100 Engineering Principles

100 Engineering Principles
Abstract
This section discusses the engineering principles and failure modes and stresses for
different shaped vessels, including cylindrical and spherical shells and hemispher-
ical, ellipsoidal, torispherical, and conical heads. Equations for calculating stresses
are also given, including stresses from internal and external pressure, discontinuity
and thermal stresses, and stresses at openings.
Contents Page
110 Introduction 100-3

111 Failure Modes
112 Loads
113 Summary of Stresses
114 Primary Stresses
115 Secondary Stresses
116 Peak Stresses
120 Stresses in Cylindrical Shells 100-9
121 General
122 Cylindrical Shells Under Internal Pressure
130 Stresses in Formed and Flat Components 100-12
131 Spherical Shells and Hemispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure
132 Ellipsoidal Heads Under Internal Pressure
133 Torispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure
134 Flat Plate Closures
135 Conical Sections Under Internal Pressure
140 Discontinuity Stresses 100-19
141 General
142 Calculation of Discontinuity Stresses
143 Discontinuities in Cylindrical Shells
Chevron Corporation 100-1 March 1990

100 Engineering Principles Pressure Vessel Manual
144 Shell-to-Hemispherical Head Junction

145 Shell-to-Ellipsoidal Head Junction
146 Shell-to-Torispherical Head Junction
147 Shell-to-Cone Junction Without Knuckle
148 Concentric Toriconical Reducers
150 Stress Concentrations 100-22
151 General
152 Stresses at Openings
153 Reinforced Openings
154 Stresses from Locally Applied External Loads
155 Thermal Stresses
160 Stresses in Pressure Vessel Shells Due to External Pressure 100-28
161 General
162 Cylindrical Shells Subjected to External Pressure
163 Spherical Shells Subjected to External Pressure
164 Elliptical and Torispherical Heads Subjected to External Pressure
165 Conical Heads and Transitions Subjected to External Pressure
March 1990 100-2 Chevron Corporation

Pressure Vessel Manual 100 Engineering Principles
110 Introduction
Pressure vessels must be designed to resist all potential modes of failure under all
combinations of internal and external loads that the vessel will be subjected to
under normal operating conditions. This section gives a basic understanding of the
different failure modes that can occur, the various loadings that a pressure vessel
can be subjected to that could cause it to fail, and how these loads develop the
stresses in the pressure vessel shell.
111 Failure Modes

The major potential failure modes that must be considered for the design of a pres-
sure vessel are:
• Excessive plastic deformation (including creep or stress-rupture at high
temperatures)
• Excessive elastic deformation or buckling
• Ductile bursting
• Brittle fracture
• Fatigue
112 Loads
The forces applied to a vessel and its structural attachments are called loads, and
the first requirement in vessel design is to determine the loads and the conditions to
which the vessel will be subjected in operation.
The major loads acting on a pressure vessel are caused by:
1. Internal pressure
2. External pressure
3. Weight of vessel and contents (including internal components that transmit
loads to the pressure vessel)
4. Wind and seismic forces
5. Connecting piping and the weight of external appurtenances (platforms, etc.)
6. Differential thermal expansion (or temperature gradients)
7. Cyclic forces
These forces must be considered during design in order to prevent failure from any
of the failure modes mentioned earlier.
The loads are usually static, or the amplitude and frequency of their fluctuations are
such that they can be considered to be so. However, cyclic loads of sufficient magni-
tude can result in a fatigue failure, and it may be necessary to consider them in the

design of a pressure vessel. For example, pressure fluctuations that exceed 20% of
the design pressure and cyclic temperature gradients greater than 50°F between
adjacent locations can cause fatigue.
113 Summary of Stresses

A pressure vessel is subjected to various loads which develop stresses that are cate-
gorized by the ASME Code as:
• Primary
• Secondary
• Peak
The maximum allowable design stress for a pressure vessel is based on the strength
of the material. Stress limits depend on the category of the stress and its relation-
ship to the various potential failure modes. Figure 100-1 classifies typical stresses
in a vessel.
Under certain conditions, each category or combination of stresses can cause the
vessel to fail in a different way. For this reason, the limits for each category of
stress are related to the potential failure modes. Primary stress limits are set to
prevent deformation and ductile burst. Primary plus secondary stress limits are set
to prevent plastic deformation leading to collapse. Peak stress limits are set to
prevent fatigue failure due to cyclic loading.
Because of differences between the simplified equations used in the codes and the
complexity of the theoretical equations, a factor of safety is applied to various mate-
rial properties used to determine allowable stress values. These safety factors differ
according to the specific criteria of each section or division of the Code and
according to the required levels for the actual stresses (see Section 200 of this
manual).
Since each stress category requires a different safety factor to protect against
failure, the designer has to evaluate each type of stress to achieve the most
economical and safe design.
114 Primary Stresses

Primary stresses are those developed in each component of a vessel due to
sustained internal and external loads. The fundamental characteristic of primary
stresses is that they are not self-limiting. In other words, no redistribution of load or
reduction of stress will occur despite yielding within the component; primary
stresses are not reduced by the deformations they produce. Therefore, primary
stresses that exceed the yield strength of the material will cause failure either by
gross plastic deformation or by bursting.
Primary stresses are the most significant stresses that occur in pressure vessels, and
their limits for design are set both to prevent plastic deformation and to provide a
factor of safety against bursting.

Fig. 100-1 Pressure Vessels: Classification of Stresses for Some Typical Cases (ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2,
Table 4-120.1) (1 of 2) Courtesy of ASME
Vessel
Component Location Origin of Stress Type of Stress Classification
Cylindrical or Shell plate remote Internal pressure General membrane. Pm
spherical shell from discontinuities Gradient through plate Q
thickness
Axial thermal gradient Membrane Q
Bending Q
Junction with head Internal pressure Membrane PL
or flange Bending -Q
Any shell or Any section across External load or General membrane aver- Pm
head entire vessel moment, or internal aged across full section.
pressure Stress component perpen-
dicular to cross section
External load or Bending across full section. Pm
moment Stress component perpen-
dicular to cross section
Near nozzle or other External load moment, Local membrane. PL
opening or internal pressure Bending. Q
Peak (fillet or corner) F
Any location Temperature differ- Membrane Q
ence between shell and Bending Q
head
Dished head or Crown Internal pressure Membrane Pm
conical head Bending Pb
Knuckle or junction Internal pressure Membrane PL
to shell Bending Q
Flat head Center region Internal pressure Membrane Pm
Bending Pb
Junction to shell Internal pressure Membrane PL
Bending Q

Fig. 100-1 Pressure Vessels: Classification of Stresses for Some Typical Cases (ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2,
Table 4-120.1) (2 of 2) Courtesy of ASME
Vessel
Component Location Origin of Stress Type of Stress Classification
Perforated Typical ligament in a Pressure Membrane (average Pm
head or shell uniform pattern through cross section).
Bending (average through Pb
width of ligament, but
gradient through plate)
Peak F
Isolated or a typical Pressure Membrane Q
ligament Bending F
Peak F
Nozzle Cross section Internal pressure or General membrane Pm
perpendicular to external load or (average across full
nozzle axis moment section). Stress component
perpendicular to section
External load or Bending across nozzle Pm
moment section
Nozzle wall Internal pressure General membrane Pm
Local membrane PL
Bending Q
Peak F
Differential expansion Membrane Q

Bending Q
Peak F
Cladding Any Differential expansion Membrane F
Bending F
Any Any Radial temperature Equivalent linear stress Q
distribution Nonlinear portion of stress F
distribution
Any Any Any Stress concentration (notch F
effect)
Primary stresses are further divided into primary membrane stresses and primary
bending stresses because different stress limits are applied for design, depending on
the type of primary stress.
Primary Membrane Stress

Primary membrane stresses are tensile or compressive stresses that are essentially
uniform through the entire cross-section of a pressure vessel component. Conse-
quently, gross plastic deformation will occur when these stresses exceed the yield

strength of the material. Examples of primary membrane stresses in pressure vessel

shells are:
• Circumferential and longitudinal stress attributable to internal pressure
• Longitudinal stress in horizontal vessels due to bending between saddle
supports
• Axial compression due to the weight of a vertical vessel
• Stresses in a nozzle neck in the area of reinforcement due to internal pressure
and to external forces and moments attributable to piping connections. (Excep-
tions are those related to discontinuity effects.)
• Axial tensile and compressive stresses due to wind and earthquake loads
The design limit for primary membrane stresses is the maximum allowable design
stress for the material of construction at the design temperature. Continuous
primary membrane stresses cannot exceed two-thirds of the yield strength.
However, stresses that act intermittently and for relatively short durations (for
example, those attributable to wind and earthquake loads) can be increased to
1.2 times the maximum allowable design stress.
Primary Bending Stresses

Primary bending stresses vary from tension to compression through the cross-
section of a pressure vessel shell component. They are generally at a maximum at
the surface. Higher average stresses are required to produce failure by plastic defor-
mation in bending than for uniform tensile or compressive loads. Bending stresses
are most likely to be the predominant primary stress in the following cases:
1. The bending stress in the center of a flat head.
2. The bending stress between the ligaments of closely spaced openings.
The stress limits for components, when primary bending stresses predominate, are
1.5 times the maximum allowable design stress for the material of construction at
the design temperature. This higher stress limit is usually incorporated into the
design rules and equations for components that conform to the acceptable design
details depicted in the ASME Code. The allowable design stress can be multiplied
by 1.5 only if a stress analysis is made of the component.
Local Primary Membrane Stress

Local primary membrane stress is a subcategory of primary membrane stress that is
developed by sustained internal and external loads similar to primary membrane
stresses. A local primary membrane stress exceeds the stress limit for a primary
membrane stress, but as the higher stress is localized it can be redistributed to the
surrounding portions of the pressure vessel if yielding occurs. Although the redistri-
bution of stress upon localized yielding normally prevents failure of the pressure
vessel, the plastic deformation associated with such yielding is unacceptable. There-
fore, the stress limit for a localized stress is set at 1.5 times the maximum allowable

stress of the material of construction at the design temperature, which can be as

high as the minimum yield strength.
In order to prevent excessive elastic distortion, a local primary membrane stress is
not permitted to extend in a longitudinal direction more than R(t)1/2, where R is the
radius of curvature of the vessel component and t is its thickness. Furthermore, indi-
vidual regions of localized stress must be separated by at least 2.5 × R(t)1/2.
Examples of local primary membrane stresses in pressure vessels are:
• Membrane stress at head-to-shell junctions.
• Membrane stress at conical-transition-to-cylindrical-shell junctions.
• Membrane stress in the shell at nozzles.
• Membrane stress at vessel supports or external attachments.
115 Secondary Stresses

Secondary stresses differ from primary stresses because they are self-limiting.
Secondary stresses develop at structural discontinuities.
Examples of secondary stresses are:
1. Bending stresses at head-to-shell junctions.
2. Bending stress at conical-transition-to-cylindrical-shell junction.
3. Bending stress in the shell at nozzles.
4. Bending stress at vessel supports and external attachments.
5. Thermal stresses produced by temperature gradients in the shell, or by differ-
ences in temperature between the nozzle and shell.
Unlike primary stresses, secondary stresses are reduced in magnitude by the local
yielding, before gross plastic deformation or bursting can occur. The first applica-
tion of load during hydrotest will generally suffice to significantly reduce the
secondary stresses in a pressure vessel, but subsequent load applications could
further reduce the secondary stresses.
The stress limit for secondary stresses is 3.0 times the maximum allowable design
stress for the material of construction at the design temperature. Therefore, the
secondary stress is permitted to be as high as twice the yield strength, but it is
reduced in magnitude by local yielding. Unless a detailed stress analysis is made,
structural discontinuities that develop secondary stresses should be separated by a
distance of at least 2.5 × R(t)1/2 to avoid additive effects that could increase the
total secondary stress above 3.0 times the maximum allowable design stress.
A distinction must be made between local primary membrane stresses and
secondary stresses. Like secondary stresses, local primary membrane stresses also
develop at structural discontinuities, and are essentially self-limiting. However, they
are categorized as primary stresses because the plastic deformation associated with
the yielding (required to redistribute the local membrane stress) may be excessive.

Therefore, in effect, the membrane component of the stress developed by the self-
constraint at structural discontinuities is categorized as a primary stress, whereas
the bending component of the stress is categorized as a secondary stress.
116 Peak Stresses

Peak stresses in pressure vessels are generally the highest stresses that exist in the
various separate components of a vessel. They are distinguished from primary and
secondary stresses in that they do not produce significant distortion, but they need
not be localized nor necessarily self-limiting. They are developed at locations of
high stress concentration (i.e., acute structural discontinuities) and by certain types
of thermal stress. Peak stresses are of consequence only with regard to the possible
initiation of fatigue failure under cyclic loading conditions, and brittle fracture if
the material lacks adequate toughness. The stress limit for peak stresses is three
times the allowable design stress for the material of construction.
Examples of peak stresses in pressure vessels are:
1. Stresses at corners and fillets of nozzles.
2. Thermal stresses in the shell related to cladding or weld overlay.
3. Thermal stresses in the shell due to rapid change in temperature of vessel
contents.
120 Stresses in Cylindrical Shells
121 General
Pressure vessels basically consist of a cylindrical or spherical body, with hemispher-
ical, ellipsoidal, torispherical, conical, toriconical, or flat end-closures. The various
shell components are usually welded together, forming a shell with a common rota-
tional axis. Occasionally, components can be bolted together by utilizing flanges.
All structures with shapes resembling curved plates are referred to as shells. When
shells are formed of plate where the thickness is small in comparison with other
dimensions, they are called “membranes.” This condition is defined when the ratio
between the radius of curvature “R” and the wall thickness “t” is greater than 10:1.
Stresses in thin shells, called membrane stresses, are average tension or compres-
sion stresses acting tangent to the surface of the shell and are assumed to be equally
distributed through the wall thickness. Membrane stresses are calculated by
neglecting bending. Bending stresses due to concentrated external loads are of high
intensity only in close proximity to the area where the load is applied.
122 Cylindrical Shells Under Internal Pressure

The most important case in vessel design is a thin shell surface of revolution
subjected to internal pressure. The internal pressure can be a uniform gas pressure

or a liquid pressure varying along the axis of rotation due to the liquid head. In the
latter case usually two calculations are performed to determine the stresses due to
the equivalent gas pressure plus the stress in the lowest part of the shell due to the
liquid weight.
Stresses in a closed-end-cylindrical shell under internal pressure Pi, computed from
the conditions of static equilibrium (Figure 100-2) are the longitudinal (meridional)
stress:
Pi R
σ L = ---------
2t
(Eq. 100-1)
where:
Pi = Internal pressure
R = Radius
t = Thickness
and the circumferential (hoop) stress:
Pi R
σ t = ---------
t
(Eq. 100-2)
As can be seen from these two equations, the hoop stress is always greater and
determines the required thickness of the shell.
The equations above are accurate for thin wall cylinders (R/t > 10) under internal
pressure. However, for thick wall cylinders (R/t < 10), the variation in stress from
the inner to the outer surface becomes appreciable, and the above equations are not
satisfactory.
Fig. 100-2 Stresses in a Cylindrical (Closed End) Shell Under Internal Pressure From
Pressure Vessel Design Handbook by Henry Bednar, 2nd ed., ©1985. Used with
the permission of VNR.

The Lamé, or thick-cylinder equations, are used to calculate the stresses (radial and
circumferential) at any radius, r, in a thick wall cylinder as shown in Figure 100-3.
Fig. 100-3 Stresses in a Thick-Walled Cylinder From Pressure Component Construction by

John F. Harvey, ©1980. Used with the permission of VNR.
The circumferential stress is given by
2
a Pi  b 
2
σ t = ----------------
2 2
- 1 + 2
----
-
b –a  r 
(Eq. 100-3)
and the radial stress is given by
2
a Pi  b 
2
σ r = ----------------
2 2
- 1 – 2
----
-
b –a  r 
(Eq. 100-4)
where:
a = Inside radius
b = Outside radius
These equations show that both stresses are maximum at the inner surface. The
maximum tensile stress (σr) at the inner surface is
2 2
Pi ( a + b )
σ t max = --------------------------
2 2
-
b –a
(Eq. 100-5)

The radial stress (σr) is always a compressive stress and smaller than the maximum
tensile stress (σt max). The maximum tensile stress is always greater than the
internal pressure, but approaches this value as the wall thickness increases. The
difference between the minimum tensile stress at the outside surface and the
maximum tensile stress at the inside surface is the magnitude of the internal pres-
sure. Therefore, for very high internal pressures it is necessary to use comparably
high-yield materials.
For thin walls, there is little difference between the maximum tensile stress given
by the thick-cylinder equation and that given by the thin-cylinder or average-stress
equation. For thick walls, however, the difference between the values of the two
equations is significant. For example, at a wall thickness of 10% of the radius
(R/t = 10), the maximum stress is only 5% higher than the average stress. However,
at a ratio R/t = 6, the maximum stress is 37% higher than the average stress. For
this reason the ASME-Code equations approximate the more accurate thick-wall
equations, and are used for all thicknesses.
130 Stresses in Formed and Flat Components
131 Spherical Shells and Hemispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure

A sphere is the ideal shape for containing internal pressure because: (1) the loads
developed in the shell are lower than for any other shape; (2) a sphere has the
lowest surface area for the volume contained; and (3) a sphere will have the lowest
weight. However, because spheres are more difficult to fabricate, hemispherical
heads fitted to cylindrical shells are more often used for large diameter or high pres-
sure vessels.
The stress determined from the diagram in Figure 100-4 is,
Pi R
σ L = σ t = ---------
2t
(Eq. 100-6)
where:
R = Radius
t = Thickness
Note that the longitudinal stress (σL) and hoop stress (σt) are the same because of
the uniform geometry of the sphere. Therefore, the maximum stress in a sphere is
half that for a cylinder of the same diameter. Equation 100-6 assumes a uniform
stress distribution through the thickness, and is adequate for relatively thin heads.
As the wall thickness increases with respect to the radius, however, the assumption
that the stress is uniformly distributed through the wall is invalid. A “thick sphere”
equation must then be used, having the maximum stress at the inside surface,
similar to the equations for a thick-walled cylinder. Like the stress equations for

cylindrical shells, the ASME Code uses an approximation of the thick-sphere equa-
tion and applies it to all thicknesses.
Fig. 100-4 Stresses in a Hemispherical Head Under Internal Pressure From Structural
Analysis and Design of Process Equipment by Jawad and Farr, ©1984 by John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
132 Ellipsoidal Heads Under Internal Pressure

Ellipsoidal heads, shown in Figure 100-5, are frequently used for the end closure of
cylindrical shells. Since the radius of curvature varies from point to point, the equa-
tions for calculating the stress are more complicated than for cylinders or spheres.
Both the meridional radius of curvature (RM) and the longitudinal radius of curva-
ture (RL) vary gradually from point to point on the ellipse and therefore so do the
meridional stress (σx) and the latitudinal stress (σϕ).
Figure 100-6 gives the equations for calculating the stresses in an ellipsoidal head.
The meridional stress (σx) remains tensile throughout the ellipsoid for all R/h
ratios, being maximum at the crown (point 1) and diminishing in value to a
minimum at the equator (point 2) (see Figure 100-5).
The latitudinal hoop stress (σϕ) is also tensile in the crown region, but decreases
toward the equator. For ratios R/h greater than 1.42, the hoop stress in the equator
area becomes compressive. If R/h = 2, a maximum tensile meridional stress of Ph/t
occurs at point 1, and a compressive latitudinal stress of equal magnitude occurs at
point 2. As R/h increases further, the greatest stress in the crown will still be
tension at point 1, but will be far exceeded in magnitude by the compressive stress
in the knuckle area at the equator. This is a potentially dangerous situation because
this compressible stress can cause local buckling of thin heads and local failure due
to the high shear stress developed. For this reason, the ASME Code restricts the
major-to-minor-axis ratio of elliptical heads to a maximum of 2.
Using membrane stress alone for the design, without including the various effects
of the discontinuity stresses at the head-to-shell junction, would result in insuffi-
cient head thickness. To simplify the design procedure, the ASME Code relates the
equation for the thickness of ellipsoidal heads to the tangential stress of a cylin-
drical shell of radius R (the major radius of the ellipse), modified by an empirical
corrective stress-intensification factor, “K.”

Fig. 100-5 Geometry of Ellipsoidal Head From Pressure Vessel Design Handbook by Henry
Bednar, 2nd ed., ©1985. Used with the permission of VNR.
Fig. 100-6 Equations for Calculating Stresses in Ellipsoidal Heads
σx σϕ
At Any Point X
PR PR L  R 
i L L
σ x = -----------
2t σ ϕ = --------- 1 – ---------- 
t  2R m 
At Center of Head
2
PR
i
σ x = ----------- σ ϕ = σx
2th
At Tangent Line
Pi R 2
PR  R 
σ = -------- σ = ------- 1 – -------- 
x 2t ϕ t  2
2h 

133 Torispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure

A torispherical head, sometimes referred as a “dished head,” simulates an elliptical
head with a compound curve composed of a crown radius that is a spherical
segment and a knuckle, as shown in Figure 100-7. The knuckle radius should be
large enough to minimize the latitudinal stress in this region. For this reason, the
ASME Code specifies a minimum knuckle radius of 6% of the crown radius. The
maximum inside crown radius for a torispherical head equals the outside diameter
of the cylindrical shell it caps. Under internal pressure the maximum membrane
stress in the crown region is the same as in the cylindrical shell it caps. The type of
heads using the radii values approved by the ASME Code are usually called
“ASME 6% Flanged and Dished Heads.”
Fig. 100-7 Geometry of a Torispherical Head From Pressure Vessel Design Handbook by
Henry Bednar, 2nd ed., ©1985. Used with the permission of VNR.
The abrupt change in radius from L to r in torispherical heads introduces large

discontinuity stresses which are absent in elliptical heads. This factor makes dished
heads suitable for use only in low pressure applications (under 150 psi), where their
shallower depth and lower fabrication costs make them a desirable shape.
Figure 100-8 gives the equations for calculating the meridional stresses (σx) and
latitudinal stresses (σϕ) in torispherical heads. The maximum calculated compres-
sive latitudinal stress in the knuckle occurs at point “a.” In the spherical cap the
meridional and latitudinal stresses are both tensile stresses. The actual compressive
stress in the knuckle is reduced by the tensile stress in the spherical segment, with a
resulting lower membrane stress at point “a.”
As with the design of semiellipsoidal heads, the ASME Code uses a simplified
procedure for stress calculations, introducing an empirical correction factor “M”

Fig. 100-8 Equations for Calculating Stresses in Torispherical Heads
σx σϕ
At Junction of Crown and Knuckle

PL PL
i i
σ ϕ = ------- 3 – --- 
L
σ x = -------
2t 4t R
In Crown
PiL
σ ϕ = σx
σ x = -------
2t
In Knuckle
PiL PiL
σ ϕ = ------- 1 – ----- 
L
σ = -------
x 2t t 2r
At Tangent Line
Pi R Pi R
σ = -------- σ = --------
x 2t x t
into the equation for membrane stress in the crown region. This correction factor
compensates for the discontinuity stresses at the shell-to-head junction. In practical
applications it has been found that the ASME Code equation for the thickness of a
torispherical head under internal pressure gives conservative results for the majority
of head designs, but is not adequate for large ratios of R/t.
During hydrotests, large, thin-wall torispherical heads have collapsed as a result of
elastic buckling, plastic yielding, or a combination of both. ASME Code, Section
VIII, Division 2, Appendix 4, provides a method of checking the plastic collapse
pressure of torispherical heads against the hydrotest pressure of the vessel.
134 Flat Plate Closures

The unstayed flat head, or cover, is a common type of closure for vessels. It may be
integrally formed with the shell, or welded to it as shown in Figure 100-9. It can
also be attached by bolts or some quick opening device. Plates may be arbitrarily
classified into three groups:
1. Thick plates in which the shear stress is the most important.
2. Medium thickness plates in which bending stresses are the most important.
3. Thin plates whose strength depends mainly on the direct tension produced by
the stretching of middle plane.
Most actual flat plate closures for pressure vessels are included in the second group.
The stresses in circular flat plates of constant thickness are calculated based upon
the assumption that the edges are either simply supported, or fully fixed. In actual

Fig. 100-9 Integral or Welded Flat Heads From Structural Analysis and Design of Process
Equipment by Jawad and Farr, ©1984 by John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
designs, neither of these edge conditions is actually realized, the actual condition
being somewhere between.
With edges assumed simply supported, the maximum stress is located at the center
and equals:
D 2
σmax = 0.309P i  ---- 
t
(Eq. 100-7)
where:
D = Diameter
t = Thickness
With fully fixed edges, the maximum stress is radial and located at the edge:

D 2
σmax = 0.188P  ---- 
t
(Eq. 100-8)
where D is the diameter of the plate, P the pressure, and t the thickness of the plate.
The basic equations used by the ASME Code introduce a variable “C” factor
depending on the details of the corner construction. The maximum deflection is
limited to one half of the thickness, and all stresses are kept within the elastic limit.
135 Conical Sections Under Internal Pressure

Conical shapes are used mainly as bottom end closures, or as transition sections
between cylinders with different diameters. The circumferential stress (σt) and
longitudinal stress (σL) in a conical section, as shown in Figure 100-10, are calcu-
lated by essentially the same equations as for cylindrical shells, in which R has
been replaced by R/cosα:
Pi R
σ t = --------------
t cos α
(Eq. 100-9)
Pi R
σ L = ------------------
2t cos α
(Eq. 100-10)
where:
R = Radius
t = Thickness
α = half apex angle
The largest stresses, however, will occur at the junction of the cone to the cylinder,
which must always be considered as part of the cone design. The end supporting
force at section “a-a” (Figure 100-10) is actually sustained by the cylindrical shell,
as shown in Figure 100-11. This arrangement will produce an unbalanced force
(PRtanα)/2 pointing inward, which develops a compressive stress at the junction.
This force increases with the angle α and therefore, the ASME Code limits this
angle to 30° and sets special rules (UA-5b and c) for reinforcement of the junction.
Otherwise, the Code uses the membrane-thickness formula to determine the
maximum stress and the minimum thickness of a conical shell.

Fig. 100-10 Geometry of a Conical Head From Pressure Vessel Design Handbook by Henry
Bednar, 2nd ed., ©1985. Used with the permission of VNR.
Fig. 100-11 Force Diagram at Cone-to-Cylinder Junction From Pressure Vessel Design
Handbook by Henry Bednar, 2nd ed., ©1985. Used with the permission of VNR.
140 Discontinuity Stresses
141 General
Pressure vessels consist of axially symmetrical elements of different geometries
and thicknesses, and sometimes different materials. If these individual components
were allowed to expand freely as separate sections under internal pressure, each
element would have an edge radial displacement and an edge rotation that would
differ from those of the adjacent component. However, since all these components
form a continuous structure and must deflect and rotate together, the differences in
movement at junctions result in local deformations and induce local stresses. Other
items, such as stiffening rings and internal bulkheads, also affect the cylinder
deformation and introduce local stresses.

Stresses created by the interaction of two shell components at their junction (i.e., an
abrupt change in geometry of the vessel shell, or a structural discontinuity) are
called discontinuity stresses. Under static loads, such as constant internal pressure,
and with ductile materials, discontinuity stresses can be kept low by proper design.
They become important, however, under cyclic loads, or at low temperatures where
the ductility of the material is reduced. Discontinuity stresses must be added to
membrane stresses developed by other loads, as discussed in Section 113 above.
There are two categories of structural discontinuities: gross and local
(Figure 100-12).
• Gross structural discontinuities affect a relatively large portion of a structure
and have significant effect on the overall stress pattern. All of the junctions
between shell components fall into this category.
• Local structural discontinuities are sources of stress or strain intensification
that affect only a small volume of material and do not have a significant
effect upon the overall stress pattern. They usually produce peak stresses
(Section 116).
Fig. 100-12 Structural Discontinuities in a Pressure Vessel From Structural Analysis and Design
of Process Equipment by Jawad and Farr, ©1984 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
142 Calculation of Discontinuity Stresses

Discontinuity stresses can be evaluated using the general bending theory of thin
cylindrical shells. Since this method uses edge forces and moments as unknown
quantities, it is called the Force Method.
The Kalnin's computer program, “Stress Analysis of Thin Elastic Shells of Revolu-
tion,” can be used to calculate all the stresses due to pressure, discontinuities, and
thermal loads. This program uses the Force Method to determine discontinuity
stresses. The vessel is divided into simple shell elements, then the edge forces and
moments, or the elastic deformations for the matching edges of adjoining elements,
are balanced in order to solve the problem.

143 Discontinuities in Cylindrical Shells

Discontinuities in cylindrical shells occur when the shell is constructed of portions
of different thicknesses and/or different materials. If the cylinder is long enough,
the effect of the edge forces will dissipate to a small value within short distance,
and their overall effect on the shell can be neglected.
144 Shell-to-Hemispherical Head Junction

A hemispherical head is almost always thinner than a cylindrical shell (see
Section 130), and, therefore, a structural discontinuity exists at the junction of the
head with the shell. This discontinuity stress is negligible, however, when tapered
transitions are used. Discontinuity stresses at a hemispherical head-to-shell junction
are lower than at the junction of the shell with any other type of closure. This is an
important factor in selecting a hemispherical head for a large diameter vessel
subjected to high operating temperatures and high internal pressures.
145 Shell-to-Ellipsoidal Head Junction

For a 2:1 elliptical head, the ASME Code equation gives a thickness equal to or
very close to that of the adjoining shell. This value produces a satisfactory design
with low, acceptable discontinuity stresses. Consequently, this type of head is
commonly used for all pressure levels.
146 Shell-to-Torispherical Head Junction

Discontinuity stresses in shell-to-torispherical head junctions are due to sharp
changes in the radius of curvature at points “a” and “2” of Figure 100-7. Since
these points are close together, the edge loadings at both locations affect each other
to a large degree.
Since the total combined stress in the knuckle region is several times greater than in
a standard 2:1 elliptical head under the same internal pressure, torispherical heads
are only suitable for low pressure (<150 psi) applications.
147 Shell-to-Cone Junction Without Knuckle

The thickness of a conical head or sections under internal pressure, with a half-apex
angle smaller than 30°, is calculated by simple ASME Code membrane-stress equa-
tions and the ASME Code rules for reinforcement at the junction. No special anal-
ysis of discontinuity stresses is normally required. When, in addition to internal
pressure, there are external loads, or when the half-apex angle is larger than 30°, a
more detailed analysis of discontinuity stresses is necessary. This analysis can be
made by using the Force Method, but as the equations for this case are more compli-
cated, simplified approximate solutions are available in Reference 2. (See the
reference section of this manual.) The computer program described above in
Section 142 can also be used.

The discontinuity stress can be further increased by a poor fit-up of the joint. Good
alignment of a cone with a cylinder is difficult to achieve in practice.
148 Concentric Toriconical Reducers

At high pressures (over 150 psi), where discontinuity stresses at the cone-to-
cylinder junction can reach values above allowable limits, conical reducers having a
knuckle radius at the large cylinder and a flare (reintrant knuckle) at the small end
are preferred, as shown in Figure 100-13.
Fig. 100-13 Toriconical Reducer Courtesy of the ASME
Although more expensive to fabricate, toriconical reducers have the advantage of

moving the circumferential weld joints away from the high discontinuity stresses,
and allowing better fit-up with the cylindrical shells. The knuckles are usually fabri-
cated in the form of toroidal rings of the same plate thickness as the conical section.
The ASME Code specifies only the minimum value for the knuckle radius at the
large end (RL), but has no dimensional requirements for the radius at the small end
(Rs). In most cases, the same plate thickness is used for the entire reducer and the
required radii RL and Rs are determined using the maximum membrane stresses.
150 Stress Concentrations
151 General
The normal equations for stresses in pressure vessels are based on the assumption
that there is continuous elastic action throughout the member, and that the stress,
for simple tension and compression, is uniformly distributed over the entire cross
section.
Abrupt changes in section geometries, however, can invalidate these assumptions,
leading to great irregularities in stress distribution, with large stresses developed in

a small portion of the member. These are called peak stresses or stress concentra-
tions. In pressure vessels they occur at transitions between thick and thin portions
of the shell, and at openings, nozzles, or other attachments.
The importance of these stresses depends not only on their absolute value, but also
on material properties, such as ductility, the relative proportion of the stressed to the
unstressed part of the member, and on the type of loading on the member (static or
cyclic).
For example, stress concentrations in a pressure vessel subjected to only a steady
pressure are of little importance if the vessel is made of a ductile material such as a
mild steel. A ductile material yields at these highly stressed locations, allowing the
stress to be transferred from the overstressed fibers to adjacent understressed ones.
If the load is repetitive (cyclic), however, the stresses can become significant.
Stress concentrations create peak stresses (Section 116), and they are used to deter-
mine the design fatigue life of the vessel. Besides keeping the primary membrane
stresses within the limits set by allowable tensile stresses, it is equally important to
keep stress concentrations within acceptable limits when fatigue is a factor.
A rigorous mathematical analysis of peak stresses is frequently impossible or
impracticable, and therefore experimental methods of stress analysis are used. The
ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, does not require a consideration of peak
stresses, but Division 2 gives some design rules to permit considering stress inten-
sity factors and stress concentration factors in determining peak stresses.
152 Stresses at Openings

All pressure vessels must be provided with openings to get the process fluid in and
out, and to provide entry for maintenance and inspection. When a circular opening
is made in a plate subjected to uniform tension, a high concentration of stress
occurs near the hole, with its maximum value at the edge of the hole. Away from
the opening, the stress decreases until the nominal stress (stress in the unperforated
plate) is reached. The ratio of the maximum stress at the edge of the opening to the
nominal stress is the stress intensity, or concentration factor.
Figure 100-14 illustrates the concentration of stress for an opening of radius r in
cylindrical and spherical shells. This figure shows that at a distance from the hole
edge equal to the radius of the hole, the effect of the opening on the stress becomes
negligible. This distance is usually accepted as the boundary limit for effective rein-
forcement.
Occasionally, an elliptical opening is used for special purposes, such as a manway
or handhole. For elliptical openings, the maximum stress occurs at the end of the
minor axis. Because the hoop stress is always greatest in a cylindrical shell (see
Section 120), the most favorable alignment for an elliptical opening is to have the
minor axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the hoop direction (or parallel to the longi-
tudinal axis of the vessel). Otherwise the stress concentration factor will be greater
than for a circular opening. The minimum stress concentration is obtained by
making the elliptical opening with the lengths of the axis inversely proportional to

Fig. 100-14 Variations in Stress in Region of a Circular Hole in (a) Cylinder and (b) Sphere
Subjected to Internal Pressure From Pressure Component Construction by John
F. Harvey. ©1980. Used with the permission of VNR.
the applied stresses: for a cylindrical vessel subjected to internal pressure, where
the hoop stress is double that of the meridional (longitudinal stress), this requires an
ellipse with an axis ratio of 1:2.
153 Reinforced Openings

Because stresses around openings are higher than the normal design stresses for the
plate thickness, additional material must be provided to carry the additional stress
in the shell around the opening. The additional material provided is referred to as
reinforcement.
The basic concept of reinforcement of openings is that the cross-sectional area of
material removed by an opening must be replaced by adding additional material
adjacent to the opening. It is assumed that the material added adjacent to the
opening has the same load carrying capabilities as the material removed for the
opening.
The two basic requirements for reinforcement are:
1. Enough metal reinforcement must be added to compensate for the weakening
effect caused by the opening, while still preserving the general strain pattern in
the vessel. Adding an excessive amount of material for reinforcement will
create a “hard spot” on the vessel that will not allow its natural deformation
under pressure, creating local overstressing.
2. The reinforcing material must be placed immediately adjacent to the opening,
but suitably disposed in profile and contour so as not to introduce a stress
concentration itself.
The reinforcement is usually provided by a separate welded reinforcing pad, or by
extra thickness in the shell and nozzle wall.
It is most common for the reinforcement to be added to the outside of the vessel, as
shown in Figure 100-15a. However, on some vessels, the reinforcement is added
on the inside, as shown in Figure 100-15b. The best configuration is the “balanced

reinforcement,” shown in Figure 100-15c, which consists of about 35% to 40% of

the reinforcement on the inside and the remainder on the outside. A balanced rein-
forcement introduces very little local bending moments and stresses. The stress
concentration factor in this case is 20% lower than for outside reinforcement only.
It may, however, be difficult to place reinforcement on the inside of a vessel, either
because the vessel interior is not accessible or because the reinforcement would
interfere with the flow or drainage.
Fig. 100-15 Methods of Reinforcing Nozzle Openings with Reinforcement Pad
a) Reinforcement added to outside of opening
b) Reinforcement added to inside of opening
c) Reinforcement added to both inside and outside

Stress concentration factors can be further reduced by using integrally reinforced

nozzles (Figure 100-16) which provide a more gradual transition in thickness
between the shell, reinforcement, and nozzle. Equally important is the detailed
shape of the integral reinforcement. The use of generous transition radii between
the shell and the nozzle minimizes stress concentrations due to discontinuities.
Fig. 100-16 Methods of Adding Reinforcement Material ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1,
Figure UW-16.1. Courtesy of the ASME
A common practice in vessel design, in excess of Code requirements, is to replace

all the metal area removed by an opening. This is a Company practice for the
design of new vessels, in order to take full advantage of all the strength of the weld.
When several openings are closely spaced, their arrangement requires special
consideration, because their individual effects and reinforcements become overlap-
ping. Keeping the spacing between two openings at no less than the sum of their
diameters—measured from their centerlines—will maintain the basic average
membrane stress in the vessel wall. If the distance is less than the sum of their diam-
eters, the ASME Code sets special rules for reinforcement of multiple openings.

154 Stresses from Locally Applied External Loads

Most vessels are also subject to loadings at the supports, nozzles, and attachments.
These loadings produce deflections, edge rotations, shears, bending moments, and
membrane forces. The effect rapidly decreases with the distance from the point of
application, where the maximum stress occurs. In practical applications, the
number of variables is considerable, and some judgement must be exercised to
choose the important ones and eliminate those of minor importance.
The procedure for determining local stresses is based on the concepts in Welding
Research Council Bulletin No. 107. Calculation sheets are provided for local stresses
at nozzles and attachments, which must be added to all the other calculated stresses.
If the maximum stress at the attachment is too great, the shell must be reinforced by
a pad, or by increasing the thickness of the reinforcing pad required for internal
pressure. To avoid stress concentrations at the corners of square or rectangular pads
or structural clips, provide a radius of five to ten times the pad thickness, general
Company practice.
155 Thermal Stresses

Thermal-expansion problems can occur whenever there is: (1) a considerable differ-
ence between the vessel operating temperature and the temperature of the environ-
ment surrounding the vessel; (2) restricted expansion or contraction; or (3) a
temperature gradient within a vessel component that creates a differential expan-
sion. Problems due to external constraint are solved differently than those due to
internal constraint.
Thermal stresses are secondary stresses (see Section 115). They will not cause
failure in ductile materials on their first application, but they can cause failure after
repeated cycling, because of thermal fatigue.
Because the difference in temperature between the inside and outside of a vessel
depends mainly on the thickness of the shell and insulation, thick-wall and uninsu-
lated vessels are more susceptible to failure caused by thermal stresses. The stresses
are compressive at the inner surface, where the temperature is the highest, and
tensile at the outside. Failure from fatigue most likely initiates at the outer surface,
where thermal stresses add to the tensile stresses from internal pressure.
Another location where thermal stresses are likely to occur in a hot pressure vessel
is the support skirt. At the shell-skirt junction the temperature of the shell and the
skirt will be nearly the same. However, the skirt temperature will decrease from the
joint down. The temperature difference causes a rotation of the skirt end, which is
restrained by the welded joint. In addition to the thermal stresses, radial deforma-
tion of the shell under internal pressure will cause discontinuity stresses. In order to
minimize thermal stresses at this location, the shell insulation is usually extended
below the skirt-to-shell weld. The skirt should also be long enough to minimize the
temperature difference between the bolted-down base of the skirt and the concrete
foundation, in order to prevent any distortion and local thermal stress at this
location.

Under certain conditions, application of a steady mechanical load (like internal pres-
sure) to a vessel subject to cyclic operating temperature may produce cycling of
combined thermal and mechanical stresses and a progressive increase in the plastic
(permanent) strain in the entire vessel. The action of cyclic, progressive yielding is
called thermal ratcheting. It may lead to large distortions and ultimately to failure.
In practice, thermal stresses can be minimized by reducing external constraints,
providing local flexibility capable of absorbing the expansion, selecting proper
materials (or a combination of materials), and by selective use of thermal insulation.
160 Stresses in Pressure Vessel Shells Due to External Pressure
161 General
External pressure on a vessel most commonly occurs when a vacuum or partial
vacuum is created inside of the vessel by (1) design, (2) discharge of its contents,
(3) steam-out cleaning (condensation of steam), or (4) mechanical action, such as
on a compressor suction, during off-design events. In these circumstances, the atmo-
spheric pressure surrounding the vessel becomes greater than the internal pressure.
Theoretically, the equations for internal pressure could be used to calculate the
membrane compressive stresses in the shell of a pressure vessel under external pres-
sure, if the pressure (P) is replaced by (-P). Thin wall vessels under external pres-
sure, however, fail at stresses much lower than predicted by the equations, because
of elastic or plastic instability, or buckling of the shell. In addition to the properties
of the material and the operating temperature, the principal governing factors are
geometrical: the unstiffened shell length, the shell thickness, and the outside diam-
eter. Buckling or collapse is assumed to occur at a critical strain, when the potential
energy of the external pressure exceeds the strain energy, caused by bending, that
the cylinder can accommodate.
162 Cylindrical Shells Subjected to External Pressure

The critical collapse pressure (Pc) of a cylindrical shell under external pressure
depends on two characteristic geometric ratios: t/Do and L/Do, where t is the shell
thickness, L is the unstiffened length, and Do is the outside diameter. If L is short
enough, the cylinder can fail by plastic yielding in compression at a stress above the
yield strength of the material, and the ordinary membrane stress equation applies.
This type of failure, however, is likely only with heavy wall cylinders.
The critical strain, A, at which a thin wall cylinder under external pressure will
collapse can be approximated by:
K t 2
A = ----  ------- 
2 Do 
(Eq. 100-11)

where K is a factor that depends on the length-to-radius, L/R, and Do/t ratios. The
critical compressive stress (σc) corresponding to the above critical strain is approxi-
mated by:
KE t 2
σ c = AE ⋅ --------  ------- 
2 Do
(Eq. 100-12)
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.
163 Spherical Shells Subjected to External Pressure

The critical compressive stress (σcr) for buckling (collapse) of a spherical shell has
been experimentally determined to be approximated by:
0.125E
σ cr = -----------------
R/t
(Eq. 100-13)
where R is the radius of the sphere, and E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.
164 Elliptical and Torispherical Heads Subjected to External Pressure

The knuckles of elliptical and torispherical heads under external pressure are in
tension. The critical region of these heads with regard to buckling under external
pressure is the central crown, which is a spherical segment. The critical stress for
buckling of the crown is essentially the same as approximated by the equation for a
sphere (Section 162) using the crown radius of the head.
165 Conical Heads and Transitions Subjected to External Pressure

Experimental research that compares conical and cylindrical shells has shown that
the buckling of a conical shell is similar to that of a cylindrical shell with a length
equal to the slant length of the cone and an outside diameter equal to the average
outside diameter of the cone.

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100 Engineering Principles

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100 Engineering Principles

110 Introduction 100-3

Chevron Corporation 100-1 March 1990

144 Shell-to-Hemispherical Head Junction

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111 Failure Modes

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113 Summary of Stresses

114 Primary Stresses

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Differential expansion Membrane Q

Primary Membrane Stress

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strength of the material. Examples of primary membrane stresses in pressure vessel

Primary Bending Stresses

Local Primary Membrane Stress

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stress of the material of construction at the design temperature, which can be as

115 Secondary Stresses

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116 Peak Stresses

120 Stresses in Cylindrical Shells

122 Cylindrical Shells Under Internal Pressure

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Fig. 100-3 Stresses in a Thick-Walled Cylinder From Pressure Component Construction by

The circumferential stress is given by

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130 Stresses in Formed and Flat Components

131 Spherical Shells and Hemispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure

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132 Ellipsoidal Heads Under Internal Pressure

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Fig. 100-6 Equations for Calculating Stresses in Ellipsoidal Heads

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133 Torispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure

The abrupt change in radius from L to r in torispherical heads introduces large

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Fig. 100-8 Equations for Calculating Stresses in Torispherical Heads

At Junction of Crown and Knuckle

134 Flat Plate Closures

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135 Conical Sections Under Internal Pressure

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140 Discontinuity Stresses

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142 Calculation of Discontinuity Stresses

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143 Discontinuities in Cylindrical Shells

144 Shell-to-Hemispherical Head Junction

145 Shell-to-Ellipsoidal Head Junction

146 Shell-to-Torispherical Head Junction

147 Shell-to-Cone Junction Without Knuckle

Chevron Corporation 100-21 March 1990

148 Concentric Toriconical Reducers

Fig. 100-13 Toriconical Reducer Courtesy of the ASME

Although more expensive to fabricate, toriconical reducers have the advantage of

150 Stress Concentrations

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152 Stresses at Openings

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153 Reinforced Openings