condenser/manifold pair could
be analyzed using Eqs. (8)–(12), which results in the heat gain of the
 526 Riffat et al.

cooling water passing through the manifold, as well as the temperature

layout in different areas of collector.

5. If Qab  Qcon > 1 (error allowance), then increase ts by 0.1 C, and return
to step 4 for recalculation.
6. If Qab  Qcon < 1 (error allowance), then decrease ts by 0.1 C, and return
to step 4 for a re-calculation.
7. If 1 (Qab  Qcon)  1, heat balances in the whole system, as well
as different areas of the system, are achieved.
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8. Calculating the cooling water temperature at the outlet and different points
along the flow channel, as well as the temperatures at different areas of the
collector.
9. Program stops.

3.5. Calculation of the Collector Efficiency

The data obtained by running the computer program could be used to evaluate
the thermal performance of a solar collector. For a normal solar collector,
its performance is usually evaluated using efficiency  which is defined as the ratio
of the heat taken from the manifold by the cooling liquid to the incident irradiation
striking the collector absorber. However, in the case of the hybrid solar collector,
another efficiency, 1, will also be used for performance evaluation. This efficiency
(1) is defined as the ratio of the heat taken from the manifold by the cooling liquid
to the sum of the incident irradiation striking the collector absorber and the heat
from exhaust gas. In this case, exhaust gas heat means the potentially available
sensible heat contained in the exhaust gas, which is measured relative to the
temperature of the ambient air, and may be expressed as:
Qf ¼ Cp, f f Vf ðtf ,i  ta Þ ð13Þ

 and 1 vary with a number of external parameters, including global solar

irradiation In, ambient temperature ta, as well as cooling fluid inlet temperature
t0 and mass flow rate m. These parameters may be grouped into a general external
parameter (x), termed (tmeanta)/In; whereby tmean is the average temperature of the
cooling fluid and may be written as:
ðt0 þ tn Þ
tmean ¼ ð14Þ
2
 and 1 are usually expressed as the function of x, i.e., (tmeanta)/In, as follows:
 
tmean  ta
 ¼  0  1 ð15Þ
In
 
tmean  ta
1 ¼ 01  11 ð16Þ
In
where 0 (01) and 1 (11) are the collector characteristic parameters.
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 527

In addition to external conditions, collector structures, i.e., internal conditions,

also have impact on performance. The heat pipes and absorber plate are the major
components imposing an effect on collector efficiency. For the hybrid heat pipe solar
collector, the absorber is incorporated with a total of 20 wicked heat pipes
of diameter of 8 mm. Each of the pipes was found to have a heat transport capacity
of 120 W based on the investigation carried out by Riffat S. B. et al. (2002). Thus the
whole panel would have an overall heat transport capacity of 2400 W, which
is higher than the actual solar input (less than 2200 W). These analyses demonstrate
that the heat pipes selected allow the solar energy received to be transported without
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restriction under any circumstance of operation.

The collector under consideration uses a coating material, called Maxorb-Nickel
foil, on its absorber surfaces. The material has solar absorptivity of 0.95–0.99, and
a long-wave emittance of 0.08–0.11 (Yagoub, 1999). These are very favorable to
solar absorption and act to enhance collector efficiency.
The top cover is another important component influencing collector perfor-
mance. A top cover is usually a clear and transparent material, which has a high
transmittance and a low U (heat transfer coefficient) value. Two top cover
configurations are investigated in this section and the results are presented in the
next section. These include:

. A double-glazing cover fitted on an un-evacuated chamber.

. A 10 mm polycarbonate cover fitted on an un-evacuated chamber.

The efficiency of the hybrid solar collector is also influenced by the channel
geometry and flue gas properties, such as mass flow rate, and inlet and outlet
temperatures. Both  and 1 are used to evaluate the performance of the collector.
However, to enable performance comparison between normal collectors and the
hybrid one,  is normally used as the major index.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Simulation Results

The performance of the hybrid heat pipe solar collector was simulated using
the model developed. The top covers were designed with 2 different options,
i.e., double-glazing or 10 mm polycarbonate sheet, and their solar optical as well as
other thermal parameters are given in Table 1. The characteristic parameters of the
heat pipes are detailed in Table 2.
The simulation was based on three modes of operation, i.e., solar-only
operation, solar/exhaust gas combined operation, and solar, exhaust gas, and
boiler combined operation. The simulation conditions are outlined in Table 3.
For solar-only operation,  vs. (tmeanta)/In relations are shown in Fig. 6.
Although the polycarbonate cover has a higher overall heat transfer coefficient
U value (3 W/m2. C) than the double-glazing (1.1 W/m2. C), which may lead to
a larger heat loss to the ambient, the collector with the polycarbonate cover still
performed better than the one with the double-glazing cover. This was due to the
 528 Riffat et al.

Table 1. Specifications of the top covers and their solar optical and thermal parameters.

 tc tc reftc "tc U, W/m2  C

Parameter (transmit.) (absorpt.) (reflectivity) (emmitance) Ra, m2  C/W

Cover condition
1. Double-glazing cover 0.5 0.21 0.29 0.88 1.2
with a chamber 0.18
un-evacuated
2. 10 mm polycarbonate 0.85 0.07 0.08 0.88 3
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cover with a 0.18

un-evacuated chamber

higher solar transmittance (0.85) of the polycarbonate compared to the double-

glazing (0.49) leading to greater heat absorption. This demonstrates the greater
impact of the solar transmittance on the heat efficiency than the U value.
For solar/exhaust gas combined operation, two efficiencies,  and 1, were
calculated based on the polycarbonate cover, and the results are shown in Fig. 7.
Compared to the case of solar-only operation,  increased by around 40% and
achieved 100–120%. This demonstrates that utilising waste heat from the exhaust
gas could significantly enhance the collector efficiency. The other efficiency
parameter, 1, was still low (around 35–45%), when the waste heat from the
exhaust gas was considered as a part of heat input.
In the case of the solar, exhaust gas, and boiler combined operation, the
simulation conditions are assumed to be the same as that of the experimental
conditions in order to facilitate the comparison between the theoretical and
experimental results. Two efficiencies,  and 1, were simulated, and the results are
shown in Fig. 8. Compared to the case of solar/gas combined operation,  decreased
by around 60% and dropped to 25–50%, and 1 dropped to even lower level (around
5–15%). This demonstrates that increasing the inlet water temperature by the boiler
would lead to a significant reduction in the collector efficiency.

4.2. Experimental Results

Tests were carried out for collectors with a double-glazing cover and with
a polycarbonate cover under three modes of operation, i.e., solar-only, solar/exhaust
gas combined as well as solar, gas, and boiler combined. All the tests were carried
out under the real weather conditions in order to provide a realistic evaluation of the
collector performance. For the collector with a polycarbonate cover, tests were
carried out on three separate days in order to examine the reliability and
repeatability of its performance. The collector with the polycarbonate cover was
selected for this trial as it is the one most likely to be accepted for future application.
It was found that the collector system was unsteady during the first hour
operation, as part of the collected heat was used to warm up the collector body.
To observe the collector’s real performance and enable comparison between
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Table 2. Summary of heat pipes and absorber panel parameters.

Absorptivity of absorber surface (abs) 0.95 Number of heat pipes 20

Reflectivity of absorber surface (refab) 0.05 Diameter of heat pipe(outer) in 0.008
evaporator section (dhp,evap, m)
Emitance of absorber surface ("ab) 0.1 Length of evaporator (lhp,evap, m) 1.7
Absorber area (Aab) 2.4 Length of condenser (lhp,con, m) 0.2
Unshaded absorber area (Aab, r) 2.21 Length of adiabatic section (lhp, adia, m) 0.07
Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector

Air heat resistance of top cover 0.12 Diameter of heat pipe(outer) 0.008 for wicked
inner surface (Rtc,i, m2. C/W) in condenser section (dhp,o, m) 0.02 for wickless
Air heat resistance of top cover outer 0.06 Thermal conductivity of heat pipe 401
surface (Rtc,o, m2. C/W) wall (khp,w, W/m2. C)
Thermal conductivity of insulation 0.005 Thickness of heat pipe wall (hp,w, m) 0.00376
layer (kins, W/m2. C)
Thickness of insulation layer (ins, m) 0.025 Thermal conductivity of liquid film 0.5 for wicked
on heat pipe inner wall (khp,lw, W/m2. C) 0.68 for wickless
Thermal conductivity of downside 177 Diameter of vapor flow cross section 3.752e  03
wall (kdw, W/m2. C) in evaporator (dvap,evap, m)
Thickness of dowside wall (dw, m) 0.002 Diameter of vapor flow cross 3.752e  3 for wicked
section (dvap,con, m) 1.094e  3 for wickless
529
 530 Riffat et al.

Table 3. Summary of the external parameters.

Parameter In (W/m2) ta ( C) mcl (kg/h) tcl1 ( C) Vf (m3/s) tgas, in

Case
Solar only 700 9 168 10–25 — —
Solar–gas 720 11 168 9–24 0.035 92
Solar–gas–boiler 400 11 168 88–100 0.035 114
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Efficiency −(tmean−ta)/In relation – Comparison of different covers

2 (wicked type)
80
Double-glazing
y = −250.53x + 78.088
Polycarbonate
75 R2 = 0.8969

70
Efficiency,%

65

60
y = −154.88x + 57.28
R2 = 0.7483
55

50
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035

(tmean−ta)/In ° 2
, C.m /W

Figure 6. (tmeanta)/In relation—Comparison of different covers (wicked type).

the simulation and experimental results, test results were recorded one hour after the
system started up. To remain at a stable condition for collector operation, the volume
of the system is made sufficiently large (about 8 m3) compared to the measured flow
rate (2.8 L/m) through the collector. Moreover, to avoid the random error caused
by instant measurement values, such as the variation in the solar irradiation, average
values for the measured parameters in 10 min interval were used in efficiency
calculation. Under these conditions, the operation of the collector system can be
treated as quasi-steady and their testing efficiencies would become comparable with
the simulation results.
In solar-only operation, no flue gas flowed through the collectors. The heating
processes for the collectors with the double-glazing cover and with the polycarbonate
cover were recorded to show the variation of the solar irradiation, water inlet
and outlet temperatures, and the outdoor temperature during the periods of testing.
The thermal efficiencies of the collectors were calculated using the experimental
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 531

Efficiency − (tmean−ta)/In relation for solar–gas co–operated case

120

100 y = −587.71x + 112.67

2
R = 0.9848 eff

eff1
80
Efficiency , %
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60

40
y =−306.8x + 45.048
R 2 = 0.9554

20

0
0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.02 0.024

(tmean−ta)/In, °C.m2/W

Figure 7.  (1)(tmeanta)/In relations for solar–gas co-operated case.

Efficiency − (tmean−ta)/In relation for the solar, gas, and boiler co-operated case
55

50

45

40
y =−693.82x + 183.26
35 R2 = 0.8979
Efficiency,%

30
eff
25
eff1
20

15
y = −152.47x + 40.273
R2 = 0.8979
10

0
0.195 0.2 0.205 0.21 0.215 0.22 0.225
(tmean−ta)/In, °C.m2/W

Figure 8.  (1)(tmeanta)/In relations for solar, gas, and boiler combined operation.
 532 Riffat et al.

Efficiency − (tmean−ta)/In relation for the collector with double-glazing cover

(solar only)
45

40
Efficiency, %
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35

30
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

(tmean−ta)/In, °C.m2/W

Figure 9. (tmeanta)/In relation for the collector with double-glazing cover (solar only
operation).

results, and indicated as a function of the general external parameter x,

i.e., (tmeanta)/In, as shown in Figs. 9 and 10. For the two collectors investigated,
the efficiency decreased when (tmeanta)/In was increased. However, it may
also be seen that there are several measurement points scattered away from the
trend-lines, and hence root mean square errors in the range 0.8–0.9 exist for
the mathematical treatment. This may be caused by the slow response of the system
due to its massive volume. It was also found that the double-glazed collector and the
polycarbonate-covered collector had efficiencies in the range 30–45%, and 40–60%,
respectively. This indicated that the polycarbonate-covered collector performed
better than the double-glazed collector owing to the higher solar transmittance of the
former. It was therefore decided to use a polycarbonate cover in the final version
of the prototype.
In solar and exhaust gas combined operation, the heating processes for the
collector with a polycarbonate cover were recorded along with the solar irradiation,
inlet and outlet temperatures of the water flow, and the outdoor temperature.
Two efficiencies,  and 1, were calculated using the test results, and are also
indicated as a function of the general external parameter x, i.e., (tmeanta)/In, in
Fig. 11. Compared to the solar-only operation,  was approximately 20% higher,
and achieved 60–85%. This again indicates that utilising waste heat from the exhaust
gas could enhance the collector efficiency. The other efficiency parameter, 1,
was still rather low, i.e., 20–35%.
In solar, exhaust gas, and boiler combined operation, a 70 kW boiler was used
to raise the temperature of water to 90–100 C in short duration. Water was
circulated in the system at a substantial flow rate, around 60 L/m, to provide the heat
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 533

Efficiency −(tmean−ta)/In relation for the collector with polycarbonate cover

(solar only)
60

55

50
Efficiency, %
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45

40
test 1
test 2
test 3
35

30
0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045
(tmean−ta)/In, °C.m /W
2

Figure 10. (tmeanta)/In relation for the collector with polycarbonate cover (solar only
operation).

Efficiency − (tmean−ta)/In relation for the collector with polycarbonate cover

(solar–flue gas combined operation)
90

80

70

60
Efficiency, %

50 eff, test 1
eff1, test 1
eff, test 2
40 eff1, test 2
eff, test 3
eff1, test 3
30 P ( ff t t 1)

20

10

0
0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.02 0.024 0.028

(tmean−ta)/In, °C.m /W2

Figure 11.  (1)(tmeanta)/In relation for the collector with polycarbonate cover (solar–gas
combined operation).
 534 Riffat et al.

Efficiency − (tmean−ta)/In relation

(collector co-operated with a boiler)
100

90

80 eff - test1
eff1- test1
eff - test2
70 eff1- test2
eff - test3
Efficiency, %

60 eff1- test3
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50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
(tmean−ta)/In, °C.m2/W

Figure 12.  (1)(tmeanta)/In relation for the collector with polycarbonate cover (solar–gas
combined operation).

required for a CHP system; the flow rate of water passing across the collector
manifold was only 2.8 L/m. The collector was connected to the return flow pipes
to allow part of the return water passing through the manifold to absorb heat from
the solar insolation and exhaust gas. This part of water was then merged with the
remainder before being delivered to the boiler for further heating. Tests were carried
out at similar methods used previously and results for efficiencies are shown
in Fig. 12. When the boiler was not operating, the value of (tmeanta)/In was lower
(below 0.05) and the efficiencies,  and 1, were relatively higher ( in the range
60–90% and 1 10–30%). Once the boiler was started, the value of (tmeanta)/In
increased immediately, and the efficiencies fell accordingly. At steady state
operation,  was in the range of 20–25%, and 1 5–10%. This indicates that
combined operation would result in a significant reduction of the collector efficiency
due to the increased inlet water temperature, which in turn led to reduced heat
transfer between the collector absorber and the condenser.

4.3. Comparison of the Modeling and Experimental Results

Comparison was carried out between the modeling and experimental results
for the hybrid heat-pipe solar collector, for each of the three operation modes.
The results of these comparisons are summarised in Figs. 13–15, respectively.
For each mode of operation, the testing efficiencies are the average values of
the efficiencies of three separate tests.
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 535

Comparison of the modeling and testing results – solar only operation

80

70

double-glazing, modeling results

Polycarbonate, modeling results
double-glazing, testing tesults
60 polycarbonate, testing results
Efficiency,%
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50

40

30
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

(tmean−ta)/In, °C.m /W
2

Figure 13. Comparison of the modeling and testing results for solar only operation.

Comparison of the modeling and testing results – combined operation

by solar and flue gas
120

100

theoretical value, eff

theoretical value, eff1
testing value, eff
80 testing value, eff1
Efficiency, 100%

60

40

20

0
0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.02 0.024 0.028
(tmean−ta)/In,°C.m2/W

Figure 14. Comparison of the modeling and testing results for solar and flue gas combined
operation.
 536 Riffat et al.

Comparison of the modeling and testing results – combined operation

by solar, flue gas, and boiler
120

theoretical value, eff

theoretical value, eff1
testing value, eff
100 testing value, eff1

80
Efficiency, %
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60

40

20

0
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24
(tmean−ta)/In,°C.m2/W

Figure 15. Comparison of the modeling and testing results for solar, flue gas, and boiler
combined operation.

For solar-only operation, solar/gas combined operation, or solar, gas, and boiler
combined operation, the theoretical efficiencies are always higher than
the corresponding testing efficiencies. The differences are in the range 10–20%.
The reasons for this were investigated, and it was found that a number of factors
contributed to the discrepancy. First, the heat pipe panel was subject to a small edge
heat loss as it was fixed onto a metal frame that would conduct part of the absorbed
heat away from the panel. Second, the insulation of the chamber and manifold was
not as good as expected, which contributed to an increased heat loss. Finally, several
assumptions were made when developing the model, e.g., an identical temperature
layout was assumed to exist on the absorber area, and a direct straight through
flow channel was assumed to represent the actual multiple return channels for
the simplicity of the analysis. These would all contribute to the difference between
the model and experimental results.
Even so, the modeling results and experimental data showed a very similar trend
for efficiency variation. Overall, efficiencies (either  or 1) decreased with increasing
(tmeanta)/In, but rates of variation differed for the three operation modes.
Combined solar/gas and boiler operation showed the highest rate of decline, but
little difference is observed for the other two modes.
Although differences existed between the modeling and experimental results,
the model was able to predict the collector performance if a correlation factor
was provided. This factor was determined by dividing the experimental value by
the modeling value under the same (tmeanta)/In, and was still a function
of (tmeanta)/In, as shown in Figs. 16–18 for the three modes of operation.
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 537

Correlation factors – (tmean−ta)/In relation – solar only operation

0.9
cfg,correction factor for double-
glazing cover
0.85 cfp,correction factorfor
y = 309.67x2 − 19.172x + 0.8959 polycarbonate cover

0.8
Correlation factor

0.75
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0.7

0.65

0.6
y = 245.35x2 − 11.754x + 0.7366

0.55

0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
(tmean−ta)/In,°C.m2/W

Figure 16. Correlation factor vs. (tmeanta)/In relation for solar only operation.

Correlation factors – (tmean−ta)/In relation

—solar–gas combined operation
0.9

0.85
cfe,correction factor of eff
0.8
cfe1,correction factor of eff1
Correlation factor

0.75

0.7

0.65

y = 1445x2 − 50.168x + 1.0492

0.6

y = 696.8x2 − 28.164x + 0.8436

0.55

0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
(tmean−ta)/In,°C.m /W
2

Figure 17. Correlation factor vs. (tmeanta)/In relation for solar–gas combined operation.
 538 Riffat et al.

Correlation factors – (tmean−ta)/In relation — solar, gas, and boiler combined

operation
1

0.9 cfe, correction factor for eff

cfe1, correction factor for eff1

0.8

0.7
Correlation factor

0.6
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0.5

0.4 y = 29.443x2 − 6.6998x + 0.7611

0.3

0.2 y = 40.668x 2 − 7.6841x + 0.6277

0.1

0
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24

(tmean−ta)/In,°C.m2/W

Figure 18. Correlation factor vs. (tmeanta)/In relation for solar, gas, and boiler combined
operation.

5. CONCLUSIONS

A novel flat plate heat-pipe solar collector, namely, a hybrid heat pipe solar
collector, has been designed and constructed. The collector was designed to allow
heat from both solar and boiler exhaust gas to be collected with the aim of improving
the thermal performance of the collector while keeping the capital cost low.
The efficiency of the collector was found 20–30% collectors.
A theoretical model was developed to analyse the heat transfers occurring in the
collector. The heat transfers in different areas of the collectors were investigated, and
these were linked together by a set of heat balance equations. In the model,
two efficiencies were defined to evaluate the thermal performance of the collector.
The efficiencies were found to be affected by collector configuration, including the
heat pipes and absorber panel, the top cover, as well as the external conditions,
including global solar irradiation, ambient temperature, cooling fluid inlet
temperature, and mass flow rate. The external conditions could be described using
a general external parameter (x).
Laboratory tests were carried out to validate the model predictions and provide
experimental results on the thermal performance of the collectors. For the hybrid
heat-pipe solar collector, a set of tests was carried out under real climatic conditions
by connecting it to a CHP/boiler system. Three modes of operation, i.e., solar-only,
combined solar/exhaust gas, and combined solar, exhaust gas, and boiler operation,
were examined.
 Novel Hybrid Heat-Pipe Solar Collector 539

Modeling and experimental results were compared. For the hybrid heat-pipe
solar collector under each of the three operation modes, the theoretical efficiencies
were always higher than the corresponding experimental efficiencies. The differences
were in the range 10–20%, and the reasons for this were mainly due to several
factors, including edge heat loss, unsatisfactory insulation, and the simplified
assumptions made in the model formulation. The model was able to predict
the collector performance if an appropriate correlation factor was provided.
The factor was determined by dividing the experimental result by the corresponding
model prediction under the same conditions, and was still shown as a function
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of the general external parameter (x). These correlations could be applied to any
circumstance for this type of collector.

NOMENCLATURE

A Area (m2)
Cp Specific heat (J/kg  C)
d Diameter (m)
h Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2  C)
In Global solar irradiation (W/m2)
k Thermal conductivity (W/m  C)
V Volume flow rate (m3/s)
L Length (m)
m Mass flow rate (kg/s)
n Number of the heat pipes included
Nu Nusselt number
Pr Prandtl number
Q Heat (W)
r Radius (m)
R Heat resistance (m2  C/W)
t Temperature ( C)
U Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2
 C)
x General external parameter
 Thickness (m)
 Density of air (kg/m3)
 Collector thermal efficiency—term 1
1 Collector thermal efficiency—term 2

Subscripts

0 Manifold inlet
1 Inlet
2 Outlet
a Ambient
ab Absorber
abs Absorption
 540 Riffat et al.

adia Adiabatic section

av Average
cl Cooling liquid
con Condenser
cop Copper rod
cond Condensation section
dw Downside wall
eq Equivalent
evap Evaporation section
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ew Enclosure wall
f Flue gas
gas Gas from boiler
hp Heat pipe
hy Hydraulic
i Inside
inc Incident radiation
ins Insulation layer
lim Limit
max Maximum
mean Average value
o Outside
ob Obtained
ref Reflection
sa Still air in the enclosure
tc Top cover
tra Transmission
vap Vapour

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support provided for this
research by the European Commission, under the Energy, Environmental, and
Sustainable Development Programme.

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Received May 1, 2004

Accepted September 8, 2004