Progress in Disaster Science 1 (2019) 100009

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Progress in Disaster Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pdisas

Invited ViewPoint

Recent occurrences of serious tsunami damage and the future challenges of

tsunami disaster risk reduction
⁎
Fumihiko Imamura a, , Sébastien Penmellen Boret a, Anawat Suppasri a, Abdul Muhari b
a
International Research Institute of Disaster Science, Tohoku University, Aoba 468-1, Sendai 980-8572, Japan
b
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fishers, Jl. Medan Merdeka Timur No. 16, Jakarta 10110, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: With a total of 251,770 casualties and US$280 billion in damages, the loss inflicted by tsunamis between 1998 and
Received 28 January 2019 2017 was one hundred times higher than that experienced during the previous decade (1978–1997). The processes
Received in revised form 20 February 2019 of disasters following tsunamis have also become more complex with global impacts. The broad economic and political
Accepted 20 February 2019
consequences of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami encouraged the global community to consider the problem
Available online 25 April 2019
of “cascading disasters”. We can categorized the cause and damage due to the 2011 tsunami with incentive and pre-
Keywords:
disposing factors, impact as compound disaster. We also proposed and developed various tsunami fragility functions
Tsunamis as essential tools to assess and mitigate damage such as casualties, house/building, marine vessels, pedestrian bridges,
Disaster science road bridges and aquaculture rafts. The process of cascading disasters still remains as major issue and should be studied
Process of transformation together with the factors of interdependencies, vulnerabilities, amplification, secondary disasters and critical infra-
structure and spin-off effects. Another important issue concerns non-seismic tsunamis, such as those that impacted
Palu and Sunda Straight in Indonesia in 2018. These events demonstrated the difficulties and remaining problems re-
garding tsunami warning and evacuation and the difficulties of real time monitoring and detection. Since tsunamis are
low-frequency, high-impact natural hazards, interdisciplinary research on risk perception, awareness, memory and les-
sons becomes critically important. The process of sharing tsunami experiences underwent a transformation in the form
of digital archives and new media in response to the needs and opportunities for disaster risk reduction (DRR) in the
21st century. Last but not least, this paper highlights the roles of museum and memorial halls in order to share the ex-
periences of natural hazard-related disasters necessary to inform disaster mitigation.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Tsunami disaster and its complexity as a cascading disaster [7**] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Lessons from the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4. Tsunami damage assessment and future challenges of DRR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5. Non-seismic tsunamis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
6. Promoting the sharing of tsunami experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
References and recommended reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1. Introduction
Tsunami disaster impacts, such as human casualties and economic losses,
have increased by more than 100 times during the last twenty years com-
pared to the previous two decades [1]. Each year, approximately 60,000
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: imamura@irides.tohoku.ac.jp (F. Imamura).
people and $4 billion (US$) in assets are exposed to global tsunami hazards
[2**]. Tsunamis caused by disturbance of the water surface related to several
geophysical phenomena, mainly submarine earthquakes, were previously
low-frequency occurrences. When these phenomena occur, the resulting di-
saster is characterized by increasing human casualties due to increasing and
large populations living in coastal areas. In addition, the population has had
little to no experience with such disasters in the past. With the frequent occur-
rence of mega tsunamis accompanying large earthquakes, this lack of

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F. Imamura et al. Progress in Disaster Science 1 (2019) 100009

knowledge and risk awareness affects a large area globally, and its impact has
become more complex.
When disasters happen, performing field investigations and surveys is
crucial to understand what happened and how people/society may or
may not prevent these disasters. Following the 1992 Nicaragua and Flores
Island earthquakes and tsunamis, the international tsunami community
conducted a large number of field investigations via the International Tsu-
nami Survey Team (ITST). The tsunami events include the events that oc-
curred in Nicaragua in 1992; Flores Island, Indonesia, in 1992; Okushiri
Island, Japan, in 1993; East Java, Indonesia, in 1994; Shikotan Island,
Russia, in 1994; Mindoro Island, Philippines, in 1994; Irian Jaya,
Indonesia, in 1996; the Indian Ocean in 2004; and Tohoku in 2011 [3–5].
Members of the ITST decided that a field survey should be conducted as
soon as possible to try to determine the actual value of the maximum run-
up and to create accurate maps of inundation areas along the coasts. Subse-
quent investigations by international and local scientists included two on-
shore enquiries (the First and Second ITSTs) [6]. Another role of the ITST
has been to advise central and local governments and survivors about the
measures to be adopted to increase safety at these seashore areas.
2. Tsunami disaster and its complexity as a cascading disaster [7**]
A tsunami is one of the rare natural disasters that occur at a low fre-
quency. However, these events have a strong impact and can be extremely
deadly. In the past 100 years, more than 260,000 casualties have occurred
during the course of 58 tsunamis. With an average of 4600 casualties per di-
saster, the toll has surpassed any other natural hazard [1]. However, this se-
vere impact is not inevitable. Early warning systems implemented more than
70 years ago in Japan inform local inhabitants of the coming danger and save
lives. Those system were implemented after major tsunamis starting in 1941
in Japan after the 1896 Sanriku tsunami, 1949 in the US after the 1946
Alaska tsunami, 1954 in Russia after the 1952 Kamchatka tsunami, 1965 in
the International Pacific Basin after the 1960 Chile tsunami, and 2007 glob-
ally covering the Indian Ocean and Caribbean after the 2004 Sumatra tsu-
nami, Indonesia [2**]. Equally important is the community and individual
understanding of evacuation routes before the waves strike. Tsunamis also
have no country borders, making international cooperation key for detailed
political and public policies for risk reduction. In 2016, the UN General As-
sembly designated 5 November of each year as “World Tsunami Awareness
Day.”
In general, natural disasters arise from the impact of sudden natural
phenomena on areas with predisposed risk factors, and disasters are trig-
gered by natural phenomena that cause damage and loss. The predisposi-
tion of a community includes its topography and geophysical conditions,
infrastructure, and societal factors related to human beings, culture and so-
ciety. Table 1 shows the causes of the tsunami disaster organized by direct
damage in the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, although the information
is not comprehensive enough to understand the entire event. Cascading di-
sasters related to a tsunami should be studied with the factors of interde-
pendencies, vulnerabilities, amplification, secondary disasters and critical
infrastructure and the spin-off effects [7**].
In 2011, the Tohoku region was heavily hit by an earthquake (the Great
East Japan Earthquake), which was subsequently followed by a large
tsunami that caused extensive damage to the eastern coast of Japan
and other areas, some of which were related to the global supply chain.
Moreover, serious accidents at Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant No. 1
resulted from the effects of the tsunami inundation. The tsunami run-up
heights reached a record high of 39 m in the Sanriku area [8]. The
northeast area of Japan has experienced tsunamis that caused serious
damage throughout its history. Over time, the region has enhanced its
tsunami preparedness via structural and nonstructural countermeasures,
including awareness of and education on earthquakes and tsunami
mitigation [9].
3. Lessons from the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake
The earthquake that occurred off the Pacific coast of the Tohoku re-
gion at approximately 2:46 pm on March 11, 2011, was named the
“2011 Tohoku Region Pacific Offshore Earthquake” by the Japan Mete-
orological Agency but is more commonly known as the Great East
Japan Earthquake among the general public and academia. This earth-
quake reached a moment magnitude (Mw) of 9.0, the highest ever re-
corded in Japanese history. The subsequent tsunami propagated
across a large area and caused substantial damage along the coastal
areas. The observed damage was diverse and complicated, as the im-
pact of the tsunami was different in different areas. This disaster was
classified as a compound disaster because it was influenced by the
fact that the local population had little or no experience with tsunami
disasters and included a nuclear accident, in addition to local liquefac-
tion, landslides and fires. In this section, the characteristics of the tsu-
nami mechanism and the damage caused by the Great East Japan
Earthquake are summarized, and various aspects of the damage caused
by the earthquake and the occurrence of the tsunami are classified as
trigger/predisposition.
Even to date, aftershock activities continue, and there is risk of an-
other earthquake occurring in the area. Aftershocks and induced earth-
quakes have been recorded, and damage has occurred in the absence of
complete convergence. Crustal deformation due to the fault and changes
in the coastal topography (recovery) has influenced restoration/recon-
struction. Finally, disaster prevention ideas and the current efforts in
place to overcome the impacts of disasters that exceed scientific expec-
tations are introduced. In the case of the Great East Japan Earthquake,
substantial damage was reported due to diverse influences such as the
supply chain and the complexity generated in the widespread disaster
area. In Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Plant, the external power supply
was lost due to the intensity of the earthquake and the ensuing land-
slide. The following inundation caused by the tsunami led to the shut-
down of the emergency battery and the loss of the nuclear power
cooling function.
Disasters may be caused by multiple phenomena occurring almost si-
multaneously or over time. In the event that a disaster causes the occur-
rence of a secondary disaster, the latter becomes a factor for the
expansion of the primary disaster. Next, multiple disaster events occur si-
multaneously. If the disaster develops into a tertiary fire hazard, both disas-
ters are collectively referred to as a “compound disaster”. However, the
disaster statements seen in the Great East Japan Earthquake consisted of

Table 1
Incentive and predisposing factors, impact and damage related to tsunamis.
Incentive factors Predisposing factors Impact Damage

Inundation/flood
Flow velocity
(sweeping/shear stress force)
Wave power (shock wave power),
hydrostatic pressure, dynamic wave
force
Coastal topography, protection level,
evacuation awareness, combustibles,
land use
Coastal topography, sediment/sediment
drift, infrastructure, land use
Coastal topography, building structure,
Infrastructure
Seawater plant depletion, fire
(ignition by electric wire, battery, etc.)
Immersion of buildings and structures,
floods, erosion
Building/structure destruction
(especially breakwaters and tidal
protection)
Agricultural damage, human injury (mainly
drowning), Tsunami fire
House and infrastructure damage, topography and
environmental changes, ecological destruction
House/facility damage, infrastructure damage

2
F. Imamura et al.
widespread, complex disasters, and a measure was introduced to distin-
guish between level 1 and level 2 disasters. The disaster area is still in the
process of recovery even after 10 years, and the idea of pre-reconstruction
to discuss the planning before disaster happen is important.
4. Tsunami damage assessment and future challenges of DRR
Damage data from past tsunamis are very important for extracting les-
sons learned for future damage assessment and mitigation. Before the
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the relationship between tsunami hazard
and damage to properties was limited to damage information of historical
tsunamis in Japan. Damage criteria of buildings, fishing boats, and aquacul-
ture rafts and human fatality ratios against tsunami height were made using
data from the 1896 Meiji Sanriku, 1933 Showa Sanriku and 1960 Chile tsu-
namis [10]. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami caused devastating damage to
many Asian and some African countries. However, detailed information
was not adequately collected since these countries were not familiar with
tsunami-related disasters. The collection of damage data was limited to
human casualties and building damage. The number of surveyed buildings
was also small because the disaster area was larger than the country's re-
sponse capacity. Fragility functions are one classic method for relating di-
saster hazards (especially earthquakes) to property damage. Tsunami
fragility functions for buildings were widely developed in Indonesia [11],
Sri Lanka [12] and Thailand [13] based on damage analysis using satellite
images before and after the tsunami or the limited number of surveyed
damaged buildings. After the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami, a variety of
tsunami fragility functions were developed owing to the large-scale, de-
tailed field surveys by many organizations. For example, fragility functions
for buildings can be classified by construction materials, number of stories,
land use types and construction years [14,15]. Fragility functions for other
types of properties, namely, marine vessels [16*], pedestrian bridges [17],
road bridges [18] and aquaculture rafts [19], were also developed in detail.
Therefore, detailed information for damage assessment and possible miti-
gation planning for damage and risk reduction for future tsunamis seems
to be adequate based on the Japanese data. Nevertheless, additional dam-
age from floating debris and local fires are still not able to be modeled in de-
tail, and applying Japanese fragility functions to other countries is still
questionable, i.e., the building design standard is different. Future chal-
lenges include the application of Japanese fragility functions to other coun-
tries as well as developing new damage assessment methods that take into
account the local damage effect.
5. Non-seismic tsunamis
In contrast to large earthquake-induced tsunamis, the last two events in
Indonesia showed that collateral phenomena, such as significant coastal sub-
sidence, following an inland earthquake [20,21] might have been responsible
for a maximum run-up of approximately 8 m in Palu on Sept 28, 2018, and
the tsunami arrival time was only approximately three minutes, as indicated
by the nearest tidal gauge [20]. Two months later, on 22 December 2018, a
‘silent’ tsunami with a maximum run-up of 13.45 m hit the coastal area
around Sunda Strait as an ‘unexpected’ effect after the relatively common be-
havior of Anak Krakatau Volcano eruptions. Both events were not captured
by the Indonesian tsunami early warning system since the parameters were
out of the threshold of the existing system strongly depending the seismic ob-
servation. Since the potential of similar events occurring in the near future is
still feasible, enhancement of non-earthquake-induced tsunami warning sys-
tems should be one of the priorities in the near future.
6. Promoting the sharing of tsunami experiences
Storytelling, newspapers, books, arts, legends, physical remains and
other monuments are among the common ways of preserving the collective
memories of disasters. The Lisbon Earthquake and Tsunami of 1755 is still
represented in the ruins of the ancient Carmo Convent and Church and
Voltaire's famous poem [22]. The 1907 Indian Ocean Tsunami has been
3
Progress in Disaster Science 1 (2019) 100009
preserved in Indonesia in the forms of songs and storytelling known by
the indigenous word ‘smong’ [23]. The experience and lessons of the
1933 Sanriku tsunami in Japan have been transmitted in the forms of me-
morial monuments and other rituals [24].
The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake brought not only destruction
and loss but also new ways of preserving, sharing and learning from the ex-
perience of tsunamis. The local and national witnesses were able to capture
and share their experiences using new digital technologies on a mass scale.
The abundance of photos, videos, tweets and other social media repre-
sented an unprecedented amount of testimonies and data at that time. Aca-
demics, governments and citizens seized the opportunity to establish a vast
network of digital archives and repositories [25]. This digital medium en-
ables both the sharing of records and testimonies on a mass scale and the
creation of innovative forms of transmission of tsunami disasters. Overseas,
the Japan Disaster Archives of Harvard University developed and promoted
a platform that can be used by the students of schools and universities [26].
In Japan, the Michinoku Shinrokuden Archive of Tohoku University leads
the development of digital tools such as picture books, virtual disaster tour-
ism, 3D testimonial films, and other virtual experiences by drawing from
the digital records [27*,28].
The transmission of tsunami experiences has also grown into the estab-
lishment of an international network of tsunami museums and memorial
halls. Museums are seldom known for sharing experiences of natural
hazard-related disasters. In countries such as Japan and Indonesia where di-
sasters by natural hazards are omnipresent, museums and memorial halls
are becoming important places of social memory with expositions, archives,
and education centers. Building on these recent initiatives, Japanese Inter-
national Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tohoku University and the Japanese
office of the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(UNISDR) established the World Tsunami Museum Conference (WTMC)
in 2017. This network aims to strengthen cooperation among museums to
build centers for disaster prevention education and to pass on knowledge
and experiences to visitors and future generations. Together, tsunami ar-
chives and museums attempt to support the ‘World Tsunami Awareness
Day’ and the 2015 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
[29,30]. The development of digital archives and records contributes to in-
creased transmission of tsunami experiences necessary to meet the increas-
ing demands caused by the increasing risk of tsunamis and related disasters
in a digitally connected world.
7. Conclusions
Highly active tsunamis with several types of their sources have been ob-
served in the last twenty years and have caused increasing damage. More-
over, the disasters have become more serious and complex because of
residential and living expansion along coastal areas. Several issues remain
in tsunami disaster science: to understand the generation mechanism and
expanding and cascading disaster processes and to discuss DRR in line
with the 2015 Sendai Framework for DRR. In addition, we have many ex-
amples that show tsunami awareness and information from the early warn-
ing systems around the world could save many lives. Therefore, the
advantage of globally standardized products delivered in a common format
by the warning system should increase efficiency and accuracy, which leads
to effective tsunami resilience [2**]. In addition, education and awareness
at the community level must be part of any tsunami resilience program.
For local tsunamis, education and awareness are by far the most cost-
effective investments.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Core Research Cluster of Disaster
Science at Tohoku University (a Designated National University).
Conflict of interest
No
F. Imamura et al. Progress in Disaster Science 1 (2019) 100009

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*
Of special interest.
**
Of outstanding interest.