PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

1. Cement Fineness
• The last step in the manufacture of cement is the grinding of clinker mixed
with gypsum. Because hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles,
it is the total surface area of cement that represents the material available for
hydration.
• The fineness of cement affects its reactivity with water. Generally, the finer the
cement, the more rapidly it will react.
• For quality control purposes in the cement industry, the fineness is easily
determined as the residue on standard sieves such as 75 µm and 45 µm. It is
generally agreed that cement particles larger than 45 µm are slow to hydrate
and those larger than 75 µm may never hydrate completely.
• It is a common practice in the industry to obtain a relative measure of the
particle size distribution from surface area analysis of the cement by the
Blaine Air Permeability Method. Blaine fineness of cements produced in
Turkey vary between 280-400 m2/kg (2800-4000 cm2/g).
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
1. Cement Fineness (EN 196-6)
a. The sieving method serves only to demonstrate the presence of coarse cement particles. This
method is primarily suited to checking and controlling the production process. The test is
performed on 25 g of cement and by sieving it from a specified sieve (90µm). The proportion of
cement of which the grain sizes are larger than the specified mesh size is thus determined.
b. The air permeability method (Blaine) measures the specific surface (mass related surface) by
comparison with a reference cement sample. The determination of the specific surface serves
primarily to check the consistency of the grinding process. In the Blaine method, the fineness of
cement is measured as specific surface area by observing the time taken for a fixed quantity of air to
flow through a compacted cement bed of specified dimensions and porosity. Under standardized
conditions the specific surface of cement is proportional to √t; where t is the time for a given
quantity of air to flow through the compacted cement bed.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
2. Specific Gravity (Density), g/cm3
• Is the mass of a unit volume of cement. Usually varies
between 3.10-3.15 g/cm3. Its particular usefulness is
in connection with the design and control of concrete
mixtures.
• ASTM C 188 standard covers the testing procedures.
• Fill the flask with kerosine or naphta to a point on the
stem between the 0 and the 1 ml mark and record
this first reading of liquid height.
• Introduce a quantity of cement (≈64 g) in small
increments sufficient to bring the liquid level in its
final position to some point within the upper series of
graduation.
• After all the cement has been introduced take the
final reading of liquid height.
• The difference between the first and the final
readings represents the volume of liquid displaced by
the mass of cement used in the test.
• Calculate the cement density by dividing the mass by
Le Chatelier Flask
volume.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
3. Standard Consistency of Cement
The consistency of cement paste is measured by the Vicat apparatus, using a 10 mm diameter
plunger fitted into the needle holder. A trial paste of cement and water is mixed in a prescribed
manner (EN 196-3) and placed in the mould on a base plate. The plunger is then brought into
contact with the top surface of the paste and released. Under the action of its weight the
plunger will penetrate the paste, the depth of penetration depending on the consistency.
Standard consistency of the paste is determined, when the plunger penetrates the paste to a
point 6±2 mm from the base plate. The water content of the standard paste is expressed as a
percentage by mass of cement, the usual range of values being between 25 and 33 %.
This standard paste is then used for the determination of the initial and final setting times and
soundness of that particular cement sample.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
4. Setting Time
The setting times of cement are measured using Vicat apparatus. For
the determination of the initial set, a round needle with a diameter
1.13±0.05 mm is used. This needle, acting under a constant weight
(300 g), is lowered until it is in contact with the paste and then
released quickly to allow the needle to penetrate vertically into the
paste. The time elapsed between ‘zero time’ and the time at which
the distance between the needle and the base plate is 6±3 mm, is
the initial setting time of cement. ‘zero time’ is the time cement
contacts with water.

After determining the initial setting time, the mould is inverted on its base plate so
that the tests for final set are made on the face of the specimen originally in contact
with the base plate. Final set is said to have taken place when the needle penetrates
the paste to a depth of 0.5 mm.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

5. Soundness (Volume Stability)

Unsoundness in cement paste refers to excessive volume change after setting.

Unsoundness in cement is caused by the slow hydration of MgO or free lime
(CaO). Their reactions are:

MgO +H2O = Mg(OH)2 and CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2

It is essential that cement paste, once it has set, does not undergo a large change
in volume. In particular, there must be no appreciable expansion which, under
conditions of restraint, could result in a disruption of the hardened cement paste.
Because unsoundness of cement is not apparent until after a period of months or
years, it is essential to test the soundness of cement in an accelerated manner; a
test devised by Le Chatelier is prescribed by EN 196-3. The Le Chatelier apparatus
consists of a small brass cylinder and two needles attached to this cylinder.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
5. Soundness (Volume Stability)

Test: Prepare a cement paste with standard consistency. Place a lightly oiled
Le Chatelier mould on the base-plate and fill it with this paste immediately.
The mould is covered with a cover plate and then maintained 24 h at 20±1 °C
and not less than 90 % relative humidity.

At the end of the 24 h period the distance between the indicator points (A) is
measured. Then the mould is gradually heated to boiling and maintained at
boiling temperature for 3 h ± 5 min. The mould is then removed from the
heat and allowed to cool to laboratory temperature. The distance, C, between
the indicator points is measured. The difference (C - A) is the expansion of the
cement and should be lower than 10 mm.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

6. Strength of Cement
The mechanical strength of hardened cement is the property of the
material that is perhaps most obviously required for structural use.
Strength of cement is determined on mortar samples composed of
cement, CEN standard sand and water of definite proportions. The
proportions by mass are one part of cement, three parts of CEN standard
sand and one half part of water by mass (Cement:Sand:Water = 1:3:0.5).
This mortar is made with 450 g cement, 1350 g sand and 225 g water
(EN 196-1). Each component is mixed according to EN 196-1, and after the
preparation of mortar, the fresh material is placed in 40x40x160 mm
prismatic moulds in two layers, compacting each layer. The samples are
demoulded 24 h after the production and kept in water at 20±1°C, until
the testing day (2 days, 7 days, and 28 days).

Tests: Flexural strength, Compressive strength.

 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
6.1 Flexural Strength
The flexural strength is measured by using a flexural strength testing machine.

The prismatic samples are placed

in the apparatus with one side face
on the supporting rollers and with
its longitudinal axis normal to the
supports. The load is applied
vertically and increased at the rate
of (50 ± 10) N/s until fracture.

Front view Side view

Rf is the flexural strength, in megapascals;

b is the side of the square section of the prism, in millimetres;
Ff is the load applied to the middle of the prism at fracture, in newtons;
l is the distance between the supports, in millimetres.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
6.2 Compressive Strength
The test is carried out on halves of the prism broken in flexural testing of prisms. Each
prism half is loaded from its side faces with a loading rate of 2400 ± 200 N/s until
fracture. The compressive strength Rc is then calculated by the following equation.
Rc is the compressive strength, in megapascals;
Fc is the maximum load at fracture, in newtons;
1600 is the area of the platens or auxiliary plates (40 mm × 40 mm), in
square millimetres.

Factors Affecting Mechanical Properties of Cement

• The type of cement: The amount of clinker, pozzolan and other minor additives.
The early age characteristics is dependent on the cement type (remember the L, N
and R indices used to characterize the cement’s early age strength).
• The fineness of cement: The finer the cement particles give higher strength as the
hydration reactions are improved.
• Chemical composition: The early age strength is related to the C3S content. C2S
makes a significant contribution to the later age strength development.
• Water to cement ratio: Significantly affects the strength, an increase in the water
content reduces the strength.
 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
Table: Mechanical and physical requirements given as characteristic values

Three classes of early strength are included for each class of standard CEM I: Portland cement
strength, a class with ordinary early strength, indicated by N, a class CEM II: Portland-composite cement
with high early strength, indicated by R and a class with low early CEM III: Blast furnace cement
strength, indicated by L. Class L is only applicable for CEM III cements. CEM IV: Pozzolanic cement
These are the distinct low early strength blast furnace cements. CEM V: Composite cement
 POZZOLANS
• Pozzolan is defined as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
material which, in itself, possesses little or no cementitious value
but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
water, react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary
temperature to form compounds (such as C-S-H) possessing
cementitious properties.

• Pozzolanas consist essentially of reactive

silicon dioxide (SiO2) and aluminium oxide
(Al2O3). The remainder contains iron oxide
(Fe2O3) and other oxides.
• The reactive silicon dioxide (SiO2) content
shall be not less than 25% by mass.
Silica fume
 POZZOLANS
• Pozzolans must be finely ground in order to expose a large surface
area for the reaction to proceed.

• Examples of pozzolanic materials are volcanic ash, pumice,

opaline shales, burnt clay and fly ash, silica fume, slag.

• The silica in a pozzolan has to be amorphous, or glassy, to be

reactive.

124

Pumice Blast furnace slag Fly ash

 POZZOLANS
1. Natural Pozzolans (volcanic ash, volcanic tuff, pumice)
2. Natural Calcined Pozzolans (clays, shales)
3. Artificial Pozzolans (fly ash, silica fume, granulated blast furnace slag)

Natural pozzolans are glassy, amorphous materials that may be classified into three
groups:
a. Volcanic materials: These are rich in glass in an unaltered or partially altered state.
They are found throughout the world in volcanic regions. They result from the
explosion of magma that rapidly cooled to form microporous glass.

b. Tuffs: Where a volcanic glass has been partially or fully transformed into zeolitic
compounds due to weathering. The range of the chemical composition is similar to
volcanic materials.

c. Sedimentary: These are rich in opaline diatoms. The diatoms are the skeletons of
organisms that are mainly composed of opal.
 POZZOLANS
Natural calcined pozzolans

Natural calcined pozzolans are materials of volcanic origin, clays, shales or sedimentary
rocks, activated by thermal treatment. For example, clays contain high amounts of
silica and alumina but have a crystalline structure (do not possess pozzolanic activity).
However, by heat treatment, such as calcining ~700-900°C the crystal structure is
destroyed and a quasi-amorphous structure is obtained.

Artificial pozzolans

Examples: Fly ash , ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume.

The use of pozzolanic materials in concrete:

• Reduces bleeding,
• Reduces segregation (separation of the constituents) and increases cohesion,
• Provides savings in cement amount (economy, energy saving, reduction in CO2
emission: environmental benefits,
• Reduces heat of hydration,
• Reduces the early age strength but increases the long-term strength.
 POZZOLANS
The pozzolanic reaction and its significance:
The reaction between a pozzolan and calcium hydroxide is called the
pozzolanic reaction. The technical advantage of using pozzolan cements and
slag cements is derived mainly from three features of the pozzolanic reaction.
First, the reaction is slow; therefore, the rates of heat liberation and strength
development will be accordingly slow. Second, the reaction is lime-consuming
instead of lime producing, which has an important bearing on the durability
of the hydrated paste in acidic environments. Third, pore size distribution
studies of hydrated cements have shown that the reaction products are very
efficient in filling up capillary spaces, thus improving the strength and
impermeability of the system.
 POZZOLANS

Factors that affect the activity of pozzolans:

 The sum of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3

 The degree of amourpheness of

its structure

 Fineness of its particles

 POZZOLANS

• SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3

The greater the amount of these, the greater its activity!

ASTM C 618: min SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 for natural pozzolans > 70%

Fly Ash  According to ASTM:

Class C→ from lignitide or subbituminous coals (SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3>50%)
Class F→ from bituminous coals (SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3>70%)
(Class C Fly ash contains CaO>10%)

Silica fume → SiO2 ≈ 85-98%

Blast Furnace Slag → SiO2 ~ 30-40%

Al2O3 ~ 7-19%
CaO ~ 30-50%
 POZZOLANS

• Amourpheness
For chemical reaction, pozzolans must be amorphous. Volcanic ash,
volcanic tuff, fly ash, silica fume are all amorphous by nature.

Clays contain high amounts of silica and alumina but have a crystallic
structure. Calcining around 700-900°C crystallic structure is destroyed
and a quasi-amorphous structure is obtained. So, it can be said that raw
clay does not possess pozzolanic property; burned clay possess
pozzolanic property.

Blast furnace slag contain high amounts of silica, alumina and lime.
However, if molten slag is allowed to cool in air, it gains a crystal
structure and does not possess pozzolanic property. On the other hand,
if it is cooled very rapidly by pouring it into water, it becomes a granular
material and gains amorphousness and possess pozzolanic property.
 POZZOLANS

• Fineness
Pozzolanic activity increases as fineness increases!

 Volcanic ash, rice husk ash, fly ash, condensed silica fume are
obtained in finely divided form.

 Volcanic tuff, blast furnace slag and burned clay must be ground.
 POZZOLANS
ASTM Requirements for natural pozzolans and fly ash:

Chemical property % by mass

SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 Minimum 70

TS 25 Requirements SO3 Maximum 3

for natural pozzolans: Reactive silica Minimum 25

Chloride Maximum 0.1 132

Surface area (Blaine) Minimum 400 m2/kg ± % 25

Strength activity index Minimum 75% (7d), 75% (28d)
 POZZOLANIC ACTIVITY
1. Physical Test Methods
2. Chemical Test Methods
3. Mechanical Test Methods (The most preferred one)
1. Physical Test Methods: The amount of binded Ca(OH)2 can be determined by XRD (X-Ray
Diffraction) measurements on hardened lime-pozzolan mixtures.

2. Chemical Test Methods:

• Determination of the amount of total SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3,
• Measurement of reduction in calcium ions for a period of time when pozzolan is
poured in a saturated lime solution.

3. Mechanical Test Methods:

• TS25: Determination of compressive strength of lime-pozzolan-sand mortar (≥4MPa),
• Strength activity index (ASTM C618): The 7 and 28 day compressive strengths of a
mortar prepared with 20% pozzolana substitution for cement on a mass basis are
compared to those of a control mortar (compressive strength of cement+pozzolan
mortar ≥ 75% of the control mortar at 7 and 28 days).
• TS 197-1 The 28 and 90 day compressive strength of a mortar prepared with 25%
natural pozzolana substituted with cement by mass are compared to those of a133control
mortar (compressive strength of cement+pozzolana mortar ≥ 75% and 85% of the
control mortar at 28 and 90 days, respectively).
 POZZOLANS
• Fly Ash
Fly ash, the most widely used supplementary cementitious material in concrete, is a
by-product of the combustion of pulverized coal in electric power generating
plants. Upon ignition in the furnace, most of the volatile matter and carbon in the
coal are burned off. During combustion, the coal’s mineral impurities (such as clay,
feldspar, quartz, and shale) fuse in suspension and are carried away from the
combustion chamber by the exhaust gases. In the process, the fused material cools
and solidifies into spherical glassy particles called fly ash. The fly ash is then
collected from the exhaust gases by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters.
Fly ash is a finely divided powder resembling portland cement. The particle sizes in
fly ash vary from less than 1 µm to more than 100 µm with the typical particle size
measuring under 20 µm. Only 10% to 30% of the particles by mass are larger than 45
µm. The surface surface area (Blaine fineness) is typically 300 to 500 m2/kg.
 POZZOLANS
• Blast Furnace Slag

Blast furnace slag is produced as a by-product during the manufacture of iron in a

blast furnace. Ground granulated blast furnace slag, also called slag cement, is made
from iron blast furnace slag; it is a non-metallic hydraulic cement consisting
essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium developed in a molten
condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace. The molten slag at a
temperature of about 1500°C is rapidly chilled (cooled) by quenching in water to
form a glassy sand-like granulated material.
The granulated material, which is ground to less than 45 microns, has a surface area
fineness of about 400 to 600 m2/kg Blaine. Different from the other pozzolans, slag
can be used as a binder and can replace cement clinker up to 95% by mass.
 POZZOLANS
• Silica Fume
Silica fume, also referred to as microsilica or condensed silica fume, is a
by-product material that is used as a pozzolan. This by-product is a result of the
reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in an electric arc furnace in the
manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy. Silica fume rises as an oxidized vapor
from the 2000°C furnaces. When it cools it condenses and is collected in huge
cloth bags. The condensed silica fume is then processed to remove impurities and
to control particle size.
Condensed silica fume is essentially silicon dioxide (usually more than 85%) in
noncrystalline (amorphorous) form. Since it is an airborne material like fly ash, it
has a spherical shape. It is extremely fine with particles less than 1 μm in diameter
and with an average diameter of about 0.1 μm, about 100 times smaller than
average cement particles. Condensed silica fume has a surface area of about
20,000 m2/kg. Silica fume is a very reactive pozzolan.
POZZOLANS

137
 POZZOLANS

Chemical Analysis of Typical Fly Ash, Slag, Silica Fume, Calcined

Clay, Calcined Shale, and Metakaolin
Chemical Class F Class C Calcined Calcined
GGBFS Silica fume Metakaolin
Composition fly ash fly ash clay shale

SiO2, % 52 35 35 90 58 50 53

Al2O3, % 23 18 12 0.4 29 20 43

Fe2O3, % 11 6 1 0.4 4 8 0.5

CaO, % 5 21 40 1.6 1 8 0.1

SO3, % 0.8 4.1 9 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.1

Na2O, % 1.0 5.8 0.3 0.5 0.2 — 0.05

K2O, % 2.0 0.7 0.4 2.2 2 — 0.4

Total Na
2.2 6.3 0.6 1.9 1.5 — 0.3
eq. alk, %
 POZZOLANS
The ratios of C-S-H gels, calcium hydroxide (CH), pores and unhydrated particles
of Portland cement (CEM I) are shown in Figure a. Show the corresponding ratios
of Portland-Pozzolan cement schematically on Figure b. Explain the reasons of
differences between the given ratios of different cement types.

The pozzolan increases the

amount of C-S-H gels, reduces
the calcium hydroxide (CH, the
pozzolan reacts with the CH to
form C-S-H), reduces the
pores, and due to slower
reaction the unhydrated part
increases.
 BINDERS
• From very early times, builders have tried to find materials that could be used to
cement stones or bricks together.
• The oldest cementing material was simply mud, sometimes mixed with straw, to
bind dried bricks together, as used in ancient Egypt. Such construction will only
work in very dry climates, as the unburnt bricks and clay have no resistance to
water.
• The Babylonians and Assyrians used naturally occurring bitumens to bind stones
or bricks together.
• A binder is any material or substance that holds or draws other materials together
to form a cohesive whole mechanically, chemically, or as an adhesive.
• The expression ‘binder material’ designates substances that harden
independently and bind other solid materials, conferring cohesion and resistance
to the system.
• Hydraulic binders are substances that chemically react with water, by converting
the water-binder system with plastic consistency into a solid matrix with the
ability to agglomerate other solid materials. This hardening process takes place
spontaneously at room temperature, both underwater and exposed to wet
weather.
 HISTORY OF BINDER MATERIALS
Year Event
2500 BC Egyptians used mortars made with a binder obtained by gypsum calcination in, i.e., the Pyramids of Giza.
800 BC Greeks used slaked lime mortars with sand.
300-500 Romans used mortars made with volcanic origin soils, grinded lime, and sand. These mortars besides having
BC higher strength were able to harden in water. These mortars were used in the construction of Pantheon (127
BC) and the Coliseum (82 BC), in Rome, and the structures still stand today.
1756 John Smeaton (English) identified and used the hydraulic properties of lime mixed with pozzolans, for the first
time after the Roman empire, when was rebuilding the Eddystone Lighthouse in Cornwall.
1796 James Parker (English) patented the discovery of natural hydraulic cement production from calcined impure
limestone containing lime.
1812- Louis Vicat (French) established the principle of artificial hydraulic lime manufacture from synthetic mixtures
1813 of limestone and clay.
1824 Joseph Aspdin (English) registered the first artificial cement patent, which he named “Portland Cement”. This
patented cement was produced by burning limestone with finely ground clay in a kiln until the occurrence of
CO2 emissions. This product was then ground into finished cement with higher mechanical strength than the
previous binders.
1887- Le Chatelier (French) and Törnebohm (Swedish) began the first scientific studies in the field of cement
1897 chemistry.
1900 The first rotary kiln to produce cement was built in Essex, England. Inside this kiln, the material’s temperature
profile allows the formation of mineralogically different products that contribute to increase the strength of
the final materials.
74
Pierre Giron (French) added, for the first time, gypsum to cement during the final grinding, which resulted in a
significant development of the cement’s chemical composition and allowed the optimization of cement
hardening.
 CLASSIFICATION OF BINDERS
1. According to their chemical composition
1.1. Organic based
• Hydrocarbons (petroleum products): Asphalt, bitumen, tar, pitch.
• Adhesives: Casein (milk), albumin (egg white and blood), gelatine
(bone).
1.2. Inorganic based
Gypsum, lime (aerial and hydraulic), cement.
2. According to their hardening property
2.1. Aerobic: gypsum, aerial lime and organic based binders.
2.2. Aerobic and Hydraulic: hydraulic lime, cement.
3. According to their physical form
3.1. Liquid: hydrocarbons; asphalt, bitumen, tar, pitch.
3.2. Solid (powder): gypsum, lime, cement, pozzolanas.
 GYPSUM
Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate di-hydrate, with
the chemical formula ‘CaSO4·2H2O’. It is widely mined and used as a fertilizer,
and as the main constituent in many forms of plaster, blackboard chalk and
wallboards (a.k.a. plasterboard, gypsumboard), in aerated concrete.

• In nature : Gypsum Rock

• Pure gypsum rock : CaSO4.2H2O
• Impurities : MgO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2, CaCO3, MgCO3

Gypsum crystals in the Cave Veins of gypsum, Somerset, UK Veins of gypsum in Caprock
of the Crystals in Mexico. Canyons State Park, Texas
 PRODUCTION OF GYPSUM

 Excavating
 Crushing & Grinding
 Heating (calcinating)
 Marketing in Bags

77
 CALCINATION OF GYPSUM
Gypsum rock when heated to 120-160°C looses ¾ of its water.
CaSO4.2H2O → CaSO4.½H2O + 3/2 H2O
(gypsum hemihydrite)
This is low burning process and named as INCOMPLETE CALCINATION.
When calcination is carried out at temperatures above 160-190°C
all water is removed.
CaSO4.2H2O → CaSO4 + 2H2O
(gypsum anhydrite)
This is high-burning process & COMPLETE CALCINATION.

 Both of these products form the gypsum rock by recombining with

water (Gypsum powder + Water Paste).
CaSO4.½H2O + 3/2H2O → CaSO4.2H2O
CaSO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4.2H2O
 PROPERTIES AND USES OF GYPSUM PLASTER
The Egyptians used gypsum mortars in the construction of the Pyramid of
Cheops, by calcining impure gypsum and combining it with a small amount of
water. This material was used instead of lime because it required only a
relatively low burning temperature.

Gypsum hemihydrite
• Setting time ~5-20 min.
• Used for sculpturing, ornamental work, small repair work
 Hard Wall Plaster
• Setting time ~1 hr
• Compressive strength ~7 Mpa
• Admixtures result in increased plasticity & setting time & reduced
shrinkage
• Can be used for plastering walls
• Production of prefabricated structural units
• Masonry bricks & blocks
 PROPERTIES AND USES OF GYPSUM PLASTER
Flooring, Hard Finish Plaster
• Setting time ~1-16 hrs
• Compressive strength > 7 MPa
• Can be used for producing prefabricated units, masonry bricks
& blocks & flooring & pavement bricks & tiles.

 Gypsum often serves as a fire proofing material even though its

strength is destroyed by long continuous heat. It forms a
powder covering the surface which acts as an effective insulator.
 Gypsum products tend to disintegrate when exposed to
moisture. Therefore, they should not be used for exterior work
& for moist interiors.
 LIME

Chemistry for pure rock: CaCO3 (Limestone)

But, impurities are always present:
MgCO3,Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2

• Lime mortars were used in Egypt only in the Roman period,

but they were used much earlier in Anatolia, and the Middle
East.
• These materials were prepared by calcining limestone.
• The hardening is due to the evaporation of the mixing
water, and then the subsequent carbonation.
 PRODUCTION OF LIME

• Excavation
• Crushing Limestone
• Grinding
• Calcination → Quicklime  CaCO3 CaO + CO2

• Pulverize quicklime
• Mix with water → Slaked Lime
• Drying of Slaked Lime
• Pulverizing
• Marketing in bags.
 PRODUCTION OF LIME
CALCINATION OF LIME

CaCO3 CaO + CO2 (900-1000°C)

“quick lime”

SLAKING OF LIME

CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat (exothermic)

CaO is mixed with water in a slaking box until a “putty” has
been formed.
The putty is then covered with sand to protect it from the
action of the air & left for seasoning.
Time of seasoning → 1 week for mortar use
6 weeks for plaster use
 PRODUCTION OF LIME

If CaO is not slaked well, it will absorb moisture from air &
since the volume expands up to 2.5-3 times pop-outs will
occur.
Seasoning provides a homogeneous mass & completion of
the chemical reactions.
During slaking heat evolves & volume expands.
 HARDENING OF AIR LIME

At surface of uncovered quicklime (CaO)  it picks up

moisture and CO2 from air  becomes partly CaCO3.

CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
 USES OF AIR LIME

In producing masonry mortars

Plaster mortars – sets slower than gypsum
White-wash
In production of masonry blocks – slaked lime + sand
under pressure
 HYDRAULIC LIME

Obtained by calcination of siliceous or clayey limestone at

higher temperature. (Restoration of historical buildings)
It differs from quicklime:
- Burned at higher temperature (1000-1200 oC)
- It contains lime silicates
- It can set & harden under water

Clayey limestone 1000-1200 ⁰C Hydraulic Lime (CaO and 2CaO.SiO2)

Hydration:

2(2CaO.SiO2) + 4H2O 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + Ca(OH)2

(C-S-H) (Portlandite)
 CEMENT (TS EN 197-1)
• EN 197-1 defines cement as a finely ground inorganic material which, when mixed
with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydration reactions
and processes and which, after hardening, retains its strength and stability even under
water.
• Portland cement is produced by firing finely ground mixture of limestone (~77%) and
clay (~23%), at a temperature ~1500°C.
• The cements produced in the first half of the 19th century did not have the same
compound composition as modern PCs as the temperature achieved was not high
enough for the main constituent mineral of modern cements, tricalcium silicate (C3S),
to be formed. The only silicate present was the less reactive dicalcium silicate (C2S).
• It was the introduction of the rotary kiln at the end of the 19th century that enabled a
homogeneous product to be manufactured, which had experienced a consistently high
enough temperature to ensure C3S formation.
 RAW MATERIALS
• Since calcium silicates are the primary constituents of PC, the raw material for the
production of cement must provide calcium and silica in suitable forms and proportions.
• The source of lime for cement making is usually limestone or chalk. As about 80% of the
raw mix consists of limestone, it is referred to as the primary raw material.
• The secondary raw material, which provides the necessary silica, alumina and iron oxide,
is generally clay (20%).
• Clay minerals contain alumina (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe2O3), and alkalies. The presence of
aluminum, iron and magnesium ions, and alkalies in the raw mix has a mineralizing effect
on the formation of calcium silicates; that is, they facilitate (ease) the formation of the
calcium silicate at considerably lower temperatures than would otherwise be possible.
• As a result, besides the calcium silicate compounds, the portland cement clinker also
contains aluminates and aluminoferrites of calcium.
• To facilitate the formation of the desired compounds in PC clinker it is necessary to
homogenize the raw-mix before heat treatment.
Raw Materials:
1. ~%77 Limestone: CaCO3
2.~%23 Clay: mSİO2.nAl2O3.pH2O.kFe2O3.MgO.CaO…
3. ~%3 Gypsum: CaSO4.2H2O (added after heating of limestone and clay)
4. Pozzolana: (added in different ratios depending on the type of cement)
 CEMENT PRODUCTION STEPS
• Raw materials are crushed, sieved (screened) and stockpiled.
• Raw materials are mixed with definite proportions to obtain “raw mix”.
They are mixed either dry (dry mixing) or by water (wet mixing).
• Prepared raw mix is fed into the rotary kiln.
• As the materials pass through the kiln their temperature is rised upto
~1500°C. The process of heating is named as “burning”. The output
material is known as “clinker” which is 0.15-5 cm in diameter.
• Clinker is cooled rapidly and stored.
• Clinker is ground with gypsum (~3-5%) to adjust setting time.
• Packing and marketing.

(Limestone+Clay) → ~1500 ⁰C Clinker + Gypsum →Pulverizing (<90µm) →Cement

Clinker
CEMENT PRODUCTION

91
CEMENT PRODUCTION
 REACTIONS IN THE KILN
Temperature Reactions
~100°C Free water evaporates
~500°C Loosely bound water is lost from clay
~650°C Decomposition of clay →SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3
~700-900°C Decomposition of CaCO3→CaO+CO2 (evaporates)
~900-1400°C Compounds formation (Silicates and Aluminates)
~1500°C Completion of clinkering by rapid cooling
THE COMPOUNDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT CLINKER
PC clinker contains four principal chemical compounds, which are normally
referred to as the clinker minerals. The composition of the minerals and their normal
range of levels in Portland cement clinkers are summarized in the following Table.

Chemical Typical level Typical range

Name Abbreviations
Formula (mass %) (mass %)
Tri Calcium Silicate (Alite) 3CaO.SiO2 C3S 57 45-65

Di Calcium Silicate (Belite) 2CaO.SiO2 C2S 16 10-30

Tri Calcium Aluminate (Celite) 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A 9 5-12

Tetra Calcium Alumino Ferrite
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF 10 6-12
(Ferrite)

It is the two calcium silicate minerals, C3S and C2S, which are largely responsible
for the strength development and the long-term structural and durability
properties of PC.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Oxide Common Name Abbreviation Approx. Amount (%)

CaO Lime C 60-67

SiO2 Silica S 17-25
Al2O3 Alumina A 3-8
Fe2O3 Iron-oxide F 0.5-6
MgO Magnesia M 0.1-4
Na2O Soda N
0.2-1.3
K2O Potassa K
SO3 Sulfuric Anhydride S 1-3

• CaO→limestone
• SiO2-Al2O3→Clay
• Fe2O3→Impurity in Clays
• SO3→from gypsum
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT
• Alkalies (Na2O and K2O) may cause some difficulties if the cement is used
with certain types of reactive aggregates in making concrete.
• Na2O + K2O ≤ 0.6%
• Insoluble Residue (I.R.): is that fraction of cement which is insoluble in
HCl. It comes mainly from the silica which has not reacted to form
compounds during the burning process in the kiln. All compounds of PC is
soluble in HCl except the silica.
• The amount of I.R., determined by chemical analysis, serves to indicate
the completeness of the reactions in the kiln.
• ASTM C 150 → I.R. ≤ 0.75%
• Loss on Ignition (L.O.I.): is the loss in weight of cement after being heated to
1000°C. It indicates the prehydration or carbonation due to prolonged or
improper storage of cement & clinker.
• If cement is exposed to air, water & CO2 are absorbed & by heating the cement
upto 1000°C loose these two substances.
• ASTM C 150 → L.O.I. ≤ 3% for ordinary PC
96
• Indication of freshness of cement
 CALCULATION OF CLINKER COMPOUND COMPOSITION
Each grain of cement consists of an intimate mixture of 4 compounds (C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF).
They can be determined by:
1) Microscopy
2) X-Ray Diffraction
But due to the variabilities involved, the compound composition is usually calculated using
the oxide proportions.

3) The levels of the four clinker minerals can be estimated using a method of calculation
first proposed by Bogue in 1929.
 CEMENT HYDRATION
• Hydration is a reaction of an anhydrous compound with water, yielding a new
compound, a hydrate. In cement chemistry hydration is understood to be the
reaction of a non-hydrated cement or one of its constituents with water, associated
with both chemical and physico-mechanical changes of the system, in particular
with setting and hardening.
• PC is composed of a number of compounds (C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF) and each reacts
with water specifically, and the summation of the reactions leads to the setting and
hardening of the cement.
• The hydration of PC involves the reaction of the anhydrous calcium silicate and
aluminate phases with water to form hydrated phases.
• A partial hydration of cement may even take place in humid air, whereas for a
complete hydration, the cement must be mixed with sufficient amount of water.
• As PC is a multi-component system, its hydration is a rather complex process
consisting of a series of individual chemical reactions that take place both in
parallel and successively. The process gets under way spontaneously upon contact
of the binder with water and is associated with liberation of heat (exothermic).
98
 CEMENT HYDRATION
When water is added to cement:
• Dissolution of cement grains
• Growing ionic concentration in “water” (now a solution)
• Formation of compounds in solution
• After reaching a saturation concentration, compounds precipitate out as solids
(“hydration products”)
• In later stages, products form on or very near the surface of the anhydrous cement.
Since PC is composed of a heterogeneous mixture of several compounds, the hydration
process consists of simultaneously occurring reactions of the anhydrous compounds with
water. All the compounds, however, do not hydrate at the same rate. The aluminates are
known to hydrate at a much faster rate than the silicates. In fact, the stiffening (loss of
consistency) and setting (solidification) characteristics of a PC paste, are largely determined
by the hydration reactions involving the aluminates. The silicates, which make up about
75% of ordinary PC, play a dominant role in determining the hardening (rate of strength
development) characteristics.
 THE HYDRATION REACTIONS
Each of the four main cement compounds reacts at a different rate and tends to form different
solid phases when it hydrates. The behavior of each of these compounds has been studied by
synthesizing it in its pure form and hydrating it under controlled conditions.

Hydration of the C3S

Tricalcium silicate (Alite, C3S) is the most abundant and important cement mineral in PCs,
contributing most of the early strength development. The hydration of C3S can be written as:
Tricalcium silicate + water  calcium silicate hydrate + lime + heat

2(3CaO.SiO2)+ 6H2O 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O+ 3(CaOH)2 D H = 120 cal/g

or as:
2C3S + 6H  C3S2H3 + 3CH D H = 120 cal/g
The tricalcium silicate (alite) is hydrated to produce calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), lime (CH,
portlandite) and heat. The C-S-H has a short-networked fiber structure which contributes
greatly to the initial strength of the cement.
 THE HYDRATION REACTIONS
Hydration of the C2S
Dicalcium silicate (Belite, C2S) hydrates to form calcium silicate hydrates and heat:

Dicalcium silicates + water  calcium silicate hydrate + lime + heat

2(2CaO.SiO2)+ 4H2O 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O+ (CaOH)2 D H = 62 cal/g

or as:
C2S + 4H  C3S2H3 + CH, D H = 62 cal/g
Like in reaction of C3S, the calcium silicate hydrates contribute to the strength of the cement
paste. This reaction generates less heat and proceeds at a slower rate, meaning that the
contribution of C2S to the strength of the cement paste will be slow initially. This compound is
however responsible for the long-term strength of PC.

Portlandite
Tobermorite Hexagonal crystal structure
 THE HYDRATION REACTIONS
Hydration of C3A
In the absence of soluble calcium sulfate (gypsum), C3A reacts rapidly to form the phases
CnAHm.

3CaO.Al2O3 + 6H2O 3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O + heat (D H = 207 cal/g)

3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O + Ca(OH)2 + 6H2O 4CaO. Al2O3.13H2O

If finely ground gypsum is blended with the C3A prior to mixing with water then the initial
reactions are controlled by the formation of a protective layer of ettringite (trisulfate) on
the surface of the C3A crystals. The reaction can be summarized as:

Tricalcium aluminate + gypsum + water  ettringite

3CaO.Al2O3 + 3(CaSO4.2H2O) + 26H2O  3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O

Ettringite consists of long crystals that are only stable in a solution with gypsum. The
compound does not contribute to the strength of the cement. In most commercial PCs
there will be insufficient sulfate available to sustain the formation of ettringite. When the
available sulfate has been consumed, the ettringite reacts with C3A to form a phase with a
lower SO3 content known as monosulfate. The reaction can be summarized as:
C6AS3H32 + 2C3A + 4H 3(C3A·CS ·12H)
 THE HYDRATION REACTIONS
Hydration of C4AF

Many studies have shown that the hydration of C4AF is similar to that of C3A but proceeds
more slowly.

+ heat (100 cal/g)

(C-S-H sheets)

Figure: Simplified physical model for hydrated PC.

 Hydrated Cement Paste
Depending on the time of hydration and
the PC composition, several crystalline
pictures can be observed in hydrated
cement paste. A typical one contains C-
S-H, calcium hydroxide and ettringite as
shown in this picture.

Calcium Hydroxide Ettringite Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H)

 SETTING AND HARDENING
• ‘’Setting’’ is stiffening without significant development of compressive strength, and
typically occurs within a few hours. In other words setting means a rather sudden loss of
plasticity of the original paste and its conversion to a solid material with a barely
measurable strength.
• The beginning of solidification, called the initial set, marks the point in time when the
paste has become unworkable. Accordingly, concrete placement, compaction, and
finishing operations are difficult beyond this stage.
• The time taken to solidify completely marks the final set, which should not be too long in
order to avoid delays in the construction process.
• Almost universally, the initial and the final setting times are determined by the Vicat
apparatus, which measures the resistance of a cement paste of a standard consistency to
the penetration of a needle.
• At the final set, PC paste has little or no strength because it
represents only the beginning of the hydration of C3S.
• Once the C3S hydration starts, the reaction continues rapidly
for several weeks. The progressive filling of void spaces in the
paste with reaction products results in a decrease of porosity
and permeability, and an increase in strength. In concrete
technology, the phenomenon of strength gain with time is
called ‘’hardening’’.
 SETTING AND HARDENING
Hardening is significant development of hardness and strength that follows the setting of the paste, and
is normally a slower process. There are two classical theories of hardening of cement. That put forward
by Le Chatelier in 1882 states that the products of hydration of cement have a lower solubility than the
original compounds, so that the hydrates precipitate from a supersaturated solution. The precipitate is in
the form of interlaced elongated crystals with high cohesive and adhesive properties.
The colloidal theory proposed by Michaelis in 1893 states that the crystalline aluminate, sulfoaluminate
and hydroxide of calcium give the initial strength. The lime-saturated water then attacks the silicates and
forms a hydrated calcium silicate which, being almost insoluble, forms a gelatinous mass. This mass
hardens gradually due to the loss of water either by external drying or by hydration of the inner
unhydrated core of the cement grains.

Figure: (a) Typical rates of formation of hydration products in an ordinary PC paste; (b) influence of
formation of hydration products on setting time, porosity, permeability, and strength of cement paste.
 HEAT OF HYDRATION
The hydration of PC is associated with the liberation of hydration heat. Figure shows the heat
evolution curve for a typical PC. When water is added in PC, the reactions which occur are mostly
exothermic, that is, the reactions generate heat. We can get an indication of the rate at which the
minerals are reacting by monitoring the rate at which heat is evolved using a technique called
conduction calorimetry. An illustrative example of the heat evolution curve produced is shown
below.
Three principal reactions occur:
• Initially, clinker sulphates and gypsum dissolve producing an
alkaline, sulfate-rich, solution. Soon after mixing, the C3A
phase (the most reactive of the four main clinker minerals)
reacts with water to form an aluminate-rich gel (Stage I –
10 to 20 mins) which reacts with sulfate in solution to form
crystals of ettringite.

• C3A reaction with water lasts typically only a few minutes, and is followed by a period of a few hours
(2-4 hours) of relatively low heat evolution. This is called the dormant period (Stage II). Ettringite
hinders C3A reaction. The first part of the dormant period, corresponds to when concrete can be
placed.

• At the end of the dormant period, the C3S and C2S in the cement start to react, with the formation of
C-S-H and CH. This corresponds to the main period of hydration (Stage III), during which time strength
increases. The period of maximum heat evolution occurs typically between about 10 and 20 hours
after mixing and then gradually tails off.
Cumulative Heat (cal/g)

B 4 A: Initial set
B: Final set
3 1. C3A hydration
2 2. Dormant period
A
1 (gives us the time
Time to place concrete)
3. C3S hydration
4. C2S hydration

Liquid Solid
Temperature

Time
The rate of hydration during the first few days is in the order of C3A > C3S > C4AF >C2S. Their
reactivities can be observed in the following figures.

Heat of hydration
Compounds
(cal/gr)
C3S (alite) 120
C2S (belite) 62
C3A 207
C4AF (ferrite) 100

C3S C2S C3A C4AF

Compounds

Rate of Reaction Moderate Slow Fast Moderate

Heat of hydration Moderate Low High Moderate

Early
Cementitious Good Poor Good Poor
Value
Ultimate
Cementitious Good Good Poor Poor
Value
 TYPES OF CEMENT
ASTM Classification EN Classification
Average Compound Type of Cement Notation
Name of Composition
Aim of use CEM I Portland cement
PC
C3S C2S C3A C4AF Portland-
CEM II
composite cement
Type I -
49 25 12 8 General Purpose Blast furnace
O.P.C. CEM III
cement
Type II - For Moderate Heat
46 29 6 12 CEM IV Pozzolanic cement
Modified of Hydration

Type III - C3S and C3A CEM V Composite cement

High Early 56 15 12 8 increased, C2S
Strength decreased Sulfate resisting Portland cements and
sulfate resisting pozzolanic cements are
Type IV - made with Portland cement clinker in which
Low Heat 30 46 5 13 C2S increased the C3A content does not exceed:
PC • For CEM I: 0 %, 3 % or 5 % as
Type V - appropriate
Sulfate Limit on C3A≤5%, • For CEM IV/A and CEM IV/B: 9 %.
43 36 4 12
Resistant 2C3A+C4AF≤25%
PC
TYPES OF CEMENT
 YILDIZ TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS DIVISION

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

PRACTICE 1
QUESTION 1

A sample of moist aggregate with a volume of 200 cm3 and a mass

of 240 g was dried to saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. After
drying, the mass and the volume of this sample were 230.8 g and
143 cm3, respectively.

a) Calculate the moisture content of the aggregate (H%).

b) Calculate bulk density (unit weight) of the moist and the SSD
aggregates.
c) Determine the amount of the moist aggregates required both in
mass and volume to obtain 1 m3 of SSD aggregate.
d) Calculate mass of excess water in this amount of the moist
aggregate.
a) Calculate the moisture content of the aggregate (H%).

WH  W0 240  230.8
Moisture Content %  H %  100  100  4%
W0 230.8
b) Calculate bulk density (unit weight) of the moist and the SSD aggregates.

WH 240
H    1,2 g / cm 3  1200 kg / m 3
VH 200 Moisture
Condition of Subscript
Aggregate

SSD o (βo, Wo)

Moist (H%) H (βH, WH)
W 230 ,8
0  0   1,6 g / cm3  1600 kg / m 3
V0 143
 c) Determine the amount of the moist aggregates required both in mass and volume to
obtain 1 m3 of SSD aggregate.

1 m3 moist aggregate  1200 kg

1 m3 SSD aggregate 1600 kg

• The amount of the SSD aggregate obtained from 1 m3 moist aggregate:

WH 1200
W0'    1153.85kg  but, required amount of the aggregate: 1m3=1600 kg.
(1  H ) 1  0.04

• The amount of short (necessary) SSD aggregate:

W0  W0  W0'  1600  1153,85  446,15kg (Required amount of SSD agr. )

• The amount of the moist aggregate to obtain 446,15 kg SSD aggregate:

WH  W0 (1  H )  446 ,15  (1  0,04)  464 kg

• The total amount of the moist aggregate to obtain 1 m3 SSD aggregate:

W H  WH  WH  1200  464  1664 kg

• The amount of required moist aggregate in volume:

WH 1664
VH    1,39 m3
H 1200

d) The amount of free water:

Δwater=ΣWH-W0=1664-1600=64 kg (excessive water)

QUESTION 2

The sieve analysis was performed on three groups of dry

aggregates and the results are given below. According to the test
results:

a) Calculate the percentage passing (P%) of each aggregates.

b) Find the appropriate mix ratio of each aggregate considering
the limit values of the reference curves.
c) Plot the grading curve of each aggregate and also the mix
aggregate (4 curves in total) on the same graph.
d) Calculate the fineness modulus of the mix aggregate.
 AGGREGATE 2: Crushed Stone #1 AGGREGATE 3: Crushed Stone #2 MIX
AGGREGATE 1: Natural Sand 1000 g Dmax=16 mm
3000 g 3000 g AGGREGATE
Amount
Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount
Sieve Size Retaine Passing Passing Passing 100-
Retained Passed Passing P1% Passed Retained Passed A16 B16 C16
di (mm) d P2% P3% Pm% Pm%
(g) (g) (g) (g) (g)
(g)
31.5 0 1000 100 0 3000 100 0 3000 100 100 100 100
- 100
22.4 0 1000 100 0 3000 100 0 3000 100 100 98 99 100
16 0 1000 100 240 2760 92 220 2780 93 95 85 92 99
11.2 0 1000 100 193 2567 86 1510 1270 42 73 68 79 90
8 0 1000 100 796 1771 59 785 485 16 54 48 63 77
4 0 - 1000 100 982 789 26 485 0 0 38 49 64
33
= 9
2 236 764 76 534 255 0 0 0 26 22 37 52
1 229 535 54 184 71 2 0 0 0 17 15 28 41
0.5 130 405 41 71 0 0 0 0 0 12 10 20 30
0.25 140 265 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 6 13 20
0.15 145 120 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 7 11
Ratio in the
Σ=
mix
a,b,c) The suitable ratios for these aggregates to form mix aggregate’s grading curve in
available zone (between A and C curves) are 30%, 30% and 40%, respectively.

Σai%=100% and Pmix,d=a1.P1,d+a2.P2,d+a3.P3,d+…

Pm,31.5=100.0.3+100.0.3+100.0.4=100  Check: A16,31.5=100 ≤ 100 ≤ C16,31.5=100 

Pm,22.4=100.0.3+100.0.3+100.0.4=100  Check: A16,22.4=98 < 100 ≤ C16,22.4=100 
Pm,16=100.0.3+92.0.3+93.0.4=95  Check: A16,16=85 < 95 < C16,16=99 
Pm,11.2=100.0.3+86.0.3+42.0.4=73  Check: A16,11.2=68 < 73 < C16,11.2=90 
Pm,8=100.0.3+59.0.3+16.0.4=54  Check: A16,8=48 < 54 < C16,8=77 
Pm,4=100.0.3+26.0.3+0.0.4=38  Check: A16,4=33 < 38 < C16,4=64 
Pm,2=76.0.3+9.0.3+0.0.4=26  Check: A16,2=22 < 26 < C16,2=52 
Pm,1=54.0.3+2.0.3+0.0.4=17  Check: A16,1=15 < 17 < C16,1=41 
Pm,0.5=41.0.3+0.0.3+0.0.4=12  Check: A16,0.5=10 < 12 < C16,0.5=30 
Pm,0.25=27.0.3+0.0.3+0.0.4=8  Check: A16,0.25=6 < 8 < C16,0.25=20 
Pm,0.15=12.0.3+0.0.3+0.0.4=4  Check: A16,0.15=3 < 4 < C16,0.15=11 
 AGGREGATE 1: Natural Sand AGGREGATE 2: Crushed Stone #1 AGGREGATE 3: Crushed Stone #2 MIX
Dmax=16 mm
1000 g 3000 g 3000 g AGGREGATE

Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount

Sieve Size Passing Passing Passing Passing 100-
Retained Passed Retained Passed Retained Passed A16 B16 C16
di (mm) P1% P2% P3% Pm% Pm%
(g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g)

31.5 0 1000 100 0 3000 100 0 3000 100 100 0 100 100 100
22.4 0 1000 100 0 3000 100 0 3000 100 100 0 98 99 100
16 0 1000 100 240 2760 92 220 2780 93 95 5 85 92 99
11.2 0 1000 100 193 2567 86 1510 1270 42 73 27 68 79 90
8 0 1000 100 796 1771 59 785 485 16 54 46 48 63 77
4 0 1000 100 982 789 26 485 0 0 38 62 33 49 64
2 236 764 76 534 255 9 0 0 0 26 74 22 37 52
1 229 535 54 184 71 2 0 0 0 17 83 15 28 41
0.5 130 405 41 71 0 0 0 0 0 12 88 10 20 30
0.25 140 265 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 92 6 13 20
0.15 145 120 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 96 3 7 11
Ratio in the
30% 30% 40% Σ= 573
mix

d) Fineness Modulus: Fm = Σ(100-Pi%)/100

Fm,mix = Σ(100-Pmix%)/100=573/100=5.73
 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
95
st 93
1 Aggregate 86
80 92
76 C16 73

60
Passing, %

B16 59
54 54
rd
3 Aggregate
38
40 41 A16 42
Mix
26
27 26
17
20
12 nd 16
12 8
2 Aggregate
4 9
2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.15 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 11.2 16 22.4 31.5

Sieve Size, mm

Note: Other possible acceptable ratio’s for a valid

grading curve between A and C curves:

a1, a2, a3 = 40% / 30% / 30%

a1, a2, a3 = 35% / 35% / 30%
a1, a2, a3 = 35% / 30% / 35%
 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
GR. 3
Lecturer: Assoc.Prof. Nihat KABAY
Assistant: Res.Assistant Tarık ÖMÜR

Office: G Block 1-166

Email: nkabay@yildiz.edu.tr; nihatkabay@gmail.com

Webpage: avesis.yildiz.edu.tr/nkabay/
 DEFINITIONS

1. CONSTRUCTION: Any designed product which can be mobile or immobile, above

ground, below ground, in water, permenant or temperory, etc.

2. MATERIAL: Any matter/substance used in the production owing to their useful

properties.

3. CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL: Any raw substances, products or semi-products used in

the structure or used to build a structure.

3
 COURSE DETAILS
PROGRAMME OUTPUTS (MÜDEK)

PÇ1-2 : MÜHENDİSLİK DİSİPLİNİNE ÖZGÜ KONULARDA YETERLİ BİLGİ BİRİKİMİ (ADEQUATE GAIN OF

KNOWLEDGE ABOUT ENGINEERING TOPICS) (OVERALL SCORE)

PÇ1-3: BU ALANLARDAKİ KURAMSAL VE UYGULAMALI BİLGİLERİ, KARMAŞIK MÜHENDİSLİK PROBLEMLERİNDE

UYGULAMA BECERİSİ (ABILITY TO USE THE KNOWLEDGE ON COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROBLEMS) (ONE EXAM

QUESTION)

PÇ5-3: KARMAŞIK MÜHENDİSLİK PROBLEMLERİNİN VEYA DİSİPLİNE ÖZGÜ ARAŞTIRMA KONULARININ

İNCELENMESİ İÇİN DENEY SONUÇLARINI ANALİZ ETME YORUMLAMA BECERİSİ (ABILITY TO ANALYZE TEST

RESULTS) (LAB REPORTS AND QUIZ)

PÇ9-2 : MÜHENDİSLİK UYGULAMALARINDA KULLANILAN STANDARTLAR HAKKINDA BİLGİ (KNOWLEDGE ON

STANDARDS) (LAB REPORTS AND QUIZ)

 Construction Materials ( INM2712) Course Schedule
ONLINE – Wed:15:00-16:50 / Friday:10:00-11:50
Week Date Course NOTES
10 March Introduction
1
12 March Classification of natural rocks, concrete aggregates
Properties of aggregates:
17 March Particle shape, Strength, Durability
2
Restricted materials in aggregates:
19 March
Organic, fines content, weak particles, sulphates, alkali-silica reaction
Physical properties of aggregates, effect of moisture,
24 March
3 Granulometry: Determining aggregate mix ratios
26 March Lab: Physical properties of aggregates
31 March Problem session (Granulometry) Lab
4
01 April Binders: Definition, Classification, Lime, Air lime, Hydraulic lime Problem session
07 April Cement, definition, production, clinker minerals
5
09 April Hydration, hardening
Physical and mechanical properties of cement
14 April
6
16 April Pozzolanas, Cement Types
Lab: Cement tests Lab
21 April
7
23 April Holiday
28 April

8 Midterm Exam
30 April 5
 Construction Materials ( INM2712) Course Schedule
ONLINE– Wed:15:00-16:50 / Friday:10:00-11:50

Week Date Course NOTES

Concrete, Fresh properties, Slump, Ve-Be, Air content, Unit weight,
05 May
9 Wall effect
07 May Production of concrete, Quality control
Problem session
12 May Problem session (Concrete mix design)
10
Hardened concrete properties: Compressive strength, Factors
14 May
affecting compressive strength
19 May Holiday
11 Hardened concrete properties: Flexural strength, Split tensile
21 May
strength, Modulus of elasticity, Stress-strain relationship

26 May Concrete Additives

12
28 May Shrinkage of concrete, creep, thermal expansion

Lab: Concrete production, Fresh and hardened state tests Lab

02 June
13
Problem session (Shrinkage….) Problem session
04 June
Wood : Classification, Mechanical Properties, Effect of moisture,
09 June
14 Defects
11 June Quiz, Makeup Exam 6
 Evaluation System
Theorethical/Practical Course

Weight
No
(%)
Midterm exam 1 48

Quiz 1 12

Homework - -

Lab 3 -

Other - -

Final Exam 1 40

Attendance min. %80

REFERENCES
• “Advanced Concrete Technology”, John Newman, Ban Seng Choo, 2003.
• “Concrete”, Sidney Mindess, J. Francis Young, David Darwin, 2002.
• “Properties of Concrete”, A.M. Neville.
• “Beton”, Turhan Y. Erdoğan, 2003.
• Former lecture notes of construction materials
• Standards (EN, ASTM, TS)
• Research papers

8
• 3 Lab. Classes
• 3 Problem Sessions
• Quiz on 11.06.2021 covering laboratory
classes
• At least 80% of class attendance required
• Attendance at least 2/3 of the lab classes is
required
• Evaluation of the overall score:
48% Midterm exam + 12% Lab reports&quiz + 40% Final exam

9
TOPICS COVERED IN THIS COURSE
• Natural rocks and aggregates
• Binders (cement, lime, gypsum)
• Pozzolanas
• Concrete (Fresh&hardened properties, mix design)
• Additives/Admixtures (Chemical/mineral)
• Wood

10
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

DEFINITION AND
CLASSIFICATION OF
NATURAL ROCKS
(AGGREGATES)
 Natural Rocks & Aggregates

DEFINITION: Natural rocks are mostly crystalline-structured inorganic

materials which are composed of aggregations (combination) of one or more
mineral constituents.

Natural rocks may be divided into three broad groups according to their
origin and formation:

1. Magmatic (igneous) rocks

2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks

12
 1. MAGMATIC ROCKS

 The Magmatic rocks are formed when molten rock material (magma) is generated below or
within the Earth’s crust and crystallizes as solid rock as it cools down, either on the surface as
a lava or within the Earth’s crust as an intrusion.

FAST COOLING SLOW COOLING

a) Volcanic (Extrusive) Rocks b) Plutonic (Intrusive) Rocks
Ex: Andesite, Basalt, Tuff, Pumice Ex: Granite, Syenite, Diorite, Gabbro

TUFF GRANITE

Magmatic rocks are divided into two classes:

1. Plutonic (or intrusive), that have cooled slowly within the earth (crystalline structure)
2. Volcanic (or extrusive), that formed from quickly cooled lavas (amorphous structure).
 2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 The Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of fragments of pre-existing rocks
(by rivers) resulting from the processes of erosion, organic debris such as shell fragments or
plant material.
 Sedimentary rocks are stratified rocks usually laid down under water, although they can also
be formed by wind and glacial actions. The sediments are usually hardened by cementation or
compaction during geologic time.
 Sedimentary rocks may be classified into 3 groups occording to their formation.

CLASTIC
ORGANIC CHEMICAL
(Mechanical Weathering)
Ex: Coal, Limestone, Dolomite, Ex:Chert, Iron ore, Flint,
Ex: Conglomerates- Sandstone-
Diatomite Rock salt
Clay- Siltstone

Conglomerate Coal Rock salt

 3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 Metamorphic rocks, are formed from pre-existing rocks of any type, sedimentary or
magmatic, which have then been subjected to long periods of increased temperature
and/or pressure within the crust.

GRANITE MICA SCHIST SERPENTINE MARBLE

 Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected ơ𝒄 =80-300 Mpa
to the heat and pressure of metamorphism. It is composed primarily of β= 2,4-2,9 g/cm^3
the mineral calcite (CaCO3 – 90-98%).
As described in the previous sections, the
earth’s crust contains many types of natural
rocks.
Can we use them all in concrete?
What are the requirements?
CONCRETE AGGREGATES + CEMENT + WATER + ADMIXTURES + AIR VOIDS

The aggregates make up about 60-70 % of the volume of concrete.

Some of the natural rocks can not be used as aggregates in concrete !

The aggregates have different surface textures, shapes, colors, and are composed of
different minerals.
17
  Natural rocks for use in concrete as an aggregate
should satisfy the following three conditions

 Should have high mechanical strength (ơ𝑪 𝑺𝒅 ρ )

--High compressive strength, Durability against freeze-thaw cycles, Low porosity

 Should be sound (should resist volume changes);

--Should not cause volume expansion (swelling), or shrinkage

 Should not cause chemical reactions;

--Sulphate and chlorides.

--Alkali-silica reaction with cement.

 NATURAL ROCKS
APPROPRIATE FOR USE IN
CONCRETE

Magmatic Granite, Siyenite, Diorite, Gabbro, Basalt,

Quartzite

Metamorphic Marble, Gneiss, Amphibolite

Sedimentary Calcareous, Dolomitics, Sandstone

 NATURAL ROCKS
INAPPROPRIATE FOR USE IN
CONCRETE

 Mika schist (Prone to splitting along mineral layers), Sea-shells (Weak particles)

 Cristobalite, Tridymite, Chalcedony (Contains reactive silica and may cause Alkali-
Silica reaction - ASR)

 Feldspar (Undergoes chemical weathering and is altered to clay minerals by

hydrolysis. Clay is much finer than cement, when it covers the aggregate surface it
reduces the bond between cement paste and the aggregate)

 Pyrite, Serpantine, Marlstone, Schist, Anhydrite (They undergo significant volume

change)

 Pyrite, Gypsum, Anhydrite (They cause sulphate attack)

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

CLASSIFICATION OF
AGGREGATES
 AGGREGATES

 Granular material of natural, manufactured or recycled origin

from mineral sources which has various sizes, that constitutes
approximately 60-80% of concrete by volume, is called aggregate.
 Aggregates physically and mechanically bond with cement paste
(i.e., adherence).
 Aggregates also constitute approximately 75-85% of bituminous
road pavements, so they play an important role in the service life
of concrete and road structures.
 Both coarse and fine aggregates are used in concrete production.
 1) Classification of Aggregates
TS 706 EN 12620

1.1) According to Source

Manufactured (Artificial)
Natural Aggregate Aggregates Recycled Aggregates

By crushing
Naturally natural stones
obtained (crushed
(gravel, sand) stone, crushed
sand)
Aggregates can be divided into 3 different groups according to their source:

o A) Natural Aggregates: Aggregate from mineral sources which has been subjected to
nothing more than mechanical processing.
i) Naturally obtained : Sand and gravel mined from stream, river, lake and sea
ii) Obtained by mechanical crushing of natural stones : Crushed stone and crushed
stone

o B) Manufactured (Artificial) Aggregates: Aggregate of mineral origin resulting from an

industrial process involving thermal or other modification (e.g., blast furnace slag
aggregates as an industrial by-product, expanded perlite).

o C) Recycled Aggregates: Aggregate resulting from the processing of inorganic or mineral

material previously used in construction.
 1.2) According to Particle Size

Basic sieve set specified in TS 706 EN 12620 consists of standard sieves with a diameter
of:
D (diameter): 63 - 31.5 (32) – 16 – 8 – 4 – 2 – 1 mm.
 1.2) According to Particle Size

Crushed stone Crushed sand

Gravel Natural sand Ballast Aggregates

(Ballasts keep railway traverses stable)
Aggregates are designated in terms of lower (d) and upper (D) sieve sizes
expressed as d/D. This designation accepts the presence of some particles which
are retained on the upper sieve (oversize) and some which pass the lower sieve
(undersize).

1. Fine Aggregate: Designation given to the smaller aggregate sizes with D less than
or equal to 4 mm (D ≤ 4 mm) and d = 0 (e.g., natural sand, crushed sand).
2. Coarse Aggregate: Designation given to the larger aggregate sizes with D greater
than 4 mm and d greater than or equal to 2 mm (D > 4 mm and d ≥ 2 mm) or;
3. Natural Graded 0/8 mm Aggregate: Designation given to natural aggregate of
glacial and/or fluvial origin with D less than or equal to 8 mm (D ≤ 8 mm).
4. Filler Aggregate: Fine aggregate, most of which passes a 0.063 mm sieve (D < 0.063
mm).
They are mostly used as filling material.

5. All-in Aggregate: Aggregate consisting of a mixture of coarse and fine aggregates.

All-in aggregate shall be supplied as a mixture of coarse and fine aggregate with D ≤ 45
mm and d = 0.

6. Special Use Aggregate: When special aggregate gradings are required for a particular
end use of the concrete, special grading envelopes shall be defined incorporating the
appropriate sieves from 0.063 mm; 0.125 mm; 0.250 mm; 0.500 mm; 1 mm; 2 mm; 4 mm;
8 mm; 16 mm; 31.5 mm and 63 mm.
(D  0.063-0.125-0,25-0.5-1-2-4-8-16-31.5-63 mm)
Sieve sets for specifying aggregate sizes (TS 706 EN 12620)
 1.3) Properties of Aggregates

1.3.1 Particle Shape and Surface Texture of Aggregates

The particle shape and surface texture of an aggregate influence both the properties of
freshly mixed concrete and the hardened concrete. The shape of aggregate particles can
affect water demand and workability, mobility, bleeding, finishability and strength.

 Equidimensional shapes are preferred. Flaky or

elongated particles tend to be detrimental.
 Rounded particles tend to give better workability
than crushed or angular particles.
 Aggregates should be relatively free of flat and
elongated particles. Flat and elongated aggregate
particles should be avoided or at least limited to
about 15% by mass of the total aggregate. Such
aggregate particles require an increase in mixing
water and thus may affect the strength of concrete,
particularly in flexure.
 1.3) Properties of aggregates

Surface Texture of Aggregates

The bond between cement paste and a given aggregate generally increases as
particles change from smooth and rounded to rough and angular. This increase in
bond is a consideration in selecting aggregates where concrete strength is
important.
Rough-textured, angular, elongated particles require
more water to produce workable concrete than do Smooth
smooth and rounded aggregates. Hence, aggregate Surface
particles that are angular require more cement to
maintain the same water to cement ratio. However, with
satisfactory gradation, both crushed and non-crushed
aggregates (of the same rock types) generally give
essentially the same strength for the same cement Rough
factor. Surface
  Grains that are elongated (long cylindrical) or flaky (disc-shaped) are considered as undesired
grains. If the ratio of the L/E, where L and E are the length and thickness of aggregate grain
respectively, is higher than 3, then the particle is considered to be too long (non-cubic
particle) and considered as undesired particle.
These types of aggregates reduce the compactness and the workability, as well as increase the
water demand and decrease the strength.
 The important factors that determine the water requirement in fresh concrete are workability
and consistency. Angular and rough aggregates increase the mechanical bonding between
cement paste and aggregate.
SHAPE INDEX (EN 933-4) FLAKINESS INDEX (EN 933-3)

𝑀2 𝑀2
𝑆𝐼 = × 100 𝐹𝐼 = × 100
𝑀1 𝑀1
M1: Mass of the test proportion M1: sum of the masses of the particles in each of the particle
M2: Mass of the non-cubical particles (L/E > 3) size fraction di/Di
M2: sum of the masses of the particles in each particle size
fraction passing the corresponding bar sieve of slot width Di/2
 SHAPE INDEX (EN 933-4) FLAKINESS INDEX (EN 933-3)

Example of a particle slide gauge Example of a bar sieve

CATEGORIES FOR MAX. VALUES OF SHAPE AND FLAKINESS INDEX (TS 706 EN
12620)
 1.3.2 Strength of Aggregate Particles

1.3.2.1 Compressive Strength Test: It is sufficient if the compressive strength of the aggregate is
greater than 1000 kgf/cm2. In order to determine the strength of crushed stones, a uniaxial
compression test can be conducted on the original rock sample instead of the aggregate.

1.3.2.2 Aggregate Impact Value and Aggregate Crushing Value Tests:

The aggregate impact value is a
determining measure of resistance to
sudden impact or shock.
The test gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to
crushing under a gradually applied compressive load. Aggregate
crushing value is defined as the percentage by weight of the crushed (or
finer) material obtained when the test aggregates are subjected to a
specified load under standardized conditions, and the strength of the
aggregate used in road construction is expressed by numerical index.
1.3.2.3 Resistance to Fragmentation: Los Angeles Test (EN 1097-2)

Important in roads, pavements, airport pavements; the aggregates should be capable to resist
wear (abrasion).
Principle: A sample of aggregate is rolled with steel balls in a rotating
drum. After rolling is complete, the quantity of material retained on a
1.6 mm sieve is determined.

Preparation of test portion: At least 15 kg of aggregates in the 10 mm to

14 mm size range. Wash and dry the aggregates to constant mass and
allow them to cool to ambient temperature. Carefully place the balls in
the machine, then the test portion. Replace the cover and rotate the
machine for 500 revolutions at a constant speed between 31 min-1 and
33 min-1. Pour the aggregate into a tray placed under the apparatus.
Sieve and dry the portion retained on the 1.6 mm sieve at a temperature
of (110 ±5) °C until a constant mass is achieved. Calculate the Los
Angeles coefficient LA from the following equation:
LOS ANGELES TEST MACHINE

where; m is the mass retained on the 1.6

mm sieve, in grams.
1.3.2.3 Resistance to Fragmentation: Los Angeles Test (EN 1097-2)
1.3.2.4 Freeze-Thaw Resistance
 The frost resistance of an aggregate, an important characteristic for concrete exposed to exterior
environment (i.e. pavements), is related to its porosity, absorption, permeability, and pore structure.
 Aggregates can be deteriorated by freeze-thaw under high humidity conditions, and the risk of
deterioration increases if the aggregate is exposed to sea-water and de-icing salts.
 If the water absorption ratio is less than 1%, it can be said that the aggregate is resistant to freeze-
thaw effect.
Freeze-thaw Test (EN 1367-1)
The test specimens are dried to constant mass at (110 ± 5) °C, allowed to cool to ambient temperature and weighed
(M1). The test specimens are stored in containers filled with distilled or de-mineralized water for 24 h. The container is
then placed in the test cabinet and subjected to 10 freeze-thaw cycles (-20 and 20°C). On completion of the 10th cycle,
the aggregates are poured into a test sieve having a size that is half the lower size sieve used to prepare the test
specimen. Dry the residue remaining on the sieve at (110 ± 5) °C to constant mass and weigh immediately (M2).

M1 is the initial dry mass of the test specimens;

M2 is the final dry mass of the test specimens, that is retained on the specified sieve;
F is the percentage loss in mass of the test specimens after freeze-thaw cycling.
Frost resistance by magnesium sulfate test (EN 1367-2)
This standard describes the method used for assessing how an aggregate behaves when subjected to the cyclic action
of immersion in magnesium sulfate, followed by oven drying.

Two test specimens of aggregate in the size range 10 mm to 14 mm are subjected to five cycles of immersion in a
saturated solution of magnesium sulfate, followed by oven drying at (110 ± 5) ºC. This subjects the aggregate to the
disruptive effects of the repeated crystallization and rehydration of magnesium sulfate within the pores of the
aggregate. The degradation arising from the disruptive effects is measured by the extent to which material finer than
10 mm in particle size is produced.

M1 is the initial mass of the test specimen;

M2 is the final mass of aggregate retained on the 10 mm sieve.
MS is the magnesium sulfate value
1.3.3 Hardness and Porosity

 Hardness is determined by scratching with a standard brass bar (Mohs hardness).

 Porosity is determined after the grains are saturated with water and boiled, but the
reliability of this method is poor.
 These methods aim to give an idea about strength and durability.
DELETERIOUS MATERIALS IN AGGREGATES
• The aggregates may contain components which are
potentially deleterious when the aggregate is used in
concrete.

• Harmful substances that may be present in aggregates

include: organic impurities, silt, clay, shale, iron oxide, coal,
lignite, and certain lightweight and soft particles. In addition,
rocks and minerals such as some cherts, strained quartz, and
certain dolomitic limestones are alkali reactive.
 DELETERIOUS MATERIALS IN AGGREGATES
1. Materials Finer than the 63 μm Sieve: Silt & Clay

• Materials finer than the 63 μm sieve, especially

silt and clay, may be present as loose dust and
may form a coating on the aggregate particles.
Even thin coatings of silt or clay on coarse
aggregate particles can be harmful because they
may weaken the bond between the cement
paste and aggregate.

• If certain types of silt or clay are present in

excessive amounts, water requirements
may increase significantly. They also cause
volume expansion and increase the setting
time of cement.
Test Methods for Determining Clay and Silt Content

a) For Fine Aggregates b) For Coarse Aggregates

Coarse Aggregate: 5 dm3

Water: 20 dm3
𝑊𝑜 −𝑊 ′
Fine Aggregate: 150cm3 (~500g) Clay-Silt Content: k =
𝑊𝑜
Water: 750 cm3
′ Wo: Initial mass of the aggregate
ℎ
< %5 W’: Final mass of the aggregate
ℎ
k <5% for normal strength concrete
<2% for high-strength concrete
2. Soft and Unsound Materials
• A wide range of aggregate materials contain soft and unsound
particles, which present either as natural components in the
aggregate source material or as contaminant particles from an
external source. They can produce problems when incorporated
into a concrete which range from surface disfigurement to
reduction in the compressive strength, or a reduction in durability.
• One of the unsound particle contaminants is pyrite (iron
disulphide). This mineral can oxidize to brown iron hydroxides if
close to the surface of a concrete.

Photo: Iron staining due to a pyrite particle

present near the surface of a concrete.
2. Soft and Unsound Materials
• Aggregate particles partly composed of clay and certain geologically
weathered rocks tend to be moisture sensitive, that is, they have the
capacity to absorb or lose water from their structure depending on
the environmental conditions. This produces a consequent
expansion or shrinkage of the particle leading to the breakdown of
the aggregate/cement bond so that the concrete becomes
susceptible to damage by frost and thermal cycling.
• Chalk particles present in some coarse aggregate sources can also
reduce the quality of a concrete. Chalk aggregate particles, like clay
lumps and other soft materials, are weak and can reduce the
compressive strength and durability of the concrete.
• Varying amounts of coal and lignite particles are found in some
coarse aggregates. They tend to form weak and porous particles in
the aggregate, and may also form unsightly tarry stains on concrete
surfaces, or be the cause of surface pitting.
3. Organic Impurities
• Organic compounds such as mono- and polysaccharides, humic
acid and lignins, and also soluble salts of lead, zinc, cadmium
and tin, can retard the setting of cement, and hence affect the
final strength and durability of concrete.

Test Method: 3% NaOH solution is prepared. The aggregate is kept in

this solution for 24 hours and then the color change is observed.

Color Organic Compound Status of Aggregate

Colorless (i.e., clear) or There is no or Can be used in high quality
very light yellow very little amount concrete
Dark Yellow/Orange Little amount Can be used in
general/conventional concrete
Red Some amount May be used in non-structural
concrete
Brown Considerably high amount Can not be used
 4. Aggregates Containing Reactive Silica
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a chemical reaction that disrupts
the volume stability and causes cracking in concrete. The
reaction can be visualized as a two-step process:

i. Alkali Hydroxide (cement) + Reactive Silica (aggregate) → Reaction Product (alkali-silica gel)
ii. Gel (as reaction product) + Moisture → Expansion

For alkali-silica reaction to occur, the following three conditions must be present:
1. Reactive forms of silica in the aggregate,
2. High-alkali content from cement (Na2O+0.658K2O > 0,6%), and
3. Sufficient moisture.

If one of these conditions is absent, ASR cannot occur.

Damage Mechanism of Concrete due to Alkali-Silica Reaction

Cracking of concrete due to ASR Pop-outs caused by

ASR of sand-sized particles
Test Method (ASTM C 1567)
 Standard cement mortar is produced
(water: cement: aggregate = 0.5: 1: 2.25).
 The length change (ε) in the bar-shaped
mortar specimens is measured after
immersing them in a NaOH containing
solution kept at 80 °C for 14 days.
 If ε< 0.1%, it can be concluded that there is
low risk of alkali-silica reactivity.
Harmful Materials in Aggregates and their Effects on Concrete

Aggregates;
• Should not contain soft particles:
They may cause pop-outs & may
brake up during mixing and
increase the water demand.
• Should not be salt contaminated.
Causes: a. Reinforcement corrosion
(chlorides); b. Effloresence:
presence of white deposits on the
surface of concrete.
• Should not cause sulfate effect
(due to reactive sulphates in the
aggregates).
• Should not contain reactive silica.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Unit weight (Bulk density)

Particle density (Specific gravity)
Water absorption
Voids content
Moisture content
Bulking
Particle size distribution (Granulometry)
 UNIT WEIGHT (BULK DENSITY) (β, Δ; kg/dm3, g/cm3)
The unit weight or bulk density of an aggregate is the mass or weight of the
aggregate required to fill a container of a specified unit volume. The volume
referred to here is that occupied by both aggregates and the voids between the
aggregate particles. The approximate bulk density of aggregate commonly used in
normal-weight concrete ranges from about 1200 to 1800 kg/m3. Methods for
determining the bulk density of aggregates is given in EN 1097-3. The dry mass of
aggregates filling a specified container is determined by weighing and the
corresponding loose bulk density is calculated.

β is the loose bulk density, in grams per cubic meter; M2 is the mass of the container
and test specimen, in grams; M1 is the mass of the empty container, in grams; V is
the capacity of the container, in cubic centimeter.
 FACTORS AFFECTING UNIT WEIGHT

a) The particle size distribution of the aggregate (granulometry)

b) The particle shape of the aggregate (rounded, angular, etc.)
c) The amount of flaky or elongated particles
d) The specific gravity of the aggregate
e) The moisture content of the aggregate (particularly for fine
aggregate)
 PARTICLE DENSITY (γ) OF AGGREGATES (EN 1097-6)
Particle density (specific gravity) is used in computations for concrete mix design. Particle
density is calculated from the ratio of mass to volume. The mass is determined by weighing
the test portion in the saturated and surface-dried (SSD) condition and again in the oven-
dried (OD) condition. The particle density of aggregates generally vary between 2.2-2.7
kg/dm3)
Volume is determined from the mass of the
water displaced, either by mass reduction in
the wire basket method or by weighings in the
pyknometer method.

ρw is the density of water, in grams per cubic centimetre;

M1 is the mass of the SSD aggregate in the air, in grams;
M2 is the mass of the pyknometer containing the sample of saturated aggregate and
water, in grams;
M3 is the mass of the pyknometer filled with water only, in grams;
M4 is the mass of the oven-dried test portion in air, in grams.
 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES ACCORDING TO
UNIT WEIGHT AND PARTICLE DENSITY
1. Heavy-weight aggregate: aggregate in the oven-dry condition (ODC)
having a particle density ≥ 3000 kg/m3 Hematite, Magnetite. Used to
produce heavy-weight concrete (Radiation shielding)
2. Normal-weight aggregate: aggregate in the ODC with a particle density
> 2000 kg/m3 and < 3000 kg/m3,Gravel, sand, crushed stone. Used to
produce normal-weight concrete.
3. Light-weight aggregate: aggregate of mineral origin in the ODC having
a particle density ≤ 2000 kg/m3 or a loose oven-dry bulk density
≤ 1200 kg/m3. Expanded perlite, pumice. Used to produce light-weight
concrete.
 VOIDS CONTENT (%v or %p)
The void content between the aggregate particles affects paste requirements in mix design.
Void contents range from about 30% to 45% for coarse aggregates to about 40% to 50% for
fine aggregate. Angularity increases void content while larger sizes of well-graded
aggregate and improved grading decreases void content.

Same volume of aggregates

Volume of voids

Fig: The level of liquid in the graduates, representing voids, is constant for equal absolute volumes of
aggregates of uniform but different size. When different sizes are combined, the void content
decreases.

57
v or p is the percentage of voids; β is the unit weight;
γ is the particle density (specific gravity).
 MOISTURE CONTENT OF AGGREGATES
The internal structure of an aggregate particle is made up of solid matter and voids that
may or may not contain water.
The moisture conditions of aggregates are shown in the Fig. They are designated as:
1. Ovendry: fully absorbent.
2. Air dry: dry at the particle surface but containing some interior moisture, thus still
somewhat absorbent.
3. Saturated surface dry (SSD): neither absorbing water from nor contributing water to the
concrete mixture.
4. Damp or wet: containing an excess of moisture on the surface (free water).

Fig.: Moisture conditions of aggregates

The amount of water added at the concrete batch plant must be adjusted for the moisture
conditions of the aggregates in order to accurately meet the water requirement of the mix
design. If the water content of the concrete mixture is not kept constant, the water-cement
58

ratio will vary from batch to batch causing other properties, such as the compressive strength
and workability to vary from batch to batch.
 BULKING
Bulking is the increase in total volume of fine aggregate due to the moisture. Surface tension in the
moisture holds the particles apart, causing an increase in volume. Fig.1 illustrates how the amount of
bulking of fine aggregate varies with moisture content and grading; fine gradings bulk more than coarse
gradings. Fig. 2 shows similar information in terms of weight for a particular fine aggregate. Since most
fine aggregates are delivered in a damp condition, wide variations can occur in batch quantities if
batching is done by volume. For this reason, good practice has long favored weighing the aggregate and
adjusting for moisture content when proportioning concrete.

~5%

Fig. 1: Surface moisture on fine aggregate can cause 59

considerable bulking; the amount varies with the Fig. 2: Bulk density is compared with the
amount of moisture and the aggregate grading moisture content for a particular sand
 MOISTURE CORRECTION OF AGGREGATES
The mass of aggregates must be corrected when proportioning concrete unless they
are in SSD conditions (i.e. dry or wet/damp conditions).

β0: Unit weight of fine agg. in SSD conditions.

Β%H: Unit weight of fine agg. in moist conditions.

H: moisture content of aggregate (%)

WH: Mass of moist aggregate (g)
W0: Mass of SSD aggregate (g)
 MOISTURE CORRECTION OF AGGREGATES
H: moisture content of aggregate (%)
Eq.1 WH: Mass of moist aggregate (g)
W0: Mass of SSD aggregate (g)

Moisture correction on 1 m3 moist aggregate: The main idea is finding the mass of a moist
aggregate to obtain the same agg in SSD conditions.

where; W0 and WH represent the mass of 1 m3 SSD and moist aggregates, respectively.
Using Eq.1 we can determine the mass of SSD agg. that we can obtain from 1 m3 moist agg.

The mass of missing SSD agg. The mass of missing moist agg.

ΔW0 is the missing mass of SSD agg. that we need to obtain 1m3 SSD agg.
The mass of moist agg. that gives 1 m3 SSD aggregate

Mass of excess water in this amount of moist agg.

 Particle Size Distribution (PSD) of aggregates (Granulometry)

Table: Sieve sizes for specifying aggregate sizes (PSD)

Particle size distribution is

determined by drying test
portions of aggregate and sieving
them through a set of sieves of
decreasing size. The amount
retained on each sieve is weighed
and the masses passing each
sieve is calculated by substracting
this amount from the total mass
of the aggregates. The
percentage of the passing and
retained sample are determined
for each test sieve.
 Particle Size Distribution (PSD) of aggregates (Granulometry)
Granulometry may be defined as the measurement of the size distribution in a collection
of grains (aggregate particles) using a set of sieves.

A "well graded" aggregate contains a wide range of particle sizes. Different grain sizes are
necessary for the following reasons:
• a diversity of grain sizes reduces the voids;
• a high number of contact points in the aggregate allow the cement to bond the particles
together;
• the absence of voids prevents excessive shrinkage;
• fine and medium-size particles fill the voids and prevent the cement paste from seeping
during the vibration phase.
The volume of the cube: 𝑉 = 𝐷3
a
Each time we fill the same
a=D cube with the same size of
D
aggregates; there will be a
48% of void. To minimize the
voids, mix of aggregates with D/2 D/2
The volume of the sphere: different sizes should be used. The volume of the sphere:
4 𝐷 4 𝐷
𝑉 = 3 𝜋( 2 )3 = 0.52D3 𝑉 = 3 𝜋( 8 )3 × 8= 0.52D3
 Particle Size Distribution (PSD) of aggregates (Granulometry)
Table: Minimum size of test portions (EN 933-1)

Max. aggregate size Mass of

(Dmax, mm) aggregates (kg)
90 80
32 10 •The “y” axis represents the
16 2.6 cumulative %passing.
8 0.6 •The “x” axis represents the size
≤4 0.2 of sieves, in mm.

Graphical presentation of
sieve analysis results

Cumulative Limit values

Sieve size (mm) Mass retained (g)
Mass passing (g) % Passing % Retained for % Passing
16
8 Maximum particle size (Dmax) of an aggregate is determined according
4 to the sieve analysis test. If the retained % of an aggregate from the
2 largest apertured (sized) sieve is less than 10% then this sieve aperture (TS 802)
1 (mm) is considered as the Dmax (mm) of this aggregate.
Pan
Total
 Particle Size Distribution (PSD) of aggregates (Granulometry)
The closer the
gradation curve to Y
axis indicates a finer
aggregate. Higher
water demand and
Workability issues !!!

Gradation in zone 3 provides:

• Higher compactness (less
voids)
• Less cement requirement
• Optimum water content
• Better workability
The closer the
gradation curve to
X axis indicates a
coarse aggregate.
Casting issues !!!

Limit values for the PSD curve of aggregates with Dmax = 8 mm

The PSD curve of the aggregate mixture should prefarably be located in Zone 3 (A-B) or Zone 4 (B-C).
U indicates the gap graded aggregate curve.
Particle Size Distribution (PSD) of aggregates (Granulometry)

66
Limit values for the PSD curve of aggregates with Dmax = 16 mm
Particle Size Distribution (PSD) of aggregates (Granulometry)

Limit values for the PSD curve of aggregates with Dmax = 31,5 mm
Particle Size Distribution (PSD) of aggregates (Granulometry)

Limit values for the PSD curve of aggregates with Dmax = 63 mm

 PROPERTIES OF GRANULOMETRY (PSD) CURVES
1. The curve is basically an increasing
curve.
2. If the curve is closer to the vertical
axis, this indicates that the agg. is
% Passing

relatively fine, otherwise if the

curve is closer to the horizontal axis
this indicates that the agg. is
relatively coarse.
3. The %passing difference between
two sieve sizes on the curve gives
the percentage of the aggregate
Sieve size (d, mm) within that portion.

4. If the difference between two sieves is “0”, then this part of the curve will be a horizotal
line and would mean that the aggregate does not contain any particles between these sieves.
 Fineness Modulus
The fineness modulus (FM) of either fine or coarse aggregate is calculated by adding the
cumulative percentages by mass retained on each of a specified series of sieves and
dividing the sum by 100. FM is an index of the fineness of an aggregate - the higher the
FM, the coarser the aggregate. Different aggregate grading may have the same FM. FM of
fine aggregate is useful in estimating proportions of fine and coarse aggregates in
concrete mixtures. An example of how the FM of a fine aggregate is determined (with an
assumed sieve analysis) is shown in Table.
 GRANULOMETRY CALCULATION OF AN AGGREGATE
Let us assume an aggregate with a mass of 3000 g and with D max=16 mm. Attached
to the Table below is the granulometry test results of this aggregate.

Cumulative
Sieve size (mm) Mass retained (g) % Passing % Retained
Mass passing (g)
(Pi) (100-Pi)
16 0
8 1200
4 900
2 600
1 300
Pan 0
Total 3000
First we calculate the mass passing by simply substracting the amount retained in
each sieve. % Passing (Pi) is calculated by the following Equation:

% retained is the difference of %P by 100%

FM is the sum of the % retained column divided by 100.
 MIX PROPORTIONING OF AGGREGATES
Aggregate No. 1 Aggregate No. 2
Mix Aggregate
Sieve Size Mass Mass Mass Mass
% Passing % Passing
di (mm) Retained Passing Retained Passing Pm
(P1,%) (P2,%) 100-Pm%
(g) (g) (g) (g) (%)
31,5
22,4
16
11,2
8
4
2
1
0,5
0,25
0,15
Ratio in the mix
%A1…… %A2…… FM: …
(%)

In case of 2 or more aggregates, the combination of these aggregates is necessary to determine the %
passing of the aggregate mixture. As previously noted, limit vaues for % passing of the mix aggregate
is given in TS 802 according to the Dmax of the agg. mixture. After determining the % passing values
for each aggregate (2,3,4,….), you need to determine the ratio of each aggregate (%A1, %A2, %A3,…)
by trial-and-error method. This method is based on estimating a mix ratio for each aggregate, where
the sum of the ratios of each aggregate must give 100%.
%A1+%A2+%A3+….. = 100%
Then the % passing of the mix aggregate is calculated for each size by the following Equation:
where “i” is the corresponding sieve size
After calculating the %Pm values of the mix agg. for each sieve size, these values are checked with the
limits given in TS 802. If the values do not lie in between the limits, then the mix ratio of all or some
of the aggregates should be changed/modified and the calculations should be done again.